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Library of 
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os 


A HISTORY OF THE 
JEWISH PEOPLE 


THIS BOOK 


IS PUBLISHED AT THE DESIRE OF THE LATE 


Rosetta M. Alman 


OF WILLIAMSPORT, PENNSYLVANIA 


FROM FUNDS CONTRIBUTED FROM HER ESTATE 

BY HER EXECUTOR MR. ABRAHAM ERLANGER 

MISS ULMAN WISHED THE PUBLICATION OF 
THIS VOLUME FOR THE FURTHERANCE 


OF TRUTH AND EQUITY 


tt 


phe sae iad ea 
HISTORY OF ie 


* Le 


SH PEOPLE © 


\LEXANDER MARX 


PHILADELPHIA 
THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA 
1927 


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ex, Gee) PREFACE 


from the igr 4 healandias to tee pruieat ail 
¥ onal a “etapa vo ie tide every point pao 


ong area joie racing’ practica ily my be 
arid and the long stretch of time, All those 
which have. pla seed @ part in the unfold- 


te a Biiktenice ~ Rew’ Core ay the 
L pain and Germany (Book fV), and lastly in 
pia Spade ely to the mesy ex XocaP from 


periods so widely apart sues of necessity pre- 

jects: now it is @ recuw.) al wars and battles, 
mats, Of depor!«tise. wid restoration, and 
in foreign sii! cise ol being uprooted, of 
se with the neighbor ahd of chains of per- 
Ving the rights of free citizens and of the 
itself in German Anti-Semitism and 
“An this is told im the present work, but 
the history of The entire people, of the 
‘epecial stress ig Paid on its economic and 
y of Tewish literature is not the professed 
lune: However, letvers are & part of the 
ed activity aod men of letters are per- 


F sa Jewish life to-day which has'its roots in 


ae 


rand i inner nie ol the te pep Cs mu age 


sing their: generation — “and shaping the. 


n ‘ner iife unfolding iegelt i in ~~ oy course» 


' PREFACE 


It is a difficult task to tell the story of the life of the Jew- 
ish people, from the dim beginnings to the present day, 
within the limits of a single volume. At every point Jewish 
history is interwoven with universal history, and this back- 
ground must be presented. Compression becomes a necessity, 
considering the wide area embracing practically the whole 
of the civilized world and the long stretch of time. All those 
principal centers which have played a part in the unfold- 
ment of the outer and inner life of the Jewish people must 
figure in the story. The most advantageous method seemed 
to be a treatment which would bring into relief the shifting 
of these centers, from the home country (Book I) to the 
eastern center (Book IT), thence to the West-European cen- 
ters (Book III), to the emergence of new centers for the 
fugitives from Spain and Germany (Book IV), and lastly in 
the Age of Emancipation (Book V) to the new exodus from 
Eastern Europe and the creation of the center in the ancient 
homeland. 

Places and periods so widely apart must of necessity pre- 
sent different aspects: now it is a record of wars and battles, 
of victories and defeats, of deportation and restoration, and 
now of taking root in foreign soil and of being uprooted, of 
friendly intercourse with the neighbor and of chains of per- 
secutions, of achieving the rights of free citizens and of the 
reaction expressing itself in German Anti-Semitism and 
Russian pogroms. All this is told in the present work, but 
much more. It is the history of the entire people, of the 
mass; accordingly special stress is laid on its economic and 
social life. A history of Jewish literature is not the professed 
purport of this volume. However, letters are a part of the 
people’s many-sided activity and men of letters are per- 
sonalities, influencing their generation and shaping the 
future. There is a Jewish life to-day which has its roots in 
the past; it is an inner life unfolding itself in the long course 

Vv 


VI PREFACE 


of the ages under the peculiar circumstances of each period, 
and the significant moments take on the form of literary 
creations, of Books| Torah and Holy Writ, Mishnah, Tal- 
mud, Midrash, Codes, the Guide of the Perplexed, the Zohar, 
and so on to our own times. 

The authors have endeavored to set forth this story in a 
manner as dispassionate and detached as possible. They 
have availed themselves of the great wealth of research done 
by scholars of all creeds and nationalities in the three-score 
years that have elapsed since Graetz completed his epoch- 
making ‘History of the Jews.’ The reader who is a specialist 
will readily find that every fact has been tested by recourse 
to documents and learned publications, but it was not 
deemed advisable to break the continuity of the narrative 
by an apparatus of references and footnotes. The present 
work is intended for the layman and the student. A short 
Bibliography at the end of the volume has likewise in mind 
these two classes of readers who may seek to obtain further — 
information. It is not accordingly a register of source-works, 
and books and articles in the English language wherever 
obtainable have been given preference. A Chronological 
_ Table will enable the reader to survey contemporaneous 
events synchronously. The Index was prepared by Dr.Louis 
L. Kaplan. 

This volume is the conjoint labor of the two authors. The 
writing was done by the first of the undersigned, and a good 
part of it during his year’s sojourn in Palestine, and he 
gratefully records his obligation to his fellow-author for his 
valuable Lecture Notes on the history of the talmudic and. 
medieval periods. Moreover, the manuscript was gone over 
repeatedly by the two authors in joint conference, every fact 
and date and expression was scrutinized, and ‘that which we 
had hammered was again and again brought back to the 
anvil.’ 


EGINNING TO: THE EXTINC- 
BE (2,000 betore-425 after the Shi80 
Pe ee ee 230 


CHAPTER I 


4225 boefsr the Chvlittein aie 


Been. Atcoaae 8 migration—Geography 
es and Aquxito>~Rarker iphabitants—Egyptian 

dements---<eixanite calture and religion —The 
yplian hornets PER MERRIE ese e eee en dm 13. 


“ CHAPYE ® tie a 

MOSES. Titt &xaprs 

— (12m abt ; 
o6—The sp oa cai—The Petia The crosaing 

At Sinat—The Tor WordsThe Book of the Cov- 
-The conquest ©! Sihon and adit he Seren 

leu ae ae ee 4—~ 21 


Se eGHAPTER itt 

is CONQUEST OF CANAAN, THE yUDGES 

roe! ($7801 100) 

on Jericho--Separntion of ‘Judah—Si, Bethel, 
Actory Over Sisexa—~Ehud-—The Midianites— 


q He revolt at Shech-m-——Death of Abimelech— 
nter of the fugitive © hraimites. . » Sea ere irs 


EAAPTER iV 

4 OF CANAAN TION RELIGION 

y the seti!omant~ -The governing bodies— 
sgeaeal s uberis shrine—The outra 


eee oe fia b é ¢ Se eee ETS 
* a 
Fal » 


CHAPTER V_ 


(apelade 
fe Nob Sea thi 


—~BeE the provecion of 

ttle of Gilbos— th af Saul 

RSs 5 6 ys be 9 weve eebs say. SOx 
vit ‘ y .2 


+. 
es 
rt) 
; Pact. he ATOM LeG 
anvil. 
yak ae 


coe Oy 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


BOOK I 


IN PALESTINE FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE EXTINC- 
TION OF THE PATRIARCHATE (2, 000 before—425 after the Chris- 
Rta eae} os, eet gics 08 0 SE RRR oP 7 Si ee 1-230 


CHAPTER I 
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE 
(2000-1225 before the Christian era) 


Home of Abraham—The Semites—Abraham’s migration—Geography 
of Palestine—Canaanites and Amorites—Earlier inhabitants—Egyptian 
donfinion—Hebrew settlements—Canaanite culture and religion—The 
Israelites in Egypt—Egyptian bondage........cceesevsececvees 3-13 


CHAPTER II 
MOSES. THE EXODUS 
(1220) 


The birth of Moses—The prophetic call—The exodus—The crossing 
of the Red Sea—At Sinai—The Ten Words—The Book of the Cov- 
enant—The wanderings—The conquest of Sihon and Og—The Second 
PMR EEA gl ey 5 P> aD SRER Seis os cee rer acs ee eens 14-21 


CHAPTER III 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES 
(1180-1100) 


Joshua—The assault on Jericho—Separation of Judah—Ai, Bethel, 
Gibeon—Deborah—The victory over Sisera—Ehud—The Midianites— 
Gideon—Abimelech—The revolt at Shechem—Death of Abimelech— 
Jephthah—The slaughter of the fugitive Ephraimites........... 22-30 


CHAPTER IV 
THE INROADS OF CANAANITISH RELIGION 


The mode of life altered by the settlement—The governing bodies— 
Infiltration of the Baal cult—Micah’s idolatrous shrine—The outrage 
SEI eee, fo ey sy eck sks eRe Eee eset ee his 31-34 


CHAPTER V 
THE RISE OF THE MONARCHY 
(1080-1030) 


ao with the Philistines—Samson—Capture of the Ark and death of 
Eli—Samuel—The assembly at Mizpah—Jabesh in Gilead calls for 
help—Saul—Jonathan’s feat at Michmas—Saul’s melancholy... .35-39 


CHAPTER VI 
SAUL AND DAVID 
(1030-1013) 


David—Saul’s jealousy—David’s flight—At Nob—Slaughter of the 
priests—David in the mountains of Judah—seeks the protection of 
Achish—Ziklag raided by Amalekites—Battle of Gilboa—Death of Saul 
anueonethan— David s lament... eS BS 40-44 


Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER VII 
DAVID. THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 
(1013-1006) 
David proclaimed king at Hebron—Ishbaal and Abner—Joab slays 
Abner—Ishbaal murdered—David king of Israel and Judah—Wars with 
the Philistines—The capture of Jerusalem—Transfer of the Ark. .45-50 


CHAPTER VIII 
THE WARS OF DAVID 
(1006-980) 
War with the Ammonites—Capture of Rabbah—Wars with Arameans— 
Subjection of Moab and Edom—The extent of David’s realm—His 
army—The altar in Araunah’s threshing-floor—David’s attitude to 
Saul’s family . 4 cc. ecco. co:s aco nce etuinilp fe wis) etal 31-54 


CHAPTER IX 
THE REVOLTS OF ABSALOM AND OF SHEBA 


(980-973) 


David and Bath-sheba—Amnon and Tamar—Amnon slain-——Absalom 
banished—The revolt of Absalom—David flees across the Jordan—The 
end of Absalom—The revolt of Sheba—The succession—Death of 
David—His character and place in history,.,..... MAH Pies Sar 55-60 


CHAPTER X 
SOLOMON. THE TEMPLE 
(973-933) 
Solomon comes to terms with Egypt—loses territory in the north— 
Solomon opens up the country to commerce—His buildings—The Temple 
—The King’s Palace—The dedication of the Temple—Solomon’s foreign 
marriages—Ahijah of Shiloh abets the revolt of Jeroboam—Jeroboam 
flees to Egypt... .cs «ccs eee a visas eee PR ee ceria 61 es 


CHAPTER XI 
THE SECESSION OF THE NORTH 
(933-875) 


Rehoboam and Jeroboam—Decentralization in the North—War bet ween 
Israel and Judah—Abijah—Nadab—Baasa—Asa king of Judah—Elah 
son of Baasa—Omri founds the third dynasty in Israel......... 67-69 


CHAPTER XII 
THE LORD OR BAAL?—ELIJAH 
(887-851) © 
Omri—Samaria—The reconquest of Moab—Omri’s alliance with the 
Phoenicians—Ahab king of Israel—Jehoshaphat king of Judah—The 
prophets—Elijah—The contest on Mount Carmel—Elijah’s flight to 
Horeb—The judicial murder of Naboth—Elijah’s translation. ...70-74 


CHAPTER XIII 
AHAB AND THE ARAMEANS 
(854-843) 


Ahab and Ben-hadad—The Assyrian advance—The battle of Karkar— 
The battle of Ramoth in Gilead—Death of Ahab—Ahaziah—Jehoram 
75-77 


P)) “TABLE OF CONTENTS — i 


CHAPTER XIV 
/ BLISHA. JEHU 
(843) 

wiaims its independence---Jehoram kitig 
riah——Elisha plans the destruction of: the 


revolt of osegie tie. slaughter of Riad 3 house— 
MB ES; . <5: 2 Ra 78-80 


Pi cH APTER XV 
(E ADVANCE AND RETREAT OF ASSYRIA 
‘ ts ed: (845-746) 

n Judah—Jehoi seata Jehoash upon the throne— 
e Temple—Jehu pays iribute to Shalmaneser-—The 
—Jehoahaz sicceeds shu--Renewed attacks. by 
gison Jehoash-—-Adadwirari [IV the ‘deliverer’— ‘ 
is father Jehoash in Judah-——Victory over the 
onan king of Judah and preboain 5 Ul a 
a Sa ree A ae . 81-84 


AS Sarees Xl 

> UFE UNDER THY MONARCHY 
Yabor—Handieruits--Life im the large cities—, 
of wealth—Parti-ularism and centralization 


religion Priests prophets, wise men—Currents 
OO eS ee oe ee eae Fa oe is ous ps pORr Se? 


~ CHAPTER XVII 

AMOS AND HOSZA 

e (760-734) 

- Call to repentance—The people's wrong piety—The Ba 
'~<Amos set a peiralist—Hosea witness of the 

rn Kingiler: —His castigation of image 

ig policy" soration te come under a new 

cae ee ee 90-94 

Bee CHAPTER VIM: 

SALA AND THE ASSPRIAN ADVANCE iy 

; ae (744~-738).20 0 . 
Pekahixh wings wf lsrael-—Abaz king of eae 

Swar~-Issiah—~Viske of the doom and of the 
eportution of Israelite population to Assyria— 

Israth+Abaz setroduces Assyrian worship . 95-98 


OH APSER XIX 
sea FALL OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAR 
“a 


(7 2-692) 
2 of Bahyion (Pal) —F urs Palestine on t 
agg =Pevet of Lageek j-amarie 


WwRers se counsels Cowes eek io inant 
rf ive rie P iloam t pane 
Ser Palestine--Jerusalem delivered 


F 
a. 


: +s hp 
wha 
‘bp 
" 
J ie | 
‘ieldaanrancd Jerobaa a 
Bevan’ weed Judah—Abi 3 
wom 8 Badea-—Dmri fo 18. 
4 . 
ara. 
fey fea * aah 
MERE 


“Ele Pecit 


TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 


CHAPTER XIV 
ELISHA. JEHU 
’ (843) 
Revolt of Mesha—Edom proclaims its independence—Jehoram king 
of Judah—His successor Ahaziah—Elisha plans the destruction of the 


Omri dynasty—The revolt of Jehu—The slaughter of Ahab’s house— 
EMIIPIMEMEESIINATIA Ss oh eR hee re lee ek ek 78-80 


CHAPTER XV 
THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT OF ASSYRIA 
(843-746) 
Athaliah reigns in Judah—Jehoiada seats Jehoash upon the throne— 
The repairs of the Temple—Jehu pays tribute to Shalmaneser—The 
Aramean invasions—Jehoahaz succeeds Jehu—Renewed attacks by 
Arameans under his son Jehoash—Adadnirari IV the ‘deliverer’— 
Amaziah succeeds his father Jehoash in Judah—Victory over the 
Edomites—Azariah (Uzziah) king of Judah and Jeroboam II king of 
rte ei. wat Ane. Me SL cae ons Ceres as 81-84 


CHAPTER XVI 
LIFE UNDER THE MONARCHY 


Husbandry—Domestic labor—Handicrafts—Life in the large cities— 
Uneven distribution of wealth—Particularism and centralization— 
Education—Popular religion—Priests, prophets, wise men—Currents 
ES NRG, Oe ls pti. sb ys Cee eae ech eevee s 85-89 


CHAPTER XVII 
AMOS AND HOSEA 
(760-734) 


Amos at Bethel—Call to repentance—The people’s wrong piety—The 
‘Day of the Lord’—Amos essentially a moralist—Hosea witness of the 
disintegration of the Northern Kingdom—His castigation of image 
worship—Israel’s vacillating policy—Restoration to come under a new 
PeeMae Ue WEILING PTOphets ....... kee ce ers ences eeues 90-94 


CHAPTER XVIII 
ISAIAH AND THE ASSYRIAN ADVANCE 
. (744-720) 
Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah kings of Israel—Ahaz king of Judah— 
The Syro-Ephraimitic war—Isaiah—Vision of the doom and of the 
restored ‘Remnant’—Deportation of Israelite population to Assyria— 
Hoshea last king of Israel—Ahaz introduces Assyrian worship . .95-98 


CHAPTER XIX 
THE FALL OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAH 
- (729-692) 
Tiglath~pileser. king of Babylon (Pul)—Egypt spurs Palestine on to 
revolt—Sargon’s capture of Samaria—Deportation of Israel—Samaria 
settled with foreigners—Isaiah counsels submission to the Assyrians— 
Hezekiah and his abortive reformation—The Siloam tunnel—The cap- 


ture of Ashdod—Sennacherib invades Palestine—Jerusalem Gagne 


Xx TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XX 
MANASSEH. JOSIAH. JEREMIAH 
(692-609) 
Assyrian conquest of Egypt—Manasseh’s reaction—Beginning of the 
ech of Assyrian power—Amon—Josiah—The finding of the Book of 
the Torah—Complete reformation in the spirit of Mosaism—Jeremiah 
quickly disenchanted—The fall of Nineveh—Death of Josiah in bat- 
tle... cv ccouc pecs au eeenap sce s.0lehe) hss ice: SiS) ent 104-180 


CHAPTER XXI 
THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH 
(608-586) 

Jehoahaz—Jehoiachin—Jeremiah predicts the destruction of the Temple __. 
—Battle of Carchemish—Nebuchadrezzar—Jehoiachin led into cap- 
tivity-—Zedekiah—Ascendancy of the anti-Babylonian_party—The 
destruction of Jerusalem—Gedaliah governor at Mizpah—His murder— 
The flight cf his adherents to Egypt—Jewish settlements in Egypt 


109-113 
CHAPTER XXII ei 
THE BABYLONIAN EXILE . 
(586-538) ; 
The life of the exiles—Ezekiel—Individual responsibility—Resurrection 
of the nation in its own home—Release of Jehoiachin—The fall of Bab- 
ylon—Cyrus gives permission for the return to Palestine—The Great 
Unknown Prophet—Israel’s mission. ...-7..+++++seseesheeea 114-118 


CHAPTER XXIII 
THE RESTORATION 
(538-432) 

The home-comers under Sheshbazzar—Cambyses and the conquest of 
Egypt—Darius I.—Zerubbabel—Haggai and Zechariah—The Temple 
built—Unfriendly neighbors—Malachi—Ezra—Dissolution of unlaw- 
ful marriages—Preparations to rebuild the. walls and denunciations by | 
the Samaritans—Nehemiah builds the walls—Reading and acceptance 
of the Torah—Nehemiah once more corrects abuses—The Samaritans 


i y 119-125 
CHAPTER XXIV | 
FROM PERSIAN RULE TO GREEK 

(424-187) 
Bagohi—The Jews of Elephantine—Queen Esther—Alexander the ~ 
Great—Wars of the generals after his death—The Seleucids and Ptol- 
emies—Battle of Panium and the Seleucid domination of Palestine— 
Ptolemy II. and the Greek translation of the Torah—Life in Palestine— _ 
The Scribes and the Great Synagogue—Simon the Just—Worldlingsand ~ 
pietists. ...... 005.00 ¢secuees ss .a oe ae » + 126-133 


CHAPTER XXV 
HELLENISTS AND PIETISTS. ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES 
(187-165) 

The house of the Tobiads—Hyrcanus—Character of Antiochus Epiph- - 
' anes—Jason secures the high priesthood—Greek fashions in ] erusalem—_ 
Menelaus high priest—Antiochus. returns from Egypt and orders the 
suspension of the Jewish religion—The author of the book of Daniel— 
Judah the Maccabee—Defeat of Nicanor at Emmaus—Rededication of 
the Temple... 0.0... c eee ek une s chases | pine , 134-141 


TARLI OW CONTENTS | xt 


CHAPTER. XXVIi 

THE MACCABER AND HIS BROTHERS 

(165-142) 

ee Cay ture of Hebron- ‘iine laure reiteckd 
Mictoriousover Nicanor—~Treaty with Rome~—Judah 
hides~jouathan leader—-becomes high ptiest— 


oe Wathan contirmed by Rec earT li— 
a of the heathen removed. »+ 4142-149 


tes SGHAPTER XXXVI 

JOHANAN HYRCARUS.. ALEXANDER [ANIA 

(142-76) 

de) and lewela 10 to the ground—Syrian invasion 

Am Murdered - ~ Jerusalem invested by Antiochts 

disturbances in Anrioch—Samaritan temple razed 
Lrisees---} cath of Hyroants- —Aristotnlas 


Se —— i.) Se Peers bit Ys 


bee CHAPTER MXIT 
fs mae Last BASMONS=" RULERS 
ee sy (76~ 39% 
Pharisee-+: The coilection of Holy Scriptures: me 
. aiome Alexandra—(teil war between Aris- 
nh -Fompey——Hy: canus Ih--Antipater—Caesar— 
Parthian invason—-Antigonuse—Herod named by 
i a i ~_ EVP S weet oe tt ee 158-168 


2 ACHAPTER xxix“ 
| OMBROD THE aReAr 
(37-4) 


ius—-I feroth and Cie datcqndived confirmed i 

iam the Hasewnean-Herod’s administra- 
‘The Herpdian ~ te—Other. buildings—The 
"swe Keo on of emende, Bales Yr 
Wee, #8 Ps eee <2» 1 G9~-176 


_CHAPTY R oe AX 


rei ation: the ‘Chelgeiae ea) 


arty ~The Zealote--The Essenes--The A os 
oer Jesus of Nagareth—~ Pontius Pilate— 

fo—Commetiea in Palestine over Caligula’s pri 
ee Claudius... roe) eee as ene wa T7188 


© CHAPTER XXX! 
eaten with, eae: 
(Ab-O7y > 


rr.  Floras—The pace d war snl <p an 
C. mad loseghus is Galil pasian—-The 


h of Pi «Sie gem ae sedibeetinn the 
Bee eee wet ces Pity Sieh nee Oey eae 192 


y& 


aL 


‘i F . ee + 6 ua We : 
owes ious oh ee Naa OOO AT A - 


Lwars—-The antagonism of the Pharisees. 


ors—~-Padue,. ae Aleraadlé, creme ; 


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TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 


CHAPTER XXVI 

JUDAH THE MACCABEE AND HIS BROTHERS 

: (165-142) 
Rescue of Jews beyond Judea—Capture of Hebron—Menelaus replaced 
by Alcimus—]J udah victorious over Nicanor—Treaty with Rome—Judah 
falls in battle with bacchides—Jonathan leader—becomes high priest— 
The Onias temple in Egypt—Jonathan confirmed by Demetrius II.— 
slain by Tryphon—The yoke of the heathen removed........ 142-149 


CHAPTER XXVII 
SIMON. JOHANAN HYRCANUS. ALEXANDER JANNAI 
(142-76) 
Simon takes the Citadel and levels it to the ground—Syrian invasion 
of Judea repulsed—Simon murdered—Jerusalem invested by Antiochus 
Sidetes—Dynastic disturbances in Antioch—Samaritan temple razed 
to the ground—Rise of the Pharisees—Death of Hyrcanus—Aristobulus 


—Alexander Jannai and his wars—The antagonism of the Pharisees— 
ra) Arn gn Pe 150-157 


CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS 
(76-37) 
The true and false Pharisee—The collection of Holy Scriptures— 
Sadducees and Pharisees—Salome Alexandra—Civil war between Aris- 
tobulus and Hyrcanus—Pompey—Hyrcanus IJ].—Antipater—Caesar— 


-Mark Antony—The Parthian invasion—Antigonus—Herod named by 
Met AS OWS. Sb sill sida dec e cna dace seen 158-168 


MaALLER AATX 
HEROD THE GREAT 
(37-4) 

Murder of Aristobulus—Herod and Cleopatra—Herod confirmed by 
Octavian—Execution of Miriam the Hasmonean—Herod’s administra- 
tion—His buildings—The Herodian Temple—Other buildings—The 
Sanhedrin—Shammai and Hillel—Execution of Alexander, Aristobulus, 
ne aS 169-176 


CHAPTER XXX 
ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 
(4 before—41 after the Christian era) 
Archelaus—The Procurators—The Zealots—The Essenes—The Apoc- 
alyptists—John the Baptist—Jesus of Nazareth—Pontius Pilate—Riot 
in Alexandria—Philo—Commotion in Palestine over Caligula’s order 
erenmrippaccoohraied by, Claudius. 62 je ..)i lesa esas iediuen 177-188 


CHAPTER XXXI 
THE WAR WITH ROME 
(41-67) 

Agrippa I.—The Procurators—Fadus, Tiberius Alexander, Cumanus, 
Felix, Festus, Albinus, Florus—The peace and war parties—Victory 
over Gallus—War declared—Josephus in Galilee—Vespasian—The 
fall of Jodephath—North of Palestine brought under subjection by the. 
Ee). eeabihscrs FA ihe hieee» anlal. aly te vol 189-198 


XII TABLE-OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XXXII 
THE NATIONAL DISASTER 
(68-73) 
The Zealots in Jerusalem—Johanan of Gish-halab—Simon bar Giora— 
Reign of the commune—Vespasian emperor—Eleazar son of Simon— 
Titus invests Jerusalem—Destruction of the City and the Temple—The 
triumph of Titus—Capture of Masada............sseeeeees 199-204 


CHAPTER XXXII 
SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION. SPASMS UNDER TRAJAN 
AND HADRIAN 
(70-135) 
The Pharisees succeed to leadership—Johanan son of Zaccai—Gamaliel 
II.—Eliezer son of Hyrcanus—Joshua son of Hananiah—Eleazar son 
of Azariah—The meeting at Jabneh—Synagogue worship and Scripture 
reading—Communal institutions—Schools—Jewish uprisings under Tra- 
jan—Hadiian—The Third War against Rome—Akiba—Bar Kokeba— 
The fall‘of. Beth-ther ;....,4.5..%05 955 «065 sm 205~215 


CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE MAKERS OF THE MISHNAH 
(1354975) 
The ten martyrs—Sanhedrin reéstablished—Simon son of Gamaliel— 


Meir and his wife Beruriah—Judah son of Ilai—Simon son of Johai— 
Judah I.—The Mishnah—Other tannaitic works ............ 216-233 


CHAPTER XXXV 
THE LAST PATRIARCHS 
(180-425) 
The Roman’ dominion—Gamaliel III.—Judah II.—Gamaliel IV.— 
Judah II1I.—Johanan bar Nappaha—Simon son of Lakish—Constantine 
the Great—Hillel I].—Julian the Apostate—The Christian emperors— 
Gamaliel V.—J udah IV.—Gamaliel VI.—Extinction of the patriarchate 


224-230 

BOOK II 
THE EASTERN CENTER UNTIL THE EXTINCTION OF THE 
GAONATE (175-1038). 27 a ba etnies pee 231-283 


CHAPTER XXXVI 
-RAB AND SAMUEL 
(175-254) 


The Babylonian center—Life of Babylonian Jews—The Exilarch—Rab 
founds the school at Sura—Samuel at Nehardea............- 233-239 


CHAPTER XXXVII 
UNDER THE SASSANIANS, THE TALMUD OF BABYLON 
as oe 4.) (254632) bead ai 
The Sassanian ‘rulers—Judah son of Ezekiel founds school at’ Pumbe- 
ditha—Huna—Rabbah son of Nahmani and Joseph—Abaye and Raba— 


Shapur I1.—Ashi—Rabina II.—The Talmud committed to writing— ~ 
Description of the Talmud—Saboraim—Geonim............. 240~-247 


TABLE OF CONTENTS . Nutt 


‘ CHAPTER XXXVI : 

RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM 

4 (622-858) 

g—fn tive northwest of the Peninsula——Moham.- 

pJews--Thie Cainuka’ exiled The other Jewish 

anished-— The Aral conquest of Syria and Pales- 

net iets, treatment of unbelievers—The exilarch 
> amas CRC M Ge yh sk vane, «AROSE 


OH APTER ° iene 

ints THE KAPAITS 2 RtsM 

(> (T6790) 
Abwllée Ohadiatol typahan—Yudghan of ; 


o or aniti-trecitional tendencics—Anan founder 
ymin of Neha werd — Ruprisi: 258-263 
fee CHAPTER ‘1 

he * SAADIAK 

6) (8B2~942) 
eB} ret and the Fastat coramunity.—~Pales- 

eae: i Since the Arab ae ~The Masorah 

@ calendar-—Aaron ben Meir-—Saadiah opposes 

~ Elevates to ihe Gaonate—Rupture with the 

Paths literary wari. :.....-..- 264-272 


| rick <Lt 4 bee 
DOF THE BABYLONIAN SCHOOLS 
(943-1038) 


. Shetira—His s son Hai~ «New centers arising 
ae By * 4734 276 


00-105 50) 


racter of the Jewish He ~The lay 


nape a a sor of Nissim and 
‘Hanae! soa of — and Nissim son of. 
Mfrican cst ERE: Mi ees Th 1, »277-283 


BOOK ee | ; eR dee ase ” 


AN Cex PERS PD THE EXPULSION FROM 
192 after the C istiay 8018) eee ane ess 285-476 


¥ 


GARTER x eee 


Chretien of) niet aro ; 5 

. p~Augustus—Jewish: prose- cr S 
Economie: and religious con- : | 
. s literary activity. .; -.- 287-296 Ae ae al 


i re 


The Babylonian conter—l ale af Bae 
y “4 . ¥ * es 4 
iounds the schoo! at Sura---Samued 


UNDER THE SASSANTA) 


The Sadsanian rulere—-Judah son of 
ditha~-huva~—Rabbab son of Nahmani tt 
Shapur.Il.-—Ashi--Rabina (1.—The Tigh 
Deeetiption of the Talmud-—Sabor 


ny 
Te eT On 


TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII 


P CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM 
(622-858) 
Jews in Southern Arabia—In the northwest of the Peninsula—Moham- 
med’s attitude to the Jews—The Kainuka’ exiled—The other Jewish 
clans slaughtered or banished—The Arab conquest of Syria and Pales- 
tine, of Egypt and Iran—The treatment of unbelievers—The exilarch 
Bustani—The Meer Te CSEONlIN Soe tric. cease be ees 248-257 


CHAPTER XXXIX 
THE KARAITE SCHISM 
(767-900) 
The Messianic pretenders—Abu Isa Obadiah of Ispahan—Yudghan of 


Hamadan—Manifestation of anti-traditional tendencies—Anan founder 
of the Karaite sect—Benjamin of Nehawend—Daniel al-Kumisi 258-263 


fetAr PER AL 
' SAADIAH 
(882-942) 
The decline of the Gaonate—Egypt and the Fustat community—Pales- 
tine before the Arab conquest—Since the Arab conquest—The Masorah 
—The regulation of the calendar—Aaron ben Meir—Saadiah opposes 


his calendar reform—Elevated to the Gaonate—Rupture with the 
exilarch—Reconciliation—Saadiah’s literary works........... 264-272 


HAP ER, X11 
THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN SCHOOLS 
(943-1038) 
Hastening of decline—Sherira—His son Hai—New centers arise wat 
/ ] 
CHAPTER XLII 
THE KAIRAWAN COMMUNITY 
(700-1050) 
The rulers of Kairawan—Character of the Jewish community—The lay 


heads—Eldad the Danite—Isaac Israeli—Jacob son of Nissim and 
Hushiel son of Elhanan—Hananel son of Hushiel and Nissim son of 


Jacob—Other North-African communities.................. 277-283 
BOOK III 

THE WEST-EUROPEAN CENTERS TO THE EXPULSION FROM 

SPAIN (139 before-1492 after the Christian era) ............ 285-476 


CHAPTER XLIII 
<a THE jews" OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 
(139. before-410 after the Christian era) | 
The Jewish community at Ritnee tae des oto tinittunsfestist prose- 


lytism—Growth of Jewish settlements—Economic and religious con- 
ditions—Cultural life—Josephus and his literary activity. ..... 287-296 


XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XLIV 
THE JEWS OF ITALY DOWN TO THE TWELFTH CENTURY 
(410-1146) 
The Ostrogoth and Lombard rule—Gregory I.—An intenser_ Jewish 


spirit—The Oria school—Sabbatai Donnolo—Paltiel vizir to Fatimite 
Muizz—Chronicle of Ahimaaz—Nathan son of Jehiel........ 297-302 


CHAPTER XLV 
THE JEWS OF SPAIN UNDER ROMANS, GOTHS AND MOHAMMEDANS 
(300-990) 
The beginnings under Roman rule—The Visigoths—Reccared I. con- 
verted to Catholicism—Sisebut reénacts severe measures against the 
Jews—Draconic enactments of the Fourth Council of Toledo—Persecu- 
tions under Chintila and Egica—The Mohammedan conquest and 
deliverance—The Cordova Court—Hasdai Ibn Shaprut—Menahem son 
of Saruk and Dunash son of Labrat—The new versification. .303-312 


CHAPTER XLVI 
SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
(993-1069) 


The rise of talmudic studies—Moses son of Enoch and his son—The 
dissolution of the Caliphate—Samuel ha-Levi vizir of King Habbus and 
his son Badis at Granada—Samuel’s benefactions and scholarship— 
Solomon Ibn Gabirol—The character of his poetry—His philosophy— 
Bahye. Ibn Bakuda. ..,.... «+ s:asies ges sm cipher 313-320 


CHAPTER XLVII 
AL-FASI AND HIS SCHOOL 
(1013-1141) 


The killing of Samuel’s son Joseph and the massacre at Granada—The 
Jews of Seville and Saragossa—Isaac al-Fasi at Lucena—The unification 
of the Christian states—The Jews of Toledo—The Almoravides—J oseph 
Ibn Megas—Moses [bn Ezra ie (5308 5 fees ee 321-326 


CHAPTER XLVIII 
JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA 
(1086-1167) 


ae ha-Levi as a poet—His ‘Kozari’ and emphasis on the election of 
srael—His departure for Palestine—The ‘Zionide’—The Almohade per- 
secution—Abraham Ibn Daud—Abraham Ibn Ezra—His travels and 
literary works—Judah al-Harizi—The Jews in Christian Spain—Ben- 
jamin of Tudela, ........... 44 5 | suerte etl 327-336 


CHAPTER XLIX 
MOSES MAIMONIDES 
(1135-1204) 


Maimun expatriates himself and family—His son Moses—The ‘Lumi- 
nary or commentary on the Mishnah—The Creed—Epistle to the Jews 
of Yemen—The growth of Maimonides’ fame—Physician and head of 
Egyptian Jewry—The ‘Code’ of Maimonides—Opposition at Bagdad— 
Joseph Ibn Aknin—The ‘Guidé’—Death of Maimonides—Burial at 
Diberigs 6... 33) ib wee el eee abs 0oih beeReeee a 337-345 


"TABLE OF COMPENTS , XV 


SS CRNTER, GHERBOK OF MAYENCE 
£32%--1040) 

p Franks in Gawl-—-The aniniosity of the 

lcrsecutions under ibe last. Merovingians-— 

x tbe Carnlingians-taimical attitude of tire 

d iL ote ane hig aueemesor Amulo-—The rise of 
iowa de Southern France-—The Khenish 

Palmyra ey at Mayence--Gershom ‘the 


| a eel of Rvs yom ee under 
346-355 


weet eres ce #+eeneee 


eo: _CHAPTE * LE 

AND Mis SeHDO rik Fike QBUSADE 

oF  (1040-1405) 

um hath sides of ie Khine—-Raahi and his commen- 
and Talm The First (orueadee-The massacres at 
Aa ne 686 aed elsewhere —- The wena to normal condi- 
ae Tam. ee ee ie! . 356-364 


ork _ CHAPTER Lu 


mm SECOND AND THIRD © “a USARS 
(1099-121. : 

The _ eee tani condjeient of Edessa—The 
shter of Jews oa the hanks of the Rhine and in 
ee cominiunity < cd Uilow—<<Death of § jacob Tam 
the Jows from the roga? don Ali Activity 

acre at’ Bray.--Fie bird Crusade—jJews 
Agus ia the Ride aad Bi echool—Judah the 
jews of Gernrwin become ‘serfs of the treas- 

sk nd of Trinberg.. eae 365-373 


Wey CHAPTE x Lib = 

(Ck AND GERMANY IN TRE QHURTHENTH CENTORY _ 
eo") (4198-1298) ee: 

| fourth Lateran Comneit-- Tre ‘Badge’ ~-Emperor 
HA wide Triai The chertet of Nuke Frederick I.- 
Mas Donin ats! the buavinmg of the Talmud—Jehiel of 
Teter Tosaplris: « ‘The Meuse! invasion—Innocent rv. 


ood: accusation io ke we foundation—Rudolph of 


- Rothesbury o satel ake: y un hh cals Sie Signe 


CHAPTER Liv 
Tt — oF BROLAND 
1066-1299) 
andes Willner the Conqueror--The Norwich 


sea ae enaes 7 wok the king—Aaron of Liacoln— 
en sortionate taxation, by the paren i libel 


i yeaa vt begilation ~The expulsion. . 384-391 


he 
<< es 


BE a lia esprit bwee ahd facil 
sary’ ot 6 ie eegive at the “Mishnah—- 
rg ‘pest te The giveth of Main non ides" 
Reve! ‘ge Samet ai hee Siete af Marmol 
cone oe Het Amnin-~The “Guidy—-Deathod 


At ‘ + 


A ATY 109% 4 eS ee 


TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 


: CHAPTER L 


THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER. GERSHOM OF MAYENCE 
(321-1040) 


The Jews of Cologne—The Franks in Gaul—The animosity of the 
Church against the Jews—Persecutions under the last Merovingians— 
Improved conditions under the Carolingians—lInimical attitude of the 
higher clergy—Agobard of Lyons and his successor Amulo—The rise of 
the Capetian dynasty—Conditions in Southern France—The Rhenish 
Communities—The Calonymus family at Mayence—Gershom ‘the 
Luminary of the Exile’-—Expulsion of Jews from Mayence under 
el dele ae diane ll 346-355 


CHAPTER LI 


RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL. THE FIRST CRUSADE 
(1040-1105) 


Talmudic learning on both sides of the Rhine—Rashi and his commen- 
taries on Bible and Talmud—The First Crusade—The massacres at 
Spires, Worms, Mayence, and elsewhere—The return to normal condi- 
tions—The Tosaphists—Jacob Tam.............. 0c cece eres 356-364 


CHAPTER LII 


THE SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES 
(1099-1215) 


The Latin Kingdom—The Mohammedan conquest of Edessa—The 
Second Crusade—Slaughter of Jews on the banks of the Rhine and in 
France—Destruction of the community of Blois—Death of Jacob Tam 
—Philip Augustus expels the Jews from the royal domains—Activity 
of the Tosaphists—Massacre at Bray—The Third Crusade—Jews 
recalled by Philip Augustus—Isaac the Elder and his school—Judah the 
‘Saint’ at Ratisbon—The Jews of Germany become ‘serfs of the treas- 
ury’—Ephraim of Bonn—Siisskind of Trimberg.............. 365-373 


CHAPTER LIII 
THE JEWS OF FRANCE AND GERMANY IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 
(1198-1293) 


Innocent III.—The fourth Lateran Council—The ‘Badge’—Emperor 
Frederick I].—The Fulda Trial—The charter of Duke Frederick II.— 
Louis IX.—Nicholas Donin and the burning of the Talmud—Jehiel of 
Paris and the later Tosaphists—The Mongol invasion—Innocent IV. 
declares the blood accusation to have no foundation—Rudolph of 
Habsburg—Meir of Rothenburg...................000. ov ee 314-383 


CHAPTER LIV 
THE JEWS OF ENGLAND 
(1066-1290) 


Permanent settlement under William the Conqueror—The Norwich 
libel—The Jewish money-lenders and the king—Aaron of Lincolh— 
The York massacre—Extortionate taxation by the Crown—The libel 
at Lincoln—Restrictive legislation—The expulsion........... 384-391 


XVI : TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER LV 
THE JEWS OF PROVENCE 
(1100-1394) 


Under the counts of Toulouse and the counts of Provence—Lunel as a 
seat of culture—The Tibbonids—The Kimhis—The Albigensian crusade 
—The quarrel about Maimonides—The edict of expulsion from France— 
Recall—The ‘Shepherds’ and Lepers—Second edict of expulsion—Final 
expulsion—Levi son of Gershon..,......... ve. ae 392-401 


CHAPTER LVI 
GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 
(1298-1407) 


Rindfleisch and the ‘Armleder’—The Black Death—The Flagellants— 
The Golden Bull—Jacob Levi Molln and Israel Isserlein—The Diet at 
Ulm—Precarious condition of German Jewry—Denunciation of the 
‘Alenu’ prayer—Chief rabbi by the grace of the emperor...... 402-412 


CHAPTER LVII 
GERMAN JEWS DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
(1410-1480) 


The Hussite wars—Expulsion from Austria—Excesses in Thuringia, 
Bavaria, and along the Rhine—Capistrano, the ‘Scourge of the Jews’— 
Peter Schwarz and Hans Vayol—The Trent libel..,..........413-418 


CHAPTER LVIII 
JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN. NAHMANI 
(1203-1293) 
Castile organizes a coalition against the Moslems—Economic and com- 
munal life of the Jews of Aragon—Gerona—Nahmani—The Cabala— 


The disputation at Barcelona—Nahmani in Palestine—Conditions in 
Castile'and Portugal... .,.. 9guies «) ie oe opal, eyelet ae 419-429 


CHAPTER LIX 
THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA 
(1280-1340) 
Solomon Ibn Adret—Abraham Abulafia—Moses de Leon—The Zohar— 


Asher son of Jehiel—The golden period of Castilian Jewry—Abner of 
Burgos—Jacob son of Asher... .. 2 saestte os «ly 5 penne 430-439 


CHAPTER LX 
THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY 
(1348-1405) 
Samuel Abulafia—Degeneration of Castilian Jewry—Nissim of Gerona 
—The chief rabbinate of Portugal—Ferrand Martinez—Massacres in 


Castile and Aragon—Crypto-Jews—Paul of Burgos—Prophiat Duran 
440-450 


CHAPTER Wax! 
THE DISPUTATION AT TORTOSA 
* (1340-1444) 


Isaac Barfat—Hasdai Crescas—Anti-Jewish legislation—Vincent Ferrer 
—The Tortosa Disputation—Joseph Albo—The Valladolid Assembly— 
Ascendancy of the Neo-Christians, ,., , .4'; 9) 903 451-459 


ie 
e ARLE OF CONT ENTS” Na 


CHAPTER LXE. | 
THE MARANOS”- 


( L4S4- 1488) 
¢ Ferdinand-—Hostility against the Maranos— — 
. a’—The Laguisition-- orquemada-—The Inqui- 


. we got the Neo-C ristians with the nobility. 


4 460- 462 
- CHAPT ER. LXUL 

OW FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

/qtago-1e97) 

The edict of exgulsion from Spain—The discovery 

*Columbus—T be fre babs Bil he evict in Portugal 

whine Maranos in Portagal.c. isos. 0. 470-476 


BOOK iV. 
: NEW CENTERS TO THE EVE OF THE 


- CHAPTER | XIV 
pe acd oF Asean 
— (1330-1 


amanuel of “a - Hebrew igle -ETAN del 
amaniem in Get Span AR Plefferkorn- 


ge “Lathe 6 attr ude to the Jewa.......+. 479-435 


M “CHAPTER LX | 

De rcanas AND HAMBURG 
yee " (1492~167 ¢ 
first houses of wore vehip-ilitgeh Montalto—Saul! 
z ews arrive-~ Manasaely Ben-Israe! —Crom- 
ind-—Ham? uth se I a te 


7 CHAPTER LXVI 

ameta AND BARUCH = 

rot (i: S85- 4677) ; 

pa—Plis excorom initia e Theologico-polit- 

's biblica: criticised be cmatmgasticat ee 
495-500 

CHAPTER LXV 

TRE (TALIA REPCOE. 

(1493~1668) 

banei—tiis sons Fodah and Isaac~The Ferrata 

‘Papal Statex~ Reubeni and Molko--Rome and 

filan~--Venic ¢ ~jpdal Modena—Simbah Lugzatto 
sas lg 

cH APTER LAVITI 

ENDER THY CRESCENT . 

(1492-1579). 


-  asesoa ncaa eae aan pcre b42-SRi 


¥ (1492-4786), . ea 2 ke 2 ae Det eS 477-599 . 


Sere pein ti duke of Naxos. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS XVII 


CHAPTER LXII 
THE MARANOS 
(1454-1488) 


Marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand—Hostility against the Maranos— 
The ‘Catholic Sovereigns’—The Inquisition—Torquemada—The Inqui- 
sition in Aragon—Fusion of the Neo-Christians with the nobility 


460-469 
CHAPTER LXIII 
THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
(1492-1497) 


The fall of Granada—The edict of expulsion from Spain—The discovery 
of the New World by Columbus—The fugitives—The edict in Portugal 


—Abraham Zacuto—The Maranos in Portugal.............. 470-476 
BOOK IV 

THE EMERGENCE OF NEW CENTERS TO THE EVE OF THE 

FRENCH REVOLUTION (1492-1786) ...... 0... ec eee eee 477-599 


CHAPTER LXIV 
THE AGE OF HUMANISM 
(1330-1546) 


Humanism in Italy—Immanuel of Rome—Hebrew presses—Elijah del 
Medigo—Elijah Levita—Humanism in Germany—The Pfefferkorn- 
Reuchlin controversy—Luther’s attitude to the Jews......... 479-435 


CHAPTER.LXV 
AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG 
(1492-1671) 


The Nasi family—The first houses of worship—Elijah Montalto—Saul 
Levi Morteira—German Jews arrive—Manasseh Ben-Israel—Crom- 
well—Readmission to England—Hamburg Jewry............ 486-494 


CHAPTER LXVI 
URIBL DA COSTA AND BARUCH SPINOZA 
(1585-1677) 


Uriel da Costa—Spinoza—His excommunication—The Theologico-polit- 
ical Tractate—Spinoza’s biblical criticism—His philosophical system 
495-500 


CHAPTER LXVII 
THE ITALIAN REFUGE 
(1492-1663) 
Naples—Isaac Abrabanel—His sons Judah and Isaac—The Ferrara 
community—The Papal States—Reubeni and Molko—Rome and 


Ancona—Genoa—Milan—Venice—Judah Modena—Simhah Luzzatto 
501-511 


CHAPTER LXVIII 
UNDER THE CRESCENT 
(1492-1579) 


The Constantinople community—Saloniki—Joseph, duke of Naxos— 
Solomon Ashkenazi—Tiberias rebuilt................0.02...512-517 


XVIII TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER LXIX 
PALESTINE 
(1488-1628) 


Obadiah of Bertinoro—Safed—Jacob Berab—Joseph Karo—The ‘Shul- 
han Aruk’—Isaac Luria—Hayim Vital—Isaiah Hurwitz...... $18-524 


CHAPTER LXX 


THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND POLAND TO THE END OF THE 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY 


(100-1501) 


The Crimean settlement—The Chazars—Migration of German Jews— 
The Charter of Boleslav—Ascendancy of the Church—Expulsion from 
Lithuania and return. . . 2.» +4845 ssc bsele> ene §25-531 


CHAPTER LXXI 
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION. LURIA AND ISSERLES 
(1510-1573) © 


Shakna—Jewish autonomy—Solomon lLuria—Moses Isserles—The 
Council of Four Lands... ... ..:,5...-.-«s« «see > a 532-540 


CHAPTER LXXII | 
THE ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY 
(1550-1648) 


Lippomano—Animosities of the Church—Education—Outstanding 
Scholars. . oi... «0.0. + che pip eeieleteiel 5 + 0 scene cts ana 541-546 


CHAPTER LXXIII 
THE JEWS OF BOHEMIA 
(1579-1654) 


Prague—Joseph of Rosheim—Mordecai Meisel—Yom Tob Lipmann 
‘ Heller—His incarceration—His release and migration to Poland. 547-550 


CHAPTER LXXIV 
THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES 
(1648-1655) 


The Cossacks—The massacres—Nemirov and Tulchin—Other towns— 
Muscovite invasion of Lithuania—The Messiah’s spouse...... 551-557 


CHAPTER LXXV 
SABBATAI ZEVI 
(1626-1676) | 
At Smyrna—At Jerusalem—Mission to Egypt—Nathan of Gaza— 
Sabbatai publicly proclaimed as Messiah—The believers in Europe— 


Sabbatai’s departure for Constantinople—His detention at Abydus— 
Sabbatai turns Moslem—His death. ........... | oe te eee 558-567 


CHAPTER LXXVI 
THE SABBATIANS. MOSES HAYIM LUZZATTO 
(1676-1747) 
Cardoso—Mordecai of Eisenstadt—Jacob Querido and his son—The 
Dénmeh—Judah ‘the Saint’ and Hayim Malak—Nehemiah Hayun— 


David Oppenheim—Solomon Ayllon and the Haham Zebi—Moses 
Hayim ‘Luzzatto. .......0..0.6.0.0le4 OU 568-577 


7) 6° CHAPTER LXXVII 
Reis i » =BASIDISM 
(1660-1797) ‘ 


al Shem Tob (the tPF yank aad 
oe ‘Mex yrvect-—Habad —Shneor Zalman 
ficts bétween Hasidim and Mith- 


. “CHAPTER LXXVIE 
- THE jOWs OF PRUSSIA 
(167 1- 1736) 


. jssion of Jews to the Mark--Eisen- 
issohn-— he icacders of the old type of Judaism— 
n controversy —\ fendelesahn’s translation of the 
yt and his Patent of Tolerance--Naphtali Herz 

ns Esperppalern’ dp ae eS Bi 8 aes wig VR SBO=599 


BOOK Vv 
PATION (ATT AONB) es oe ce, 601: 137 


- cuaprer LXXIX. 


 cceegpwoeg AMD REVOLUTIONARY ties 
(1654-5750) 


< ¢ at New \costerdan—~At Newport--In 


ne Jews come: avelate ple 


Vahpren UXRE 
r ATION IN FRAN: . AD rugnce DEPENDENCIES 
ase /GTRT-1854) ; 


ein Holland—The reed -~ 
he a nd Grett Bonb iri ¢ Consistorial 
as ia~~-Israe Sook een Nae jy 
i Bittic cities. = sa 3 . 693-618 
CHAPTER UXT 
EMANCIPATION IVF 
yee Bote 


t of N ‘1812 Cox divions in the Austrian domin- 
4 a) mi ae 


s Soa tear 


Pieper cot tain from. te 


TABLE OF CONTENTS | XIX 


Ritual murder charges—~Ganganelli--- 


ve ass itn's ea AS ods a vc vi 1BORS 


itions-—The Pla pion 


 Sephardim. and nga i Jewr mare . 


xwris 
NY 
y 
mm all 
ee 
P 
} 
A hes gre 
ae 
‘ 3 4g sb 4 ey) j 
r } ‘ Fle woe 
3 Pr. ead 4, oes er 
Ss Se 
} an 


Suite AE oj 
ind eRe wey 5 hy a 


7 » : } 
F 2s ab ws wea ae ae 
rere, oui te ie aaa Sieh A Se bv 


motes Qied ¥ . 
F 
a é 
1% 

‘ = > 

ae war i eee 

+ 

i nine 1, pepe Mees Lets 


i 
es , > 
Se ee ties 
oF ohh NMP LS eRe OP 14! 
’ 
<5 
af > 
Px. e 
< 
26, Sr, te ’ “ 
- 4 .< ts. MAY a te ei “2 


ae a Gather! gral Hety oer i 
Thiet cyte) aun ag 
Swbeatel haces * Menon te: 


ane | Cnviows-~Mordioes of Ketensioctt —« fae 2 
anes 3 Pdrwel-jutelt “Vee ada ved Hoyim B 

ogee ; Dawid Clopenbists —Setamn Action wad 
te Oe Vy Daeearic. .. ME PPGR RS AES, oF 


TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX 


CHAPTER LXXVII 
HASIDISM 
(1660-1797) 


Impoverishment of Polish Jewry—Ritual murder charges—Ganganelli— 
Decay of spiritual life—Israel Baal Shem Tob (the Besht)—Frank and 
the Frankists—The Preacher of Mezdyrzecz—Habad —Shneor Zalman 
of Liady—The Gaon of Vilna—Conflicts between Hasidim and Mith- 
ee ee ECs Saal 65g aise o aig) oka RU EEIE AAS SIGYe o's 8 o> 578-588 


CHAPTER LXXVIII 
THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA 
(1671-1786) 


Condition of German Jews—Admission of Jews to the Mark—Eisen- 
menger—Moses Mendelssohn—The leaders of the old type of Judaism— 
The Eybeschiitz-Emden controversy—Mendelssohn’s translation of the 
Pentateuch—Joseph II. and his Patent of Tolerance—Naphtali Herz 


Wessely—Mendelssohn’s ‘Jerusalem’......... 0... 0000 e eee 589-599 
BOOK V 
THE.AGE OF EMANCIPATION (1787-1925).............. 601-737 


CHAPTER LXXIX 
JEWS IN AMERICA IN COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY TIMES 
(1654-1790) 
The first Jewish settlement at New Amsterdam—At Newport—In 


Georgia—Religious conditions—The Philadelphia community—Ger- 
shom Mendes Seixas—The Jews congratulate Washington..... 603-607 


CHAPTER LXXX 
JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE AND FRENCH DEPENDENCIES 
(1787-1811) 
- Before the Revolution—The Sephardim and Alsatian Jews—Jewish 
emancipation in France—In Holland—The Jews of Rome freed— 
Napoleon—Assembly of Notables and Grand Sanhedrin—Consistorial 
organization—In Westphalia—Israel Jacobsohn—Emancipation in 
Pranmrom—io the Hanseatic cities... ..... ¢ia.06.0ecce eee cees 608-618 


CHAPTER LXXXI 
EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA 
(1786-1812) 


David Friedlander—The circles of Rationalists—Epistle to Pastor 
Teller—The Grant of March, 1812—Conditions in the Austrian domin- 
Ree PDE SCSAEL oss sos os cian note te tne oo eee eee 619-626 


CHAPTER LXXXII 


RUSSIAN JEWS UNDER PAUL AND ALEXANDER I. 
(1796-1825) . 


Derzhavin’s project—The Statute of 1804—Expulsion from villages— 
The school at Volozhin—Beginnings of Enlightenment........ 627-631 


XX TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER LXXXIII 
CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 
(1814-1823) 


The Vienna Congress—The Hamburg Temple—Isaac Bernays—Hep- 
hep—Political reaction—The ‘Beer Temple’ in Berlin closed. . .632-637 


CHAPTER LKXXXIV 
THE RENASCENCE OF JEWISH SCHOLARSHIP 
(1819-1868) 


Leopold Zunz—Isaac Samuel Reggio—Samuel David Luzzatto—Nah- 
man Krochmal—Solomon Judah Rapoport.................. 638-641 


CHAPTER LXXXV 
AFTER THE JULY REVOLUTION 
(1830-1846) 


The July Revolution—Isaac Adolphe Crémieux—Religious conditions 
in France—English Jewry—The House of Rothschild—David Salomons 
—Moses Montefiore—The Jews of Canada obtain equal rights, 642-647 


CHAPTER LXXXVI 
RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS AMONG THE JEWS OF THE 
UNITED STATES 
(1802-1868) ; 
Reforms in Charleston—Mordecai Manuel Noah—Isaac Leeser. 648-650 


CHAPTER LXXXVII 
THE DAMASCUS LIBEL 
(1840) 


Ratti Menton—Mehemet Ali—Protests in Europe and America—The 
journey of Montefiore, Crémieux and Munk—The common bond of 
JEW. oc ee eke 0 ene dae 651-653 


CHAPTER LXXXVIII 
THE STRUGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION IN WESTERN EUROPE | 
(1830-1858) 


Gabriel Riesser—The revolution of 1848—The reaction—Baron de 
Rothschild seated in the English Parliament..............:3.. 654-658 


CHAPTER EAA XA. 
REFORM AND COUNTER-REFORM 
(1841-1860) 
The Hamburg Temple strife—The Frankfort Reform Society—Opinions 
on circumcision—Abraham Geiger—Samuel Holdheim—Ludwig Philipp- 


son—Zechariah Frankel—Samson Raphael Hirsch—The West London 
Synagogue. Fe eso ones inne 659-664 


CHAPTER XC 
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE 
(1815-1855) 
The czars hereditary kings of Poland—Assimilationists and old-fashioned 
Jews—Expulsion from villages in Russia—Nicholas I.—The ‘cantonists’ 
—The Pale of Settlement—The Haskalah—Uvarov—Max Lilienthal— 
Montefiore’s mission to Russia—The Crimean War.......... 665-674 


CUAPTER KG: 
Tae wErORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 
pert RUROPE : 
ees Eat £ 


nM, Wise--David Einhora—The Civil 
italy wed ot Germdnp-—Emancipation achieved 
yoo Phe sy “lhe, ease—-The Alliance Israélite 

Palewtino~-Mobes Graetz’s ‘History 
asd Augsburg and the Philadelphia 
wii teats so da? Recah 


vO. ition Toi Kutais HE Feet an ere : 
‘Smole skin--<“rénsieux wainly pleads for the : 
AMI ie. Peviotto--The a oe War—. 
ee Meir Loeb Maibim. , BEd oy 0)-'s «683-690 


3 cree xcny A 
{TI-SEMITISN ANU E.SS1AN POGROMS 
ae Aang 


Fand the Ge ine of Z atiev 
te eocning of the Jewish Thedlogical 

I.-— The Nanten tape pe 
‘ie eo eee i ees te ele i G ~JOl 


‘CHAPTER XCIV ip eee tie 


_ ZIONTS , 
es og tinge . . 
Herzi— | Nordau—The ee 


we’ S ate ey bre Zi Congresses—The Mizrahi 
-—Deat bof Hectigainatense 902-711 


4 CHAPTEX xev 
EDS’ AND THE Heine REVOLUTION . 
“(908- 1925 2 ; 
Bene Fehda—Simon Dubnow—The. - 
pegeariy—The Beilis trial—National 
By OW esse eens ee odd 12-718 


; 


merican Jewish ee er 
fewish scholarship in he and—- 
Biro dhe 19-724 © 


(i eas fn ae aes We 


sym 


ed 


; hes AMOXG 
Je oe StATER, 


ei, eis Fe eel. orsign 
Be OMe, l. Oe ee aera 


fPGis-1 
The causes hotest tary Reng vd | ‘sidara)-~ 


A 
Jews “4 ~Parpiglou xy at 6% WEE be : io 
~The Pale WF Sat tleanene — "Vie 3 
Mont igre’ sé ivdesiiat y) Hilesia st 


TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI 


CHAPTER TSC) 
PROGRESS OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 
AND IN EUROPE 
(1845-1876) 

The German immigration—Isaac M. Wise—David Einhorn—The Civil 
War—The unification of Italy and of Germany—Emancipation achieved 
in Austria and Germany—The Mortara case—The Alliance Israélite 
Universelle—Colonization of Palestine—Moses Hess—Graetz’s ‘History 
of the Jews’—The Synods of Leipzig and Augsburg and the Philadelphia 
Conference—Rabbinical training schools.............000eees 675-082 


CHAPTER XCII 
THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA 
(1855-1878) 
Alexander II.—The Polish Revolution—The Kutais trial—Moses Loeb 
Lilienblum and Perez Smolenskin—Crémieux vainly pleads for the 


Rumanian Jews—Benjamin F. Peixotto—The Russo-Turkish War— 
The Congress of Berlin—Meir Loeb Malbim................ 683-690 


Se CHAPTER XCIII 
GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS 
(1878-1894) 


Bismarck and Lasker—Stécker—Tisza-Eszlar—Alexander IIJ.—Pobie- 
donostzev—The pogroms of 1881—The exodus to America—Ignatiev 
and the May Laws—Leo Pinsker and the BILU—The Lovers of Zion 
The Pittsburgh Platform and the opening of the Jewish Theological 
Seminary in New York—William I.—The Xanten trial—Plehve—Baron 
Peemeirestiicccirand the ICA.... 2.0.3 (VAR OS 691-701 


CHAPTER XCIV 
ZIONISM 
(1894-1904) 


The Dreyfus Affair—Theodore Herzl—Max Nordau—The Vienna 
Anti-Semites—The ‘Jews’ State’—The Zionist Congresses—The Mizrahi 
—The Kishinev pogrom—Death of Herzl.................4. 702-711 


CHAPTER XCV 
THE ‘BLACK HUNDREDS’ AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 
(1905-1912) 


The ITO—Ahad Haam—Eliezer Ben-Jehuda—Simon Dubnow—The 
Russian Revolution—The Bielostok pogrom—The Beilis trial—National 
divisions in Austria—The Polish boycott...........+.eeeeee 712-718 


CHAPTER XCVI 
\ THE EXODUS TO AMERICA 
(1905-1914) 


Movement to restrict immigration—American Jewish Committee— 
Abrogation of the treaty with Russia—Jewish scholarship in England— 
Solomon Schechter—Jewish organizations in Germany........ 719-724 


XXII TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XCVII 
THE WORLD WAR 
(1914-1918) 
The plight of the Jews—The American Joint Distribution Committee— 
The ‘Zion Mule Corps’—The Russian Revolution—The Palestinian 


campaign—The Balfour Declaration—The entry of Allenby into Jeru- 
salernvis § esi elds vik b-w ee nie.» o/s lasctvas Wie tg energie ann 725-731 


CHAPTER XCVIII 
MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE PALESTINIAN MANDATE 
(1918-1925) 
The Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia—The Armistice—Pogroms in 
the Ukraine—The Peace Conference—Sir Herbert Samuel first British 
High Commissioner in Palestine—The problem of reconstruction of the 
Jews in the war area—Recrudescence of Anti-Semitism in Europe and 
America—The opening of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. .732-737 


Bibliography ii: Fs s).10'4 . «5101 negara oan ake chap Demers 739-752 
Chronological’ “Tables... ../. 0004 53 Seam on) 753-774 
{15 G8 (oo dE aR eevee se 45 e) eal «bie ee ane ee 775-823 
Maps: 
Egypt and the Semitic World, about 1400 before the Christian Era 
Palestine: 


(a) In the time of David 
(b) Physical Map 
(c) In Roman Times 
Persia and Arabia, about 700 
England and Wales in the Reign of Edward I 
France, 1376 
Germany, 1378 
Spain, 1469 
{taly, about 1494 
Ottoman Empire, 1566 
Poland and Lithuania, 1564 
Europe, Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa, 1810 
United States, 1848 
Europe, Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa, 1926 


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CHAPTER I 
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE 
(2000-1225 BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA) 


N THE stretch of land skirting the western bank of the 
| Euphrates dwelt of old time the ancestors of the Hebrew 
people. Ur of the Chaldees, the home of Terah, the 
father of Abraham, lay then much closer to the Persian Gulf 
which reached farther north than it does to-day. Toward the 
southwest extended the Arabian peninsula, dotted with the 
settlements of Arab tribes. These Arabs of pure stock were 
reckoned, along with the progenitors of Terah, to the group 
of the children of Eber. However, the name Hebrew 
(Ibri, Ibrim) clung to Abraham—he was named at the first 
Abram—and to his descendants, particularly the Israelites. 
The Bible traces Eber to Shem, the son of Noah; from him 
were descended likewise the Assyrians and the Arameans. 
All these peoples spoke languages closely related, which we 
are in the habit of calling Semitic (Shemitic). The speech of 
the Canaanites (p. 7) was nearest to that we know as Hebrew; 
yet the Bible groups this people, together with the Egyp- 
tians, among the descendants of Shem’s brother, Ham. 
Language and stock are by no means interchangeable 
terms. Often the language of one people is acquired by an- 
other of a totally different stock. When therefore we speak of 
Semites, we have in mind solely their speech and culture, not 
the form of the skull or facial expression. If at all there was a 
primitive Semitic stock, its earliest habitat is a matter of 
conjecture. Nowhere, not even in Arabia, were the people of 
Semitic speech indigenous to the soil. It seems probable that 
at divers periods in remote antiquity they had migrated from 
somewhere in Central Asia. Equally uncertain is the primi- 
tive home of the peoples of Indo-European speech, in histor- 
ical times inhabiting India, the highlands in Iran and north 


3 


4 - THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE 


of the Taurus range, and the continent of Europe. It is quite 
possible that they, too, came from Central Asia and were 
at one time close neighbors to the Semites, the two sets of 
peoples trading with one another and exchanging their cul- 
tural possessions. 

From Ur of the Chaldees an ancient caravan route led to 
Haran (the Roman Carrhae), a well-cultivated district in 
northeastern Mesopotamia. There we find the Terahites 
after their departure from their original home. Their intent 
was to push on by way of Damascus to the land of Canaan. 
This destination was reached by Abraham after his father’s 
death. He took with him his brother’s son Lot, the father of 
Moab and Ammon. They left behind the kindred Arameans; 
they left behind also the gods whom they and their fathers 
had worshiped. The Bible invests the migration of Abraham 
with the character of a religious movement. Abraham was 
‘called’ (Isaiah 51.2); by the grace of prophetic inspiration, in 
obedience to the divine voice, he set foot upon a land which 
he received as a promise for him and his seed for ever. 

This land, which the Jews call the Land of Israel and to 
which the Romans gave the name of Palestine, was then 
known as the Land of Canaan. Normally it means the nar- 
row strip of land west of the Jordan, ‘from Dan to Beer- 
sheba’; it increases in width from twenty miles in the north 
to sixty in the south and covers an area of six thousand 
square miles. But from the point of view of actual or con- 
templated possession, its northern as well as its southern end 
extended beyond the limits mentioned. Certainly the four 
thousand square miles east of the Jordan must be comprised 
within the territory in which the early history of Israel was set. 

Physically, likewise, the two halves of Palestine go to- 
gether. A barrier of mountain chains and table-land, running 
from north to south, shuts off the Syro-Arabian desert in the 
east from the Mediterranean, or Great, Sea in the west. A 
deep chasm merely interposes itself. This great crack sets in 
with the plain sunk between the Lebanon and the eastern 
parallel range, the Antilibanus. The southerly extension of 
the eastern range is the Hermon; in its spurs the river Jor- 


wa 2a an Bese pad sia tiver leaves behind the 
a, bee: ae Bridge of the Daughters of 

ped Lut »< Galilee (Gea. of Chinnereth), 

toa debaie » oS9 feets tt continues to drop 

f loses itech <i bitter waters of the Dead 
MP which fk m= ~ 2,600 feel below the Medi- 

scentrd! ©: sarmpedim ancient geologi- 

fland lake. >< helen the appearance of 

d-up, leaving «2+ river gat the three lakes. 

cad oe there i . shomehy, Yee as we proceed — 

of tho exctertegma of the Red Sea. 

of the Selstiisi is Wagetian the swift cur- 

we migeagying char=< ace wBimerance to naviga- 

ic : . “rs the ties: <« fenekatvie, Le the spring of 

jerflows its bank hen the aater recedes, the 

bya jungle ermuctgmiemetin-tropical vege- ~ 

of the Jorivs Om teh gates the ascent is - 

r eee ty eemmeneee scot than the 

} oe elf ta fie ‘and formation 

hii ieee Pion the < of 


- port 1 Fae meme adie in ‘the south, 
hn et f piss ‘te the enst is the biblical 
jabs. dent fotapaied oalk- -trees and its 
its). Ao herds of strong 
‘Gam, the Jabbok, inter- | 
eeei vies here ig a close like- 
prretieneling part of western 
iptiendc: caadneds histori- 
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THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE 5 


dan takes its rise. So far we find ourselves above the level of 
the Mediterranean. But after the river leaves behind the 
swampy lakelet Huleh, from the Bridge of the Daughters of 
Jacob to the pear-shaped Lake of Galilee (Sea of Chinnereth), 
the river bed falls to a depth of 689 feet; it continues to drop 
until the Jordan loses itself in the bitter waters of the Dead 
Sea, the bottom of which is some 2,600 feet below the Medi- 
_ terranean level. This central Rift formed in ancient geologi- 
cal times a huge inland lake; long before the appearance of 
man it had dried up, leaving the river and the.three lakes. 
South of the Dead Sea there is a steady rise as we proceed 
toward the Gulf of Akabah, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. 

The abrupt falls of the Jordan, no less than the swift cur- 
rents and the zigzagging channel, are a hindrance to naviga- 
tion. In shallow depths the river is fordable. In the spring of 
the year it overflows its banks. When the water recedes, the 
river is bordered by a jungle of luxuriant semi-tropical vege- 
tation, the ‘pride of the Jordan.’ On both sides the ascent is 
steep. The eastern range is slightly more continuous than the 
western; it more readily gives itself to table-land formation 
and maintains a higher average level. From the slopes of 
Hermon to the valley of the Jarmuch—the river empties its 
waters into the Jordan just below the Lake of Galilee— 
Golan, rocky in the north and more arable in the south, 
stretches itself; a broad prairie to the east is the biblical 
Bashan, noted for its abundant forests of oak-trees and its 
rich pasture lands offering nourishment to herds of strong 
cattle. Another tributary of the Jordan, the Jabbok, inter- 
sects the highland of Gilead. Physically, there is a close like- 
ness between Gilead and the corresponding part of western 
Palestine; the two were also intimately connected histori- 
cally. The wooded hills of Gilead send forth streams and 
springs in abundance. The valley of the Jabbok is particu- 
larly fruitful; much wheat is grown, and sheep and cattle 
find rich pasture ground. South of the Jabbok, in the land of 
Ammon, ridges and forests diminish. Moab is a bleak table- 
land, broken through by deep river beds; chief of them is 
that of the Arnon which drains into the Dead Sea. 


6 | THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE 


On the western side, the Lebanon passes over into the 
plateau of Upper Galilee, walled in by high hills. The hills of 
Lower Galilee are less elevated; they gradually slope off 
towards the depression which forms the great break across 
the main range of the country. This is the Plain of Esdraelon. 
It is cut off from the Valley of the Jordan by the Gilboa 
mountains, and from the sea by the range of the Carmel. The 
cone-shaped peak of Tabor dominates it at the northeastern 
point. The Kishon is the principal river draining it. This 
river runs in a northwesterly direction at the foot of the 
Carmel range; now and again the Galilean hills approach 
quite closely, leaving but narrow passes through which the 
river glides along; then the plain widens out towards the Bay 
of Acre (Acco), which receives the waters of the Kishon 
through a marshy delta east of Haifa. Between the promon- 
tory of the Carmel and the sea there is but a beach of two 
hundred yards; but gradually the maritime plain increases in 
extent. It becomes the Sharon, from which passes lead across 
the Carmel range into the Great Plain, thus connecting sea 
and Jordan valley and forming the natural route for armies 
marching south or north, between Egypt and Syria. The 
Plain of Dothan affords a still wider entrance. It separates 
the Carmel range from the hill-country of Samaria (Mount 
Ephraim); the gentle gradients westward and the many 
broad valleys within, render this central portion of the land 
far more accessible than the southern hill-country of Judah. 
From the Philistine coast the Judean Lowland rises imper- 
ceptibly with its short and low ranges and the pebbly river 
beds in its cross valleys; from there the ascent to the Judean 
mountains and high plateau is steep and abrupt. Between 
the mountain ridges tortuous and deep defiles interpose. The 
desolate appearance which the bare stones of the lofty sur- 
face present to-day is obviously due to the neglect of ages. 
Now and again the ruins of terraced masonry show that at 
one time human hands were at work to conserve the waters 
of the rainfall and the soil which they moisten. The rough 
and dreary aspect increases eastward as the terrain falls pre- 
cipitously towards the Dead Sea. Southward the steppe 


z caraawrens Ah AMORITES ; 7 


| pre weiatantecd Hap the dry Seuthtond | (Negeb) 
| 10 the aed vig 


rery a B seg e pais: Solis the eesiaes who 

re <<ianaaiil bet the Game of Canaanites. 
pCansarit. wiealyecs in the Lowlands, 
it = wba ont ioe mountainous dis- 


3). it; is Hie, thas tea rg sees were the 
‘early seat, »yoe Mog Tsleanon ; thence they 
fard as well as ser rit. Por a time they made 
masicr a Baby, aetgg that city its first 
ers, of v fhom allege secs (about 2100 before 
“% mend ~ tanhwReNt in the Code of 
uigatet. Tse (age testifies to a high 
i marie! bey tae presence of unchaste 
taken © fens: 8 pth toed regulated. The 

stric 7 harsh, as when 
d for ihe . 206 aif Mabie Fathers. On the 
ins the chuirs ‘or af etter legislation, on 
or of out dient kauad *poral injunctions 


. y at Bairvbolg wikervertbrown by che 
Mies aor the Tawrux they descended 
ina. Pa 3 in, Sitebeasn’ § time they had 
ptine. (her wimihe nationalities were 
; pa, 23 the Hivites about 
Wax of all these nations 
tek which these displaced. 
mh Bict Anakim, men of high 
iif teesnants at the time of the 
t or. Scattered over the coun- 
by these ‘giants’: cyclopean 
= of sete wedged with chips; stone- 
gigl ame-shaped chambers (dol- 
ba. taal by upright blocks, for 


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SONS TRACY Spek WaCreasen ¢ eastward 


Sukoahy tre weds the Dead Sex 


SS 


2100] THE CANAANITES AND AMORITES ; ‘| 


character becomes pronounced in the dry Southland (Negeb) 
before it passes into the barren desert. 

When Abraham entered the land, he found the Canaan- 
ites in possession of a good part thereof; it is they who gave 
the land its very name. For a long time the traffickers who 
traded with the Israelites went by the name of Canaanites. 
Side by side with the Canaanites, who dwelt in the Lowlands, 
were found the Amorites who occupied the mountainous dis- 
tricts. Both were Semitic, if we remember what the term 
properly means (p. 3). It is likely that the Amorites were the 
first settlers. Their early seat was the Lebanon; thence they 
spread eastward as well as southward. For a time they made 
themselves masters of Babylon, giving that city its first 
dynasty.of rulers, of whom Hammurapi (about 2100 before 
the Christian era) was the most illustrious. An energetic 
administrator, he left an enduring monument in the Code of 
Laws which he promulgated. The Code testifies to a high 
degree of civilization, marred by the prevalence of unchaste 
institutions which are taken for granted and regulated. The 
penal provisions are strict and oftentimes harsh, as when 
children are punished for the crime of their fathers. On the 
whole the Code bears the character of secular legislation, on 
a par with the tenor of our modern laws; moral injunctions 
have no place in it. 

The Amorite dynasty of Babylon was overthrown by the 
Hittites. From their plateau across the Taurus they descended 
into Babylonia as well as Syria;in Abraham’s time they had 
principalities in Palestine. Other smaller nationalities were 
domiciled in specific parts of the land, so the Hivites about 
Gibeon, the Jebusites in Jerusalem. Back of all these nations 
there had been an earlier population which these displaced. 
The Bible speaks of the Rephaim and Anakim, men of high 
stature, of whom there were still remnants at the time of the 
Israelite occupation and even later. Scattered over the coun- 
try were the structures reared by these ‘giants’: cyclopean 
walls of undressed blocks of stone wedged with chips; stone- 
circles (cromlechs) and crude dome-shaped chambers (dol- 
mens), consisting of a slab supported by upright blocks, for 


8 - THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE [2160- 


sepulchral purposes. There seems no reason why this older 
race may not also have been Semitic. At a still earlier period 
we find evidences of an aboriginal stock of dwarfish stature, 
who lived in caves and disposed of their dead by cremation. 

The pre-Israelite population of Palestine was thus made 
up of a medley of stocks. The dominant element was clearly 
Semitic; if there were any other constituents, they had been 
absorbed. The Philistines occupied the coastland from Jaffa 
southward. They had come from the southern coast of Asia 
Minor (or possibly the island of Crete) and dispossessed the 
Avim. But they had largely surrendered to Canaanite influ- 
ences. The broken up configuration of the Land, no less than 
the mixed stocks which formed its population, militated 
against consolidation of political power. No centralized em- 
pire arose. There was a multitude of city-kingdoms; in the 
face of a common danger a league was hastily formed and it 
just as soon fell apart.’ The Philistines alone were perma- 
nently federated, though each of their five city-states had its 
own ruler. So it was easy for powers great and small to over- 
run the country and impose their suzerainty upon the Pales- 
tinian kinglets. 

Almost from the dawn of history, the rulers in the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley had their eye on the ‘westland’ and boasted 
of its subjugation. Just as earnestly did the Pharaohs of 
Egypt strive to bring Syria and Palestine within their 
sphere of influence. Egyptian, armies: penetrated into the 
heart of Palestine during the Middle Empire (from 2160 on). 
After the twelfth dynasty (1785) the power of Egypt was 
broken; the tables were turned, and Syrian bedouins (the 
Hyksos) established themselves in the seat of the Pharaohs 
(1700-1580). At last the foreign dominion was shaken off. 
The rulers of the New Empire sought out the remnant of the 
Hyksos in their Syrian fastnesses. Vigorous military cam- 
paigns northward were undertaken by Amenhotep (about 
1550) and Thutmose I. (1530). The conquest of Palestine 
was accomplished by Thutmose III. in a series of expeditions 
which terminated in 1459. The strong cities were garrisoned 
with Egyptian soldiery; diplomatic and military officers were 


a HE ORS KT sipetaaes . 9 


icon the taped tribute; otherwise. 


m 2 helye pemitions, provided they 


th cet in the land. The 
Ree a wil on the whole 
te reggie with the native 

a gow wrested the 
“or treactietelie liad. The He- 
bople, vioving: ad with their flocks 
7 one Con vee pmeture ground to 


The prenintiens wrtiement was a 
Lola tems the Aramean 
, geet his tents about 
Gees all enue; Jacob, also 
hemi. Tire ¢ “nies > © teiel, or Israel- 
b Pere: chien G9 marked them- 
2 gehnies or Rachel, the 
whee: Re niga ip tn, Levi, Judah, 
ed therapies: Se iormer, Joseph 

. P22 eéerior lineage, as 

. + cheimeeeting Gad and Asher, 
mt ane M = baey all knew them- 
Sei pfck Wate father. As their 


a en, artisaas, and mer- 
sf themselves a sl tpiasieg 


os to helen’ ve ring sae ouities 


‘ 


By. ‘ hr oe was or 


stint soil RAR aemi-permanent 


oe 


4 


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¢ 
7 . 4 
Cures 
a . 
a2 2s 


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wire ae SP sala 


Ach hg 


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fain, 
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Swern  tastie 


A weve undertake 
tec 1. 6530). 
at dns Thutmose I 


mm FOS The at 
od 


tee 
i 


1459] THE ISRAELITE SETTLERS 9 


stationed in the land to collect the annual tribute: otherwise 
the native rulers were left in their positions, provided they 
paid their tribute regularly. Egyptian influence was strong- 
est in the south; in the north the effect of the earlier military 
and pacific penetration from the east.was felt even during 
the times of Egyptian ascendancy. 

It would seem that as early as the sixteenth pre-Christian 
century the Hebrews had their settlements in the land. The 
tracts which they occupied were acquired on the whole 
peacefully, through covenanted negotiation with the native 
chiefs; here and there the sword and the bow wrested the 
land from the unwilling or treacherous Amorite. The He- 
brews were a pastoral people, moving about with their flocks 
of sheep and goats from one convenient pasture ground to 
another; but the Palestinian soil invited semi-permanent 
establishments and tillage. The process of settlement was a 
slow one; fresh kindred groups followed from the Aramean 
borderland of the desert. Abraham pitched his tents about 
Hebron; Isaac dwelt in Gerar and the Negeb; Jacob, also 
named Israel, at Shechem. The Children of Israel, or Israel- 
ites, counted twelve tribes. Two chief divisions marked them- 
selves off according to descent from Leah or Rachel, the 
wives of the ancestor Israel: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, 
Issachar, Zebulun reckoned themselves to the former, Joseph 
and Benjamin to the latter. Of somewhat inferior lineage, as 
children of concubines, were in the one group Gad and Asher, 
and in the other Dan and Naphtali. They all knew them- 
selves as united in blood, the children of one father. As their 
ancestors had sought their wives from among their own kin 
in Aram, so the Israelites abhorred marital alliances with the 
people among whom they dwelt. They looked upon them- 
selves as strangers and sojourners, distinct from the nations 
that had settled in the land in times more remote. 

A plainer and fresher stock, the Israelites looked askance 
at the luxurious life of the rich craftsmen, artisans, and mer- 
chants in the cities, who surrounded themselves with precious 
stuffs and ornaments in gold and silver. The cities appeared 
to the new-comers as ‘fortified up to heaven.’ A ring of walls, 


10 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE 


often a double ring, guarded the inhabitants against raids; a 
formidable enemy laying siege to a town must needs throw 
up mounds in order to batter the walls or to scale them by 
means of a ladder. To ensure an ample supply of water 
within the city in case of a siege, tunnels leading to a spring 
would be cut with great engineering skill. Weapons, such as 
daggers, swords, the points of spears and arrows, were fash- 
ioned of flint or bronze; but the smelting of iron had been 
mastered, and the ordinary archer stood in chariots plated 
with iron, while the chiefs had them covered with gold and 
silver. The art of writing was known, whether in the clumsy 
wedge-shaped Babylonian characters on clay or in the 
alphabetic script which the traders simplified from cruder 
Egyptian patterns and traced on papyrus likewise imported 
from Egypt. Every king had his scribe and every court its 
archives kept in earthen chests; one city bore the name of 
Booktown (Kiriath-sepher). 

The Canaanite religion was of the Semitic type of polythe- 
ism. Each city, nay, each field and vineyard, well and spring, 
had its lord (baal, adon) or lady (baalah) as divine possessor 
and protector. The sexual manifestations of life were under 
the patronage of the goddess Astarte (or Asherah); like her 
Babylonian counterpart Ishtar, she was ministered to by 
male and female devotees who offered their bodies for hire in 
honor of the deity. The worship of the sun and moon was a 
direct importation from Babylonia. Beside the chief gods, 
there were others lower in scale, ghostly beings which were 
supposed to haunt the fields and steppes. In the temples the 
richly clad and ornamented images were exposed to the hom- 
age of the worshipers. Beside every altar stood a pole (ashe- 
rah) or stone pillar (mazzebah), emblems of the presence 
of the deity. The altar was the god’s table, whereon gifts 
were presented in gratitude for the blessings of the harvest 
or the fruitfulness of the cattle; cups were hollowed therein 
for the reception of the blood of animal victims or for the 
libation of wine. By partaking of the sacred meat, the wor- 
shipers entered into communion with their god. At times the 
entire animal was placed on the altar to be consumed by 


THs GANAANITE BELIGION 1] 


nt pact as @ ewnet my to the god, whose resi- 
ras after all thongix to be 4 heaven. The tecurrin ng 
the | seasons of rise aia or the ingathering of 
welebrated yuh howterie hilarity. There was” 
com nied by weisy nities wire was is freely’ i im- 


ne blood otal out vials whem. Di vine Stach 
ad to the spirits «) ot weer the grave, food 
dt them ; by pu strays eS Spat im tombs or by 
x “Spirits erie mol % obtain oracular 
Paresorcery werted: ¢<4cland. Whether. 
seS°Or ag a sacral 2 Bit a iwttraordinary effi- 
| . to make chiles #* through the fire. 
rifices fillet the Beli * with particular 
eir sons and chew ea. “aes do they burn 
| ods.’ The Israci@ie ten ecniled from the 


ation. The ‘iniquity i ~ he Amorite’ was 


§ -of ihe tribewie © a aethite settiers., 
Hebrew inf cee ee nat unobserved 
ag At the —— /&e afteenth to the 
. Sgyptian rule of 
pipe EV, (1375-1358) 
‘kioerPistic propensities, 
se theonly god (solar 
4 ened was a weak mon- 


tea : Bettie ae upon 
He Misorganization. Com- 
woncerning the inroads of 
He seem to have fallen out 
ph wae Pashed out into Egypt; there 
znine os Canaan forced the others to | 
| Peete the sabia gon eer 


hastity, the abesiierics excrescences of 


ini its roorn a , ie ton ler of things was — 


$ ¥? ee 


HUTNNINGS OF FRE. 


rerrunte fog # 


: 4 Le 
ee uf tie rebate 


Steet wine wk te ee os liv parti ma i 


Crete tri, tet Tee 


Snaitie Orb. the 


1358] THE CANAANITE RELIGION 11 


fire and to ascend as a sweet savor to the god, whose resi- 
dence was after all thought to be in heaven. The recurring 
festivals of the seasons of the harvest or the ingathering of 
fruits were celebrated with boisterous hilarity. There was 
dancing accompanied by noisy music; wine was freely im- 
bibed; men and women gave themselves to orgies and in the 
excess of their emotion cut their bodies with swords and 
lances till the blood gushed out upon them. Divine honors 
were accorded to the spirits of the dead; over thegrave, food 
was presented to them; by passing the night in tombs or by 
calling up departed spirits one sought to obtain oracular 
information. Magicand sorcery were rifein theland. Whether 
for oracular purposes or asa sacrifice of extraordinary eff- 
cacy, it was the wont to make children pass through the fire. 
These human sacrifices filled the Israelites with particular 
horror: ‘for even their sons and their daughters do they burn 
in the fire to their gods.’ The Israelites also recoiled from the 
many forms of unchastity, the abominable excrescences of 
an over-ripe civilization. The ‘iniquity of the Amorite’ was 
reaching its fulness; in its room a new order of things was 
preparing in the midst of the tribes of Israelite settlers. 

The progressive Hebrew infiltration was not unobserved 
by the native princes. At the turn from the fifteenth to the 
fourteenth century, especially since 1370, Egyptian rule of 
Palestine was only nominal. Amenhotep IV. (1375-1358) 
was a bold religious reformer with rationalistic propensities, 
who set up the worship of the sun-disk as the only god (solar 
monotheism); but on the political side he was a weak mon- 
arch. The petty kings of Palestine vied withone another in 
protestations of loyalty to their overlord. But behind his 
back they did as they pleased, secretly intriguing with the 
very enemies of the Pharaoh. Continued encroachments upon 
each other’s territory completed the disorganization. Com- 
plaints were sent to the suzerain concerning the inroads of 
the Hebrews. The Israelite tribes seem to have fallen out 
among themselves; Joseph was pushed out into Egypt; there 
the tribe prospered; a famine in Canaan forced the others to 
follow suit. As the Bible has it, Joseph, the favorite son of 


12 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PEOPLE [1225 


Israel, was sold by his jealous brothers to an Ishmaelite cara- 
van as it passed through on the way to Egypt. There, after 
vicissitudes, he rose, by reason of his skill in interpreting 
dreams, to high honors. He was made second to the Pharaoh; 
during seven years of plenty he administered the produce of 
the country, storing the surplus against the years of famine 
which followed. When Joseph’s brothers came to buy food in 
Egypt, they did not recognize him, but he recognized them, 
and after several tests sent them back to return with their 
aged father. A portion may have remained in Palestine; the 
bulk settled in Goshen on the eastern delta, where they con- 
tinued their pastoral life. It is possible that they found there 
kindred elements from the larger Syrian circle; with these 
they made common cause, and so they came to be looked 
upon as troublesome aliens. 

The successors of Amenhotep IV., his son-in-law Tut- 
enkhamon and in particular Harmhab, the founder of the 
nineteenth dynasty, restored Egyptian polytheism and reor- 
ganized the empire. Seti I. (1313-1292) came to terms with 
the Hittites and fortified the northern frontier of Palestine. 
His son, Ramses II. (1292-1225), was involved in renewed 
warfare with the Hittites. He reconquered Ashkelon and 
several Galilean cities, and obtained a favorable treaty of 
peace with the Hittite king, whose daughter he took to wife. 
He was a great builder. The immense Ramesseum at Thebes, 
the great court in the temple at Luxor, and the vast colon- 
nade at Karnak are monuments of his insatiable passion for 
constructions. The campaigns in Palestine and Syria coun- 
seled the moving of the royal residence northward. Tanis 
(Zoan) grew intoalargeand flourishing city. East of Goshen, 
two new fortresses, store-cities, arose: Pithom (‘house of 
Atum’) and (per-)Ramses (named after the king, who made 
it his residence). To build these cities, Ramses, ‘who knew 
not Joseph,’ exacted forced labor of the Israelitish shepherds; 
under overseers of their own, subject to the control of Egyp- 
tian taskmasters, they made the mud bricks which went into 
the structure. These erstwhile free sons of the steppes groaned 
under the taskwork which reduced them to bondmen; they 


rH oo BONDAGE | 13 


the fathers, which even then harbored. 
; people and where the name-of Israel 


% 

& 5 
f ¥ 

Sarah ar 

De eo 


aS The 
re ri 


aE 
pee 


THE EGYPTIAN BONDAGE 13 


longed for the land of the fathers, which even then harbored 
a small residue of their people and where the name of Israel 
had not been forgotten. 


CHAPTER Ii 
MOSES. THE EXODUS 
(1220) 


FRESH revolt broke out in Palestine. The successor of 
A Ramses, Me(r)neptah (1225-1215) quelled it; ina 
stele, found near Thebes, he boasts of having de- 
stroyed Israel. The commotion at home communicated itself 
to the enslaved Israelites in Goshen. There arose an inspired 
leader, a personality of incomparable magnitude, to become 
the liberator of his afflicted brethren from their house of 
bondage. 

Moses the Levite was born at a time when the oppressing 
Pharaoh ordered all new-born male children of the Hebrews 
to be cast into the river. The child was exposed in a chest 
among the bulrushes of the Nile; there the daughter of 
Pharaoh found him and took him for her son. He grew up in 
the royal court and was instructed in all the wisdom of the 
Egyptians. When he came to man’s estate, he encountered 
an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew; the feeling for his own over- 
came Moses, and he slew the aggressor. But he also witnessed 
the demoralization among the oppressed, when one Hebrew, 
striving with another, met the rebuke of Moses with a brazen 
reference to the killing of the Egyptian. Moses, realizing 
that the act was known, fled into the land of Midian in the 
Sinaitic peninsula. There, in an oasis, stood a sanctuary. The 
fugitive Egyptian—as such he was taken by the Midianite 
priest—was made welcome; he married one of the priest’s 
daughters and tended his father-in-law’s sheep. 

On one occasion the shepherd penetrated far into the wild- 
erness, Close by the mountain of God (Horeb, Sinai). Sud- 
denly, he beheld a bush burning with fire, and yet the bush 
was not consumed. It was a vision ushering in his prophetic 
call. Before he could explain the marvelous sight, he heard a 
voice calling to him from the bush. The God of the fathers 


14 


ee) THE RxXODUy | 1 


E him: undertake the stission of freeing his 
- The ‘nam arene cel ee own eee as the 


alas ish His panels a Helper ever eens, 

Wi is aiflicted in ail thelr affliction and in His 

Hahei tedeemeth them.’ Jest now the power of 

to man ifest itself in freedom for larael, with Moses 

mit, the first shephen! of God’e fork. | 

ropt i call which came to Méses made him realize . 
168 Of the task and fis own unworthiness. 

meone elec might he Sent; he knew him- 

; ods slow of speech, and of a slow tongue. 

quenchable fre, Bis the prophetic dlu- 

find an intecpreter ia bie brother Aaron, 

was borne in on the prophet in the sequel 

y his priestly brother might become, how 

lage low tessa pees trea of the mass. 


va ed to the pec: the ivine message, 
ved NAR O made het a god 


Herimage. "Thnaianasohes intan easterly 

hirned southward, ft was impossible to 

1¢ lakes, to which, in. high tide the west- 

F the Red Sea. thee. extended, for the 

jer wits strongly guarded. The Israelites 

it dm by the wilderness, between Migdol 

| Feast wind, which blew all night, droves 

I further back and uncovered the bed of | 

¥ sand the passage was effected toward. 8 eae 
| eas 3 ern shore, Adetachment of Egyptian Nene ene 2 


od subj She workings of ebb said 
tn were - short of a. 


“ 
. 
ta *g 
: 
‘ 
; 
: 
« 
. ‘i 
wot ee 
’ 
Rie 


Peeples sa 


1220] THE EXODUS 15 


spoke, bidding him undertake the mission of freeing his 
oppressed people. The patriarchs had known God as the 
Almighty. To Moses God made Himself known by a new 
name: I AM THAT I AM, the One whom no definition can 
exhaust, who is always with His people, a Helper ever ready, 
a Savior, ‘who is afflicted in all their affliction and in His 
love and in His pity redeemeth them.’ Just now the power of 
God was to manifest itself in freedom for Israel, with Moses 
as the agent, the first shepherd of God’s flock. 

The prophetic call which came to Moses made him realize 
the stupendousness of the task and his own unworthiness. 
He preferred that someone else might be sent; he knew him- 
self not a man of words, slow of speech, and of a slow tongue. 
But his was the unquenchable fire, his the prophetic illu- 
mination; he would find an interpreter in his brother Aaron, 
the future priest. It was borne in on the prophet in the sequel 
how untrustworthy his priestly brother might become, how 
he would yield to the low religious conceptions of the mass. 
For the time being Moses accepted his brother’s help, when 
with wife and children he returned from Midian. The two 
together communicated to the people the divine message, 
and the people believed. Preparations were made for a hasty 
departure. Theexodustookplacein thespring of the year 1220. 

The immediate goal was the Mountain of God, where 
Moses received his revelation and whither the people now 
resorted forasolemn pilgrimage. They marched in an easterly 
direction; then they turned southward. It was impossible to 
round the north of the lakes, to which in high tide the west- 
ern, or Suez, arm of the Red Sea then extended, for the 
reason that the frontier was strongly guarded. The Israelites 
found themselves shut in by the wilderness, between Migdol 
and the sea. A strong east wind, which blew all night, drove 
the ebbing waters still further back and uncovered the bed of 
the sea. In the dry sand the passage was effected towards 
Baal-zephon on the eastern shore. A detachment of Egyptian 
horsemen, which pursued the fleeing Israelites, was drowned 
in the sea when the flood returned. The workings of ebb and 
flow at the opportune moment were nothing short of a 


16 MOSES. THE EXODUS 


miracle. The people believed in God and in His appointed © 
messenger. Triumphantly they sang: 

‘Sing ye to the Lord, for He is highly exalted; 

The horse and his rider hath He thrown into the sea.’ 

The march went on past the bitter spring of Marah and 
the palm grove of Elim. At Rephidim the Amalekites, who 
disputed the possession of this fertile strip, were overcome in 
battle. Now the road lay open to the Mountain of God, 
Horeb or Sinai, close by the territory of Midian, within the 
district comprising the oasis of Kadesh with its wide plains 
well supplied with springs issuing from the clefts of the rocks. 
Both Sinai and Kadesh had long formed sacred centers to 
the desert tribes; thither they made their pilgrimages, there 
they held their fairs, and there the Midianite priesthood 
adjudicated their quarrels according to traditional lore. The 
memory of Israel ever after harked back to the time when 
Moses brought the people to the foot of the mountain, there 
to receive the foundation of their national unity and the 
constitution of their religious community. 

The inspiration of the prophetic leader communicated 
itself to the whole people. A holy enthusiasm possessed them. 
They saw God in His spiritual essence, under no manner of 
form, and they heard His voice thundering forth the Ten 
Words: 

‘I am the Lord thy God: thou shalt have no other 
gods before Me. 

Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, nor 
any manner of likeness. | 

Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God 
in vain. 

Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. 

Honor thy father and thy mother. 

Thou shalt not murder. 

Thou shalt not commit adultery. 

Thou shalt not steal. 

Thou shalt not bear false witness. 

Thou shalt not covet.’ 


fe ROOK OF THE COVENANT ie |S 


of exaltation, the people accepted with readi- 
me ives and duties of the divine election con- 
a holy nation, the priest-people among man-' « 
8 of the spiritual interests of h umanity, A, 
Ntwas sdlemnized by which the people bound, 
io the will of God... The groundwork of divine 
A be sees Lap Ten sbi graven 


~ afar: ane cuties of the ation, as we vel as ed 
dual Israetive. Such & manual of guidance 
Aastrction The first dfaft of the Mosaic 
the people and formally ratified by them. 
red ian Book of Ceeerenant. 


I ds pr bas Se: a ietologiie ae the 
EE ahape: and concludes with a perora 
service of , is intailcated. bie ne new 


2» the Sarstve iclilaaa anid its Bien of 
omise must be made with either. Any- 
ger the spiritual life of the nation must 
anaanites have theic wumerous sanc- 
sout the land;adimay the Israclites 
eh: of Meseis--build an altar, of 


ee pied His name’ to. be eiraivaiadt ina 
gh association with a memorable event 
tarche. Thus the sames of the Canaan- 
| Sento -onilh come té be forgotten. To 
ug cw ¥ slave who chooses to” 


‘orelinanc’ +) deal with Da 
an “nr crimes. of optonsicni 


teetrteter onl ber ind » 


ak i ing 2 
ee ae Pier ti : } 
7 Ca eo ow +3, JP YUL ie, . tH, 


nett. 


Set 


bf, 


Af ‘ 
ys Cog 
24 be FPA we = hy B 
hye 4 v 
&. Remy: Bash} Mt 
ae + F 
Rese Sa Feet. Vy Ye 


. 


oe wad? pert bese fg 


Phew abalt met oorvet.” 


% 
¥i 
g 


THE BOOK OF THE COVENANT ny 


In their state of exaltation, the people accepted with readi- 
ness the prerogatives and duties of the divine election con- 
stituting them a holy nation, the priest-people among man- 
kind, guardians of the spiritual interests of humanity. A 
formal covenant was solemnized by which the people bound 
themselves to do the will of God. The groundwork of divine 
revelation must needs be expanded; the Ten Words graven 
on two tables of stone, the Testimony as they were called, 
required supplementing in the form of a code of laws regulat- 
ing the ramified affairs and duties of the nation as well as the 
life of the individual Israelite. Such a manual of guidance 
was called Torah, Instruction. The first draft of the Mosaic 
Torah was read to the people and formally ratified by them. 
It was therefore named the Book of the Covenant. 

The Book of the Covenant, as we now read it in the twenty- 
first, twenty-second, and twenty-third chapters of the Second 
Book of Moses or Exodus, is preceded by a prologue at the 
end of the twentieth chapter and concludes with a perora- 
tion. The imageless service of God is inculcated. The new 
community, during the slow progress of the conquest, will 
have to contend with the native population and its form of 
religion. No compromise must be made with either. Any- 
thing that will endanger the spiritual life of the nation must 
be uprooted. The Canaanites have their numerous sanc- 
tuaries, scattered throughout the land; so may the Israelites 
—such was the first thought of Moses—build an altar, of 
earth or of unhewn stones, not exactly in any place, but 
wheresoever God has caused His name to be mentioned, in a 
place hallowed through association with a memorable event 
in the life of the patriarchs. Thus the names of the Canaan- 
ite local deities—the baals—will come to be forgotten. To 
the sanctuary is brought the Hebrew slave who chooses to 
remain with his master for life, above the normal term of six 
years; there oaths are taken in litigations; the manslayer by 
misadventure seeks sanctuary. 

The statutes (mishpatim, ‘ordinances’) deal with slavery 
and concubinage, homicide and other crimes punishable 
with death (like kidnapping, gross unfilial conduct), may- 


18 ; MOSES. THE EXODUS 


hem, theft, damages to property, seduction, witchcraft, 
unnatural lust, idolatry. Imperceptibly the little Code pro- 
ceeds to its second part, the hortatory dicta (debarim, 
‘words’), that enjoin justice and kindness to the stranger, the 
widow, and the fatherless, generosity to the impoverished 
debtor, respect for God and constituted authorities, prompt 
delivery of the first fruits, abstention from unlawful meat, 
judicial impartiality, restoration of lost property, humanity 
to animals, letting the land lie fallow in the sabbatic year 
that the produce may go to the poor, desisting from labor on 
the sabbath day that dependents as well as beasts of burden 
may have rest. Three seasons for pilgrimage, when all male 
Israelites must present themselves at the sanctuary, are 
ordained: the feast of unleavened bread in the spring of the 
year in commemoration of the coming out of Egypt, the 
feast of harvest, and the feast of ingathering. 

A premature attempt was made to enter the promised land 
from the south; it ended disastrously. After many years 
there was nothing left but to try the more difficult and 
circuitous route to reach Canaan from the east. In their wan- 
derings the Israelites carried with thema portable sanctuary, 
which was taken down and set up from station to station; in 
its most sacred part rested the Ark of the Covenant, which 
contained the two tables of stone. The king of Edom refused 
to let the Israelites pass through his territory. So they were 
constrained to encircle Edom, going in. a southerly direction 
and then moving up northward. The Amorites, pressed by 
the Hittites, had pushed the Moabites from their seats north 
of the Arnon. The Israelites passed by the Moabitish terri- 
tory far to the east; but so soon as they touched the Amorite 
frontier, Sihon, whose residence was at Heshbon, met them 
in battle. The Amorites were defeated and compelled to cede — 
territory to the invaders. A similar victory was obtained over 
the forces of Og king of Bashan, and the Israelites gained a 
footing in this fertile district. 

The conquest of the country east of the Jordan—only 
Ammon and Moab held their own—may not have been 
accomplished all at once; it is likely that the Amorite power 


Te —— i a iY 


a. before several pieerations, The attack was 
>a a5 by Review, Gad, and half of the tribe 
heen ex were: in ’ the pecupied a 


y have bees duling the wanderings—the 
t y was withis cant aies—the beginnings 
" Te ented atta Waw Ordered in accord- 
avisions of the Poaked te Covenant. Altars 

n sundry locales, i avy place one saw fit, 
SoEver was get m his own eyes. 
damage uc t the, ire pee wlan _ 


r h itl the hovgintenhaepty ‘distinguished 
attend mg the pete ef the conquest 
roceiure might pee ove i in force, and 
ions upon the commikg te: ci the settlement 
, He foresaw the taht +. progress toward 
litical asid religh@ge “Ge consolidation of 
. expen 66 eael's unique piety 
cs .. # AGrictuary one and 
m ye annually and under 
Pricuthood tem eed by that which is 
em of God. ‘For what 


. saa & Sef upon Him?" | 
| a — thane Suwt—or for that matter 
8 Pomiitiie » ~repeatedly inculcates 
ng fe f the depeitent Classes, the wandering 
wit, ®he fatherless, the hapless 
¢ ‘he fmguwerished brother. Even the 


| 
Pie 


d Juric Gilead wai Siaes, No matter 


< bath Cheat a ftigh unto them, as 


ete bbe treatedt avith kindness; thus the ON, | 


a / ox ow 
+ & ‘ y < 
~ 1 ay 
' 2 * 4 ’ , j 
‘ , on 
cy 
i 3 r 
i ‘ ry 
i VOW Mss 
. A y . we A me 
vt ra 1 eae Re 
: ’ "is 


THE SECOND CODE 19 


was not broken before several generations. The attack was 
made principally by Reuben, Gad, and half of the tribe 
Manasseh; they were content to settle in the occupied dis- 
trict which afforded rich grazing ground for their cattle: 
Reuben and Gad in the southern end, and the Manassite 
clans of Machir and Jair in Gilead and Bashan. No matter 
what the custom may have been during the wanderings—the 
portable sanctuary was within easy access—the beginnings 
of settled life over an extended area were ordered in accord- 
ance with the provisions of the Book of the Covenant. Altars 
were reared in sundry localities, in any place one saw fit, 
‘every man doing whatsoever was right in his own eyes. 
Moses now realized the danger to the new and spiritual relig- 
ion of his foundation, when local habits and pagan supersti- 
tions of the former inhabitants might creep in. He accord- 
ingly revised his earlier legislation in a new Book of the 
Covenant issued on the eve of his death in the plains of 
Moab opposite Jericho. 3 

This second thought of the lawgiver sharply distinguished 
between the unrest attending the period of the conquest 
when the prevailing procedure might continue in force, and 
the normal conditions upon the completion of the settlement 
across the Jordan. He foresaw the natural progress toward 
centralization, political and religious. The consolidation of 
national unity and the full expression of Israel’s unique piety 
demanded a central place of worship, a sanctuary one and 
only, whither men might resort thrice annually and under 
the eyes of a faithful priesthood be stirred by that which is 
Israel’s chiefest concern, the nearness of God. ‘For what 
great nation is there, that hath God so nigh unto them, as 
the Lord our God is whensoever we call upon Him?’ 

The second Code, no less than the first—or for that matter 
the middle books of the Pentateuch—repeatedly inculcates 
the duty of caring for the dependent classes, the wandering 
Levite in the gates, the widow, the fatherless, the hapless 
stranger, or of succoring the impoverished brother. Even the 
brute creatures are to be treated with kindness; thus the ox, 
while treading out the corn, is not to be muzzled. Crime 


20 MOSES. THE EXODUS 


must be punished; but even the criminal shall be spared 
undue indignity; nor may children be involved in the pun- 
ishment of offending fathers. Commercial honesty and judi- 
cial incorruptibility are insisted upon; all unchaste and 
unseemly conduct is banned; a holy avoidance of all things 
impure is demanded, as befits a people serving the Holy God. 
No form of idolatry shall be tolerated. “The Lord is God in 
heaven above and upon the earth beneath; there is none 
else. | 

The Unity of God was for Moses not a matter of reasoned 
speculation; it was morally determined, the most stupen- 
dous reality that concerns the Israelite in begetting single- 
hearted devotion. ‘HEAR, O ISRAEL, THE LORD OUR GOD, THE 
LORD IS ONE. Therefore thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
might.’ The Mosaic Torah is summed up in this supreme 
commandment. The divine law, the prophet exhortingly 
avers, is neither too hard, nor far off; it is not in heaven, 
neither is it beyond the sea; the word is very nigh, in one’s 
mouth, and in one’s heart. 

So spoke the prophet, commending the Torah before he 
passed away. There is much priestly legislation in the Torah, 
much of outward ceremonial. It was meant to be there, for 
piety must needs be organized. But all that is transcended 
by prophetic inwardness and prophetic persuasiveness. ‘By a 
prophet the Lord brought Israel up out of Egypt, and by a 
prophet was he kept.’ He was also for Israel the greatest of 
prophets. “There hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel 
like unto Moses.’ It was not granted him to lead the people 
into Canaan, but he led them up to its very entrance, and 
from the heights of Moab’s hills he surveyed the land of the 
fathers which was to be given to their children. The God of 
the spirits of all flesh would appoint successors to carry on 
and complete the work of Moses, to win the land for Israel 
and the Lord. Moses was the creative builder; he laid the 
foundation; he left a divine programme in the Torah, which 
ever after remained an inheritance of the congregation of 


TRE TEACHING AY moses 21 


$e was nnd ke unto Cad and among 
; Baened he tage his people the belief 


Ne are a iii % ve os 
eine rh Ad oat 


Gaerne 2 ee 
Ad SSD Riker pl 
a La | 
x ae ry &, is2 
ey t : 7 


ge: a ie ie 


wb y. Bs » , 
Fite Bele at Oe ee 


‘aR aeuae.! aut 


THE TEACHING OF MOSES 21 


Jacob. For Moses there was none like unto God, and among 
nations none like unto Israel; he taught his people the belief 
in the Unity of God and in Israel’s uniqueness. 


CHAPTER III 
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES 
(1180-1100) 


FTER the death of Moses, the leadership of the nation 
A fell to Joshua, an Ephraimite, trained in the arts of 
warfare and in statecraft. Under his command, the 
people, organized for military attack, crossed the Jordan at 
a fordable place facing Gilgal. The strongly fortified Jericho 
(‘Moon-city,’ dedicated to the worship of the moon), with its 
double ring of walls, previously destroyed in the sixteenth 
century and then rebuilt, was carried by a successful assault. 
The gateway to the broad plateau in the center of the land 
was thus opened. 

Here the tribe of Judah separated from the northern 
tribes. While Simeon and the friendly nomadic tribe of the 
Kenites advanced from the southwest or south, the men of 
Judah marched from the north to conquer the southern hill- 
country. The Jebusite king of Jerusalem met them in battle; 
he was wounded and carried by his people to his residence. 
Caleb and Othniel succeeded in dislodging the Canaanites 
from Hebron and Debir. The superior tactics of the in- 
habitants of the coastal plain, who could move against the 
invaders with their iron chariots, prevented further occupa- 
tion of the country down the hills. The Jebusite stronghold 
and the whole northern belt remained likewise in the hands 
of the Canaanites. The isolation of Judah was thus made 
effective for some time to come. 

The northern tribes succeeded to the national title of 
Israelites. Grouped about the sons of Joseph and the Ephra- 
imite leader, they were at first driven off as they climbed the 
ascent to Ai; but soon the city was taken by a stratagem. 
Bethel fell into their hands through the treachery of one of 
the inhabitants, who betrayed to the Israelite scouts the 
most advantageous point for an assault. Gibeon with its 


22 


aa r J . JOSH ty A 23 


e8 surrendered peacefully. Adociooulcte 
» Organized a twalition of his brother 
€ rac and ther ailies, the Gibeonites. 
itin the Valley of Aijzion; in the descent 
= opesigy horon the Meeing confederates 

; the Leraelines pursued the enemy 


pamtiich told how the sun stood still and 
nh about a whole day, until the nation 
ts of their enesi#e, The heart of the 


ex ridges were cut dewn to afford more soil 
Eacetins tribe wag Ephraim, in whose 
in, Where the people aseembled for com- 
hiloh, the resting-plage af the Ark. Manas- 

n Oo! sth, towards the Great Plain; but the 
ine d in the possession of the Canaanites. 
try, Galilee, was opened up to the other 
ted onslaught by the king of Hazor and 
$ thwarted at the Waters of Merom. 
t of the country was thus occupied; but the 

its merest bevinnings. The Egyptian over- 
Gans relinquished bis Botd upon the land; 


s@ppeared to the Pharaohs as an inter- 
$ * | Poonquarory ip thir dorhains and the 
anites is: a theit ven paid their tribute, 


ry yp tian © Se i FPelestine and Syria grew 
A the extrese: Esrael gained a footing in the 
it wartane, now by peaceful means. 
Gommessions and accsimodations were not infre- 

t as soften as oneor the other part waxed stronger, 
“yenewed faction. The coast was nowhere 


Siv victory or Israét; tre day of Gibeon was . 


a ) Range. was now gate for Israel. The . 


167) vigorously-maintained his Syrian 
gle between the Yaraelites and the dis- - 


ss ss iw rns + vader: within, the Great Plain, with its: 


JOSHUA 23 


neighboring localities surrendered peacefully. Adoni-zedek, 
the king of Jerusalem, organized a coalition of his brother 
kings against the Israelites and their allies, the Gibeonites. 
A battle was fought in the Valley of Aijalon; in the descent 
from upper to nether Beth-horon the fleeing confederates 
were caught in a hail-storm; the Israelites pursued the enemy 
relentlessly. 

It was a decisive victory for Israel; the day of Gibeon was 
celebrated in a song, which told how the sun stood still and 
hasted not to go down about a whole day, until the nation 
had avenged themselves of their enemies. The heart of the 
country, the Central Range, was now safe for Israel. The 
forests of the higher ridges were cut down to afford more soil 
for the settlers. The leading tribe was Ephraim, in whose 
territory lay Shechem, where the people assembled for com- 
mon action, and Shiloh, the resting-place of the Ark. Manas- 
seh dwelt further north, towards the Great Plain; but the 
Plain itself remained in the possession of the Canaanites. 
The northern country, Galilee, was opened up to the other 
tribes after a concerted onslaught by the king of Hazor and 
his confederates was thwarted at the Waters of Merom. 

A good part of the country was thus occupied; but the 
conquest was in its merest beginnings. The Egyptian over- 
lord by no means relinquished his hold upon the land; 
Ramses III. (1198-1167) vigorously maintained his Syrian 
dominions. The struggle between the Israelites and the dis- 
possessed Canaanites appeared to the Pharaohs as an inter- 
nal feud; so long as the conquerors in their domains and the 
unsubjected Canaanites in their territories paid their tribute, 
no attempts were made to interfere on the side of the one 
against the other. 

But soon the Egyptian control of Palestine and Syria grew 
to be shadowy in the extreme. Israel gained a footing in the 
land, now by bloody warfare, now by peaceful means. 
Mutual concessions and accommodations were not infre- 
quent; but as often as one or the other part waxed stronger, 
there developed renewed friction. The coast was nowhere 
reached by the invaders; within, the Great Plain, with its 


24 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES [1150 


fortresses, Taanach, Megiddo, and Beth-shan, constituted a 
formidable barrier. The Israelite territory was thus split up; 
each tribe was left to carry on its own adventures. Yet the 
feeling that they all belonged together was not obliterated; 
but it required great emergencies and the weight of out- 
standing personalities to stir them to common action. 

The Canaanites once more gathered their forces to strike 
at Israel. The leading spirit of the new coalition was Sisera. 
On both sides of the Plain of Jezreel the Israelites were 
harassed; all power of resistance seemed to be broken in 
them, ‘not a shield or spear was seen among forty thousand 
of Israel.’ Then there arose an inspired mother in Israel, 
Deborah. She summoned the leaders in Israel, at their head 
Barak son of Abinoam, to battle on behalf of their people 
and their God. Of Judah’s participation there could be*no 
thought; in the far north Dan and Asher were absorbed ‘in 
mercantile pursuits; across the Jordan, Reuben dallied irres- 
olute among his sheepfolds and Gilead was indolently im- 
passive. The other tribes, Ephraim, Benjamin, and Manasseh 
from the south, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Issachar from the 
north, met in the Plain, where the enemy had massed his 
hosts near Taanach and Megiddo east of the Carmel (1150). 

‘The kings came, they fought; then fought the kings of 
Canaan, they took no gain of money.’ It was a combat in 
which no quarter was given or sought. Boldly did the Israel- 
ites rush upon the enemy, ‘jeoparding their lives unto the 
death.’ So fierce was the onslaught that the Canaanites, with 
their chariots and horses, were put to rout in a wild panic. 
The very stars in their courses seemed to fight against them; 
in the heavy rainfall, swelling the brook Kishon, their flight 
was retarded. Sisera escaped on foot; he was parched with 
thirst. He chanced upon a nomadic encampment of Kenites, 
the friends of Israel. At one of the tents he asked a drink of 
water; Jael, the heroic woman of the tent, recognized in him 
the tormentor of Israel. She offered him milk in a lordly ~ 
bowl; the weary captain gulped it down. As he was overcome | 
with drowsiness, Jael swiftly struck his head with a | heavy 
hammer; at her feet he fell dead. es 


re ee ee 25 


ak a tom Shae» the C anaanites accom- 
B tothe weahhers and witnessed ene 
eel gnee ov tof their possession. 
became tess ih former inhabitants 
pees ca ses ge zout of the enemies 


| ic ie * aes ie eel saeatan fot the 
n, the rise 24 iyeite as they rallied ° to 
' 2 hr: a oe The cause of the 
oad sets “ays of the hegin- 
da -sieihniaisialiie ak the a of 


NN 9 bei at, 1 ae agi itious to recon- 
“ested ‘frogs thom <5, Bionaic times; ulti- 
y led to Be wealaediic: @t Reuben, whe 
aries: Fae Some time before 
ipesiites, the tribe of 
ie sion at the hands 


wrable toleave the . om 
s Syands of an enemy; 
me af Benjamin. One & 


bit ne audience with the a 
eiwerved, pierced him - ee 
ded to his call fo — 


attract the eye of the 
ye, a nomad branch of 2 en per eae 
fSinai. Having ravaged 


- ebpemabigetee crete 


om 
» 
wri 
2 We 
‘ 
x 
Bh 


ee, Moet hee cH 
TN « Dip erent yr acy 


ee ae, Ie eS 
er th, 3, 


DEBORAH. EHUD 25 


The Canaanite opposition was broken for ever. No armed 
resistance was attempted after that; the Canaanites accom- 
modated themselves to their neighbors and witnessed one 
portion of the land after another pass out of their possession. 
Gradually Israel became master; the former inhabitants 
were reduced to subjection. The complete rout of the enemies 
of the Lord and Israel was sung in a poem, the ‘Song of 
Deborah,’ a quaint document of those early days of storm 
and stress, glowing with the white heat of praise for the 
heroic men and women, the rulers in Israel, as they rallied ‘to 
the help of the Lord among the mighty.’ The cause of the 
Lord and of Israel was one, even as in the days of the begin- 
nings, when Sinai quaked and trembled at the presence of 
the God of Israel. 

The Israelite hold on the land, however, was disputed from 
other quarters. The Moabites had grown ambitious to recon- 
quer their seats wrested from them in Mosaic times; ulti- 
mately their activity led to the weakening of Reuben, who 
dwindled away amid precarious conditions. Some time before 
Barak’s glorious victory over the Canaanites, the tribe of 
Benjamin in particular had suffered subjection at the hands 
of Moab, who with the aid of Ammon established himself 
west of the Jordan in Jericho. It was intolerable to leave the 
gateway to the central country in the hands of an enemy; 
the enslaved condition irked the free sons of Benjamin. One 
of them, the left-handed Ehud, as he ostensibly came to 
present his people’s tribute, sought an audience with the 
king of Moab at his palace and, unobserved, pierced him 
with his sword. Ehud’s tribesmen responded to his call to 
arms, and the Moabite garrison was annihilated. 

The western country continued to attract the eye of the 
nomad in the east, ever ready to overrun pastures and farm- 
lands. This time it was the Midianites, a nomad branch of 
the people settled in the vicinity of Sinai. Having ravaged 
Edom and Moab, they followed a course northward similar 
to that taken by Israel under Moses. Now they poured 
across the Jordan into the fertile valleys of the west. Year 
after year, just before the harvest, they came, ‘as locusts, 


26 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES 


for multitude,’ riding upon their camels, and plundered 
the crops. The Israelitish peasantry offered no resistance. 
Fearing for their lives, they fled into the mountains, where 
the abandoned ancient hill-forts and rock caves afforded a 
hiding-place. On one occasion the raiders penetrated as far 
as Mount Tabor. They plundered freely and slew any 
who ventured into their path. Among the slain were several 
sons of a Manassite chieftain. 

Their brother Jerubbaal, also called Gideon, actuated by 
the sacred duty of blood revenge and roused by his people’s 
affliction, called the fighting men of his own clan, Abiezer, to 
arms. The small band of three hundred warriors pitched 
close by the well of Harod at the foot of the Gilboa moun- 
tains, whence the enemy camp northward in the valley could 
be observed. Suddenly, in the dead of night, Gideon’s 
picked men surprised the enemy; the lurid glow of their 
torches and their deafening shout (‘The sword for the Lord 
and for Gideon!’) threw the Midianites into a panic. The 
Abiezrites, now reinforced by their brother clans of Manas- 
seh as well as by Naphtali and Asher, pursued the fleeing 
hordes. The Ephraimites, though they arrived late, inter- 
cepted the enemy about to ford the Jordan and slew two of 
the Midianite chieftains, Oreb and Zeeb. 

Once more the Midianites overran the country. This time 
they made their escape across the Jordan, their camels laden 
with booty. Gideon and his troops followed in hot pursuit. 
The men of Succoth and Penuel near the Jabbok refused 
food to Gideon’s hungry men. Gideon marched on toward 
the south and east, as far as the caravan route on the out- 
skirts of the steppe. The enemy was overtaken and the two 
kings, Zebah and Zalmunna, were captured. These head- 
strong sons of the desert freely boasted of killing Gideon’s 
brothers; proudly they refused to die by the hand of Gideon’s 
lad and begged the commander himself to give them the 
death-stroke (‘for as the man is, so is his strength’). Condign 
punishment was meted. out after the victory to the towns- 
folk of Succoth and Penuel for their unbrotherly conduct to 
their fellow-Israelites. A boy from Succoth was compelled to 


ee ey eee fotables of — town, 


. Saeed iak a Rieeditzry ine donn 
eee) ynity, for mone but the Lord 


rah a genti-recal establishment: the house 
ag gin fact, if no: in tame. With his portion 
eda sancuary at Ophrah, in which 


PRER re nD af away 


ot wealth and power, Gideon had a 

sventy sons survived him. The expecta- 
* pest thesé should sacceed to his rule. 
ited no choice, avd the brothers fell 
S. The strife served the ambition of 
0 i Chcaanitich wotian in Shechem, 
harried from political motives. This city 
tish ; by the side of the new-comers dwelt 
oT whom the heme atic family of 


’ Bed to the gnd'of the city, who was 
epeeel) of the <- goal thus tuts 


“pa butcher: he ected and: ten - 
# youngest, alone escaped. Abimelech., 


nee ein the yee win —- the sacred 


re 


tal the population for their iment aeons 


a 


t Py . 4 F tg fd ahd 
‘ rs = Pe aes 
i) “tes P PY: ; : : , \ eh. rs 


ot i a 3 27 


ee owevers he maintained at his 


hd ae repnesemmation of the deity, . 
“ousebeieg she sis of ne wits was corn 


aaispet from seagate me rerkeril ny 


‘ e 
ya 
: 
7 
f 
a 
. 


1100] GIDEON ay 


write down the names of seventy-seven notables of the town, 
who were then executed. 

The victorious chief led his army of freemen homeward. 
Gratefully, the people offered him a hereditary kingdom; 
Gideon declined the royal dignity, for none but the Lord 
might rule over Israel. However, he maintained at his 
family seat in Ophrah a semi-regal establishment; the house 
of Joseph had a king in fact, if notin name. With his portion 
of the spoil he erected a sanctuary at Ophrah, in which 
he placed an ephod, a symbolic representation of the deity, 
made of seventeen hundred shekels of gold. This was clearly 
a falling away from the Mosaic religion. It shows to what 
an extent Israel was becoming ensnared by the Canaanite 
mode of life which persisted in the land after the partial 
subjection of the natives. 

As becoming a ruler of wealth and power, Gideon had a 
numerous harem. Seventy sons survived him. The expecta- 
tion was natural that one of these should succeed to his rule. 
But Gideon had indicated no choice, and the brothers fell 
out among themselves. The strife served the ambition of 
Abimelech, the son of a Canaanitish woman in Shechem, 
whom Gideon had married from political motives. This city 
was only half-Israelitish; by the side of the new-comers dwelt 
the Canaanites, among whom the old aristocratic family of 
the sons of Hamor was the most prominent. There was an 
ancient sanctuary, dedicated to the god of the city, who was 
named God (El) or Lord (Baal) of the Covenant, thus unit- 
ing the citizens in a covenanted league of peace. Abimelech’s 
kinsmen at Shechem were readily persuaded that it was bet- 
ter for them to be ruled by one of their own bone and flesh. 
With silver from the treasury of the city-temple he hired a 
body of adventurers to butcher his threescore and ten 
brothers. Jotham, the youngest, alone escaped. Abimelech 
was acclaimed king in the sanctuary, close by the sacred 
terebinth. | 

The affection of the Shechemites for their king was of short 
duration. Jotham emerged from his hiding-place and shamed 
the Israelite part of the population for their ignoble conduct 


28 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES 


toward his father and his father’s house. From a terrace on 
Mount Gerizim he mocked their choice of a ruler—the off- 
spring of the subjected Canaanite race—with the famous 
fable of the trees going forth to find a king for themselves. 
One after another, the olive-tree, the fig-tree, the vine, 
declined the honor; the mean bramble alone accepted. Thus 
discord was sown between the two sets of citizens. Soon 
enough the Canaanite portion itself cooled toward their kins- 
man king. Abimelech, after all, felt himself to be an Israelite 
and preferred a strictly Israelitish city for his residence. 
Shechem was left in the hands of its governor Zebul. 

This official was minded to be loyal, although he could not 
prevent the malcontents from injuring Abimelech by inter- 
cepting caravans and plundering the tribute which they bore 
for the king. Open rebellion was fostered by a mutinous troop, 
led by the Israelite Gaal, which was admitted into the city. 
As the townspeople were making merry over the completion 
of the vintage and between cups-were reviling the absent 
king, Gaal fomented the seditious spirit by pointing out 
how little cause the Israelite section had to serve the usurper. 
The governor of the city, unable to stem the rising tide of 
revolt, played a double rdle. While ostensibly holding with 
Gaal and the majority of the population, he secretly apprised 
Abimelech of the intrigue. 

Four royal companies marched in the night against the 
city. Gaal, urged by Zebul, made a sortie in the morning and 
suffered heavy losses. He sought safety behind the gates of 
the city; but Zebul, now openly espousing the king’s cause, 
shut them against him. The infuriated citizens made away 
with the treacherous governor and took the field against 
Abimelech. They were attacked in front by three of the royal 
companies, while the fourth cut off their retreat to the city. 
For a whole day the fight went on. At length the place was 
carried by assault. All the inhabitants were put to the sword, 
and the city was completely destroyed. Abimelech then 
turned against the Tower of Shechem, a town in the neigh- 
borhood of the city, where a body of rebels still held out. As 
Abimelech advanced against them, they took refuge in an 


Faun! ABIMELECE 29 


ie mber of che texis he nk the 4 god of the Cove- 
ng's forces se: fire to thgwaretuary: a thousand - 


1e1 Yebela wert) @paihilated. But the 
bheen pei dows, Hogaresd to other local- 
sted the city ef Trrter, a few hours’. 
race the road We theth-shan. The citi- 
Sin the comefaea? Abumelech made 
eal overwhobeaast $i tm, As he stood 
ae beat the towetp- a) #ewaan cast from 
Ne upon hie bead, inpwepion fatally. But 
oustess, ary! as it wu igeeetey worse than 
t pe ote hand of a wot: Ge failed hastily on 

r jearer t6 di dispatch iin. _ Stites} ce rule of the 
*) the | aed atrempet & on atin Israel to 


+ 6 tradition a ay ch ed its com- . .; 
ey arcec, the tie immediately con- 
to igh its own battles. All through this 
is ee i into ther position by the need 


ier own section geet often enough 
ory. They were knden by the title of 
wm to thelr chief *eagistrates by A et 
Aanite (Phorgictern } outpost on the. 
The centr Prdicaimites naturally 
5 as the hivckelsome 3 iw the north; they 
ring @ ‘call te writes when they were not 
ab i, though wher they awoke to the - 
vein eat they did their ~ 
sic — when ck ail 


~ 


the life of a freebooter. At. 
et ie uieageataeanenee 


2:3 ‘2 tA: aE | 
“— ae | 2 vy 
boreal Mls fuviuer grid $34 
a ares fh .. 2 ao wctvs 
ei ¥ ridin hs, ee +2 , 4 
Sis. 8 vO TES he tock 4 
‘ 

ing . Ty adr +e os - 

bl oP er Got Pye Fete CR. {_ Ace. FA 


Cabfe ai the trees goiug torth te fied a iii 
‘dey aise another, the olive-tree, the: 


ti ime? Ges honor: the mean beambieaiona 
Pea gel wee erat) between the two Be 


anges mh 4 rt, Srearute por THON a steele onaled } 
4 stick ‘ ter al felt himpelf 


a 


Sa tah was teft in the handanf its gov 
Tih wheal was minded 4ote loyal, ald 

craven? the QheaccrHitents iron: in? paring 3 

“plang caravans and plundering the wribt ub 


ve 4 
eos 
‘ 
~) 
# 


we ey i hig ‘ tt) ©. wae, which uh a 
be ae tyweine sce were thon: 


=. Z 
a ee 


* poe 


Fest royal ecoemuiod marched i in the 


eres? Pees lesen, Hie hee safety 4 t: 
Heer pet xetesl, ne nt Cee espousing: 
oil theme aggaete Che indvieeted) cittae 
wk 12 tee erwin MNVerRe asd took | : 
Aaielnts Peay were attaclonh 


ef ah seme, way eee 4 pope 


Von 


Pere qos ESE efor 
cers tert Bah) gebeeads bi 
and the @ w 


Siditeni a ‘the esty, wb. re 
n 


ee sc ee ae he - ae 4 E _ Be) 
bee 1h ee Di ig sae es. YEP CI 4 tit 


ABIMELECH 29 


underground chamber of the temple of the God of the Cove- 
‘nant. The king’s forces set fire to the sanctuary; a thousand 
men and women perished in the flames. 

Thus the Shechemite rebels were annihilated. But the 
insurrection had not been put down. It spread to other local- 
ities. The king invested the city of Thebez, a few hours’ 
journey from Shechem, on the road to Beth-shan. The citi- 
zens had shut themselves in the tower and Abimelech made 
ready to fire it. But fate overwhelmed him. As he stood 
before the barred gate of the tower, a woman cast from 
above a millstone upon his head, injuring him fatally. But 
he retained consciousness, and as it was ignominy worse than 
death to perish by the hand of a woman, he called hastily on 
his armor-bearer to dispatch him. Thus ended the rule of the 
house of Gideon, the first attempt in northern Israel to 
establish a monarchy. 

The monarchical idea was nevertheless gaining ground, 
although it went against the grain of the liberty loving 
Israelites and the Mosaic tradition hardly favored its com- 
ing. When an emergency arose, the tribe immediately con- 
cerned was content to fight its own battles. All through this 
period the leaders were lifted into their position by the need 
of the hour. When their task was done, they still exercised 
temporary sway. over their own section and often enough 
over contiguous territory. They were known by the title of 
‘judges,’ the name given to their chief magistrates by the 
Carthaginians, the Canaanite (Phoenician) outpost on the 
North-African coast. The central Ephraimites naturally 
looked upon themselves as the backbone in the north; they 
took time in answering a call to arms when they were not 
immediately concerned, though when they awoke to the 
danger somewhat late, as in the case of Gideon, they did their 
part nobly; they considered it an affront when they were 
disregarded. 

Gilead was hard beset by the Ammonites. The Gileadites 
turned in their distress to Jephthah, who had been driven 
from his home and was leading the life of a freebooter. At 
the sanctuary of Mizpah, he received the homage of his peo- 


30 THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. THE JUDGES 


ple. The campaign was short and decisive; the Ammonite 
danger was warded off. Tragedy awaited the returning leader 
at home. He had vowed rashly to offer up to the Lord for a 
burnt-offering the first that would come forth from the door 
of his house to meet him. As it happened, it was his only 
child, a daughter, that came joyfully to greet him. The fatal 
vow was kept, though it broke the father’s heart. The heroic 
maiden was content to yield her life, seeing that the enemies 
of her people had been humbled. 

The Ephraimites declared war against Jephthah, because 
they had not been called to join in the campaign against 
Ammon. Jephthah accepted the challenge. He went out with 
his Gileadite forces against the Ephraimites, who had 
crossed the Jordan, and put them to flight. The fugitives 
tried to regain the fords. But they were easily betrayed by a 
peculiarity of their speech. They pronounced the sound sh as 
s, saying ‘Sibboleth’ for ‘Shibboleth,’ meaning a flood, and 
so they were ruthlessly butchered. 


we, a Py ss =? = Pes haa — 
pom Wl oe Sod Aes le alg Se ae 
PUAN ON dl Pe a ' 
Ais. gone’ 
° 
° 


ss of oe t, sloth he at was, eceeeneiia 


onebey ite Ss Sat on abl At the mii 


t posse ssiune ver Za with ease. 
ie “4 . ¢ the old tribal ‘iggnwization per- 

Prelations’s<p, real or di titious, was the 
er author). wus called for wa exercised 


Ratlarge Wwe willing eabigh to take over a 
on s Epaebarrnr ss es ‘istemee based upoman 
B tien 'y installed thee stives if 
not tas: . aeed took possess of fields 
sey ey THE pina: “Ege pee 
sforn ed rite tHlees.of Pee . Phey 
Oblate: fiyes hx harks dhiek 1 ise 
: iS Mee rhesus weisnege’ tiwekydy tiete 
ts is Wee nachanaganh spite the Phoent ian 
: ate TH Ser Of Jands. 
‘ Vaagte Hite they gained 
3 folie: a oan ¢a¢-aid Canaanite 
; ‘bes Song to i crafts; 


7. ae Khe peasantry, perma- 
Te aid tribal organization 
is fet! deit in the avenging of a 
feesbers of a clan assembled 
t SaebGvial feast. Tribe and clan 


: industry — 


8 
: e& > 
‘ 3 
<8 
2 
™% 
+ 
; 
: 
\ 
, 
1 
i “ 
oa 
} 


y 


ying? eds 


ut day: wena 
i Bay pra on 


erie | RLY 


THE INROADS OF CANAANITISH RELIGION 


HE process of settlement, slow as it was, profoundly 

altered the mode of life of the Israelites. At the out- 

skirts of the steppe, or wherever else grazing might 
be found for cattle, the ancient love for the free and hap- 
hazard life of the nomad asserted itself. The tent offered a 
simple abode and scant possessions were moved with ease. 
Among these pastoral people the old tribal organization per- 
sisted longest. Blood relationship, real or fictitious, was the 
strongest tie; whatever authority was called for was exercised 
by the elders. 

But the nation at large was willing enough to take over a 
more luxurious and less precarious existence based uponan 
order of things ready-made. They installed themselves in 
houses which they had not built, and took possession of fields 
and orchards which they had not planted. The erstwhile 
shepherds were transformed into tillers of the soil. They 
produced grain and wine, oil and figs; the herds yielded them 
milk and meat. There was more than enough to supply their 
own needs; the surplus was exchanged with the Phoenician 
traders for the products of Tyre and Sidon or far-off lands. 
The Israelites at first lived in open villages; later they gained 
a foothold in the cities, often alongside of the old Canaanite 
residents or of stray foreigners. They took to the crafts; 
warfare was carried on with greater efficiency; industry 
developed; life took on pleasanter, richer, and more refined 
forms. 

The backbone of the nation was the peasantry, perma- 
nently established on the land. The old tribal organization 
was on the wane; it still made itself felt in the avenging of a 
kinsman’s death, or when members of a clan assembled 
periodically for the joint sacrificial feast. Tribe and clan 


31 


ae THE INROADS OF CANAANITISH RELIGION 


names persisted, but they had acquired in the main a local, 
geographical connotation. In the cities particularly, the 
government was in the hands of a body of elders from among 
the aristocratic families, with one or more of their number 
acting as the executive. These city councils performed also 
judicial functions; by the side of the lay judges, the priests 
sat in judgment over matters affecting the religious life and 
conscience and administered the oath. Into the hands of the 
priests was committed the Torah of Moses; copies were made 
and deposited in the sanctuaries; the priests, likewise, col- 
lected and committed to writing, in measured lines or in 
prose, the story of the past life of the nation and its leaders. 

The Canaanite inheritance made itself felt also in the 
religious sphere. Of an out and out adoption of Canaanite. 
polytheism there could be no question. But the worship of 
the Lord assumed more and more the features of the indige-: 
nous Baal cult. In consonance with the first thought of 
Moses (p. 17), the Canaanite sanctuaries, high places as they 
were called, like Bethel, Beer-sheba, Shechem, Gilgal, Pen- 
uel, Ramah, Mizpah, were reconsecrated to the service of 
the Lord; it was recalled that the patriarchs or early leaders 
had worshiped there. It was inevitable that the Canaanite 
mode of worship lingered; the danger, only too vividly 
anticipated by the lawgiver, was realized. The Canaanite 
symbols, like poles and stone pillars, were suffered to remain. 
We have seen how Gideon erected an ephod of gold in his 
sanctuary at Ophrah (p. 27); other examples will meet us 
later. With the ephod was often associated another idol to 
which human form was given—the teraphim; both were em- 
ployed in divination. The popular religion gave itself over to 
all sorts of magic and witchcraft; the Canaanite worship of 
demons and departed souls was wide-spread. The grossest 
aberration consisted in the adoption of human sacrifices 
(p. 11), strictly forbidden by the Mosaic Torah. 

A typical instance of the inroads of paganism is the story 
of Micah’s idolatrous shrine. This man, who was of the tribe 
of Ephraim, confessed to his mother the theft of a substantial 
sum of silver; the pious mother dedicated a part of the 


i Atha te OF MICAH Nona 38 


. wid shekels, to the Lord. A silver- 
i oi > with silver an image carved of 
a place His the family abrine. Micah 
Sex aa pritet. “In those days there 
wer ven dad that which was right in 
d thar an finerant Levite from 
dab weet by overjoyed, Micah turned 
hi Hicieowe tothe wained priest, allowing 
Senatenanie and raiment ten ehexels of silver 
‘ibe of ies jo. the soisth, pebised: back by the 
ading p eroty about orth and Eshtaol 
termined to tele nonewards: at the 
nthey captured the city of Laish and 
~<a they appeeatiatedt (he image of 
d-the Levitin fufiest—he was a 
the sons of M oseeetaaeempany them. 
a8 were of no aval; Melingly he sub- 
dof image “his geet aed priest alike. 
nt for the Levin ti Mr deacciated with 
ex than tc nvr ne eivate shrime; 
xd cont inuedin Seat eee the Philistine 


Corrupt rala went hand iw Hane: ith the lapse 

-Fnto idolatr er Ephraimite Levlte, fetching his wife 
¢shouse in Beth eben, and unwilling to 
b non-Israclites 4a fetinante Jerusalem, 

ya lodging in the hime shan old man in 
A wiob demanded the surrender of the 
action of their umetarnt lust. Thewoman 
o the rioters, who abused her to the point 
fayed bushand published the infamous deed 
srael, th the war that ensued almost the entire 
ami ag sonihilated; @nty a small remnant of 

spaped. F.vcr the women had been slaughtered. 

2) Pissadtne: had bound themselves by a solemn 
¢ thely deughters in marriage to Benjamites. 


a a 


Ae the city of ‘sigagale in Gilead had not 


. OP He exterciion of a whole tribe in Israel could 


‘ 
x ; ! | : 
tp rol tee a | 
a] 


THE SHRINE OF MICAH 33 


restored treasure, two hundred shekels, to the Lord. A silver- 
smith was called in to overlay with silver an image carved of 
wood or stone, which was placed in the family shrine. Micah 
installed one of his sons to act as priest. ‘In those days there 
was no king in Israel; every man did that which was right in 
his own eyes.’ It happened that an itinerant Levite from 
Beth-lehem in Judah passed by; overjoyed, Micah turned 
over the ministry at his shrine to the trained priest, allowing 
him above his sustenance and raiment ten shekels of silver 
yearly. The tribe of Dan in the south, pressed back by the 
Amorites and finding their territory about Zorah and Eshtaol 
too limited, just then determined to trek northwards; at the 
springs of the Jordan, they captured the city of Laish and 
renamed it Dan. On the way they appropriated the image of 
Micah’s shrine and forced the Levitical priest—he was a 
descendant of one of the sons of Moses—to accompany them. 
Micah’s protestations were of no avail; unwillingly he sub- 
mitted to being robbed of image—‘his god’—and priest alike. 
It was an advancement for the Levite to be associated with 
a tribal sanctuary rather than to minister in a private shrine; 
the Levitical priesthood continued in Dan until the Philistine 
advance. 

Corruption in morals went hand in hand with the lapse 
into idolatry. Another Ephraimite Levite, fetching his wife 
back from her father’s house in Beth-lehem, and unwilling to 
spend the night with non-Israelites in Jebusite Jerusalem, 
found with difficulty a lodging in the house of an old man in 
Benjamite Gibeah. A mob demanded the surrender of the 
Levite for the satisfaction of their unnatural lust. The woman 
was turned over to the rioters, who abused her to the point 
of death. The outraged husband published the infamous deed 
through all Israel. In the war that ensued almost the entire 
tribe of Benjamin was annihilated; only a small remnant of 
the warriors escaped. Even the women had been slaughtered. 
Moreover, the Israelites had bound themselves by a solemn 
oath not to give their daughters in marriage to Benjamites. 
The prospect of the extinction of a whole tribe in Israel could 
not be tolerated. As the city of Jabesh in Gilead had not 


34 THE INROADS OF CANAANITISH RELIGION 


answered the call to arms, it was decided to punish the citt- 
zens by wholesale extermination; only four hundred virgin 
girls were kept alive, and these were turned over to the 
Benjamites. As even this number did not suffice, the Ben- 
jamites were advised, at the time of the annual festival at 
Shiloh, to carry off as many of the girls as came out to take 
part in the dances. No guilt could attach to their fathers or 
brothers on account of the oath since the girls were taken 
by force. | 

Amid this general backsliding into Canaanite idolatry and 
immorality, there were not wanting circles of zealous adher- 
ents to the Mosaic teaching. Thus at Shiloh the imageless 
cult was kept in its purity. This sanctuary housed the na- 
tional palladium, the Ark of the Covenant; the priesthood 
that guarded it was the one instituted by Moses, Levites 
in descent from his brother Aaron. The warlike tribe of 
patriarchal times had been transfermed by Moses into a 
brotherhood dedicated to the service of God; they bore the 
Ark, they ministered at the altar, and they blessed the con- 
gregation in the name of God. Wherefore the Levites 
received no allotment of land; they were endowed instead 
with certain revenues and tithes. Unlike the stray Levites, 
content to serve in shrines, private or public, where impure 
rites prevailed, the order at Shiloh was organized and pre- 
sided over by men imbued with the Mosaic traditions. 
Naturally even at Shiloh, those of grosser fibre were rapa- 
ciously bent upon their emolument, much to the chagrin of 
the spiritually minded who in the discharge of their office cut 
themselves loose from all worldly ties or interests, ‘knowing 
neither father nor brother nor their own children,’ absorbed 
in the service of God and in teaching His ordinances in 
accordance with the Mosaic Torah. 


ett i080-1030) 


; id operative during the period of the 
‘Fetarded the realization of the Mosaic 
e Tribu! and local separatism, broken 
@tily, impeded the progress to complete 
ng spell which the native civilization 

ds of the Israelites tended to deadén 
sty inherent in the Mosaic religious 
ewere roused to the double danger asa 
Sewent over the nation. The Philistines, 
a! plain, invaded the hills and valleys 
s this advance, coming on top of the 
drove the Danae to seek for them- 
2 snorth (p. 33). 
ie s intermittent dicinidhing: went on 
oples; there were raids and counter-raids:; 
A ether. The Danite Samson was the 
this warlare produced. He was possessed | 

ich was believed to reside in bis locks 
anner of consecrated men. {‘Nazirites,’ 
Ni) }. However, hevhad a weakness for 
| i alliances enabled him to play many — 
mies of his people, wntil through the 
“pil ve, Delilah, be was — of his locks 


Bl ate. 


CHAPTER V 
THE RISE OF THE MONARCHY 


(1080-1030) 


\ 


wo tendencies, operative during the period of the 

Conquest, retarded the realization of the Mosaic 

programme. Tribal and local separatism, broken 
through at intervals only, impeded the progress to complete 
nationhood; the growing spell which the native civilization 
cast over the simple minds of the Israelites tended to deaden 
the purer notions of piety inherent in the Mosaic religious 
institution. The people were roused to the double danger as a 
new peril from without swept over the nation. The Philistines, 
established in the coastal plain, invaded the hills and valleys 
of the Lowlands. It was this advance, coming on top of the 
Amorite pressure, that drove the Danites to seek for them- 
selves a new home in the north (p. 33). 

For years and decades intermittent skirmishing went on 
between the two peoples; there were raids and counter-raids; 
each tried to injure the other. The Danite Samson was the 
heroic figure which this warfare produced. He was possessed 
of great strength, which was believed to reside in his locks 
worn long after the manner of consecrated men (‘Nazirites,’ 
Numbers, chapter vi). However, he had a weakness for 
Philistine women. These alliances enabled him to play many 
a prank upon the enemies of his people, until through the 
treachery of his last love, Delilah, he was shorn of his locks 
and strength. The Philistines blinded him and took him to 
the temple of their god. There they gathered to make sport 
of him, but, in a final effort, he brought down the edifice, 
content to die with his enemies. 

Soon the Philistines took the offensive. Their aim was 
clearly the Carmel range, from which access might be gained 
to the Plain of Jezreel as well as to the hill-country of 
Ephraim. A pitched battle was fought between Aphek (in 


35 


36 THE RISE OF THE MONARCHY [1080 


Sharon) and Eben-ezer (in the year 1080). At the very first 
onslaught, the Israelites were worsted ; four thousand dead 
covered the field of battle. The Israelitish army retreated 
and then re-formed, this time with the Ark of the Covenant 
in their midst. The presence of the Ark betokened the seri- 
ousness of the hour; with the Lord now among His hosts, 
courage filled the breasts of the Israelitish warriors. A shout 
went up, the old battle-cry which was heard in the times of 
Moses: 

‘Rise up, O Lord, and let Thine enemies be scattered ; 

And let them that hate Thee flee before Thee.’ . 

The Philistines fought with grim fierceness; the Israelites 
were completely routed; there fell of them thirty thousand 
footmen. The Ark itself was captured by the enemy; its 
bearers, Hophni and Phinehas, the sons of Eli the priest of 
Shiloh, lost their lives. Fhe aged father’s heart was trembling 
for the Ark, which he had suffered to go forth; he was sitting 
upon a seat by the wayside, when the tidings of the crushing 
defeat reached him. He was moved neither by his people’s 
disaster nor by the death of his sons; but at the mention of 
the loss of the Ark, he fell backward and died of a broken 
neck. Israel lamented the capture of the national palladium. 
‘The glory is departed from Israel.’ 

Nothing could hinder the Philistine advance. The temple 
at Shiloh was razed to the ground. Israel was reduced to a 
state of vassalage. At Gibeah in Benjamin a Philistine gover- 
nor was in residence. The Israelites were completely dis- 
armed and the smiths were carried away from the country. 
Husbandmen were compelled to take their implements to 
Philistia to have them sharpened for a high price. Sometimes 
as much as two-thirds of a shekel was paid for the filing of a 
pickaxe. Remnants of the old Hebrew tribes made common 
cause with the Philistines; later on they broke away and 
allied themselves with Israel. 

It came home to the clear-headed that the cause of the 
disaster lay in the people’s disorganized condition. If the 
nation, the whole of it and not merely one or two of the prin- 
cipal tribes, felt itself as such and willed to remain one, sal- 


ihe < etermpi * ete aad conte eaietaned 


7 a tity Reese i: “sus hicounty of 
lage aoa 
seer was in o mageper en ype ri man 
@ called a preagit, Viet ake change of 
rte ifference; hekegpaaeas was effected 
fit ie and under qam-Rageting care of 
re to religion & jee ieeea- it meant 
Gon of the hunsey peeeaetiy in God, 

38 exaltation ame wandoed and spir- 
4 enthusiasts traeaetet tae country in 
id dancing as they wert htc gad carrying 
yy fe ecstasy, The BMem chat stirred 
$i Apied love Gl cinaeittte teigion and 


Sti en Weed epee ile od Samuel. 
t the increasttig Gementh for a mon- 
ae round about had dee) Peyot, Edom, 

€ Philistive cities. ‘The envastages were 


“Ti bndragineg ‘ aren ae. iroell acai 
Tt had no place fy the beginnings of 


e ierabied ie recat The wets was 
on pa constitution wasdiawn up. Then Samuel 
| mi nin the person.of Saul son of Kish, of the 
jamin, a resident of Gibeah. 


aNe sions kgs ean waa 


. ne dasiie ee ohide: he - 


| ce-and was = provided for in the Monaic 


Goi the field of bate, ; 
> apt thor re-formed, this time ® 
ae thet midst. The presences 
OUaRESS. 6 at the aes with, 


sens up, the pe bat ttle ‘ 

Rike uy, O Lord, and 

And let them that hate 

The Philistines fought 
wire completely routed 
dactnen. The Ark itself 
hearers, Hophni and Phi 
Siriloh, lost their lives. The 
Be whe Ark, which he had: 
‘BPO & Feat by e¥s wayside, 
jieteat reached him. He was 
Re Sivaket er nor by pe death. of 
Whe dows of the Ark, he felt 
haere: aerack latnented, the 
“eatery is departed from 

Sahine could hinder the 
ee Bhiioh was raz sei to thes 
, aient, wuccalage, At ibeah: 
weerwediin re id area; The! 
‘pitted and the sraiths were | 
Heehwiadaen were compelled 
Posie to have them sharp 
me wate as two-thirds of agr 
pub ne ‘Remanar rts of the ald 

baat ack the Philistines; 
sted themselves with lerael, 

Ht tame komme to the cleats 
dmaxter lay in the people’e 
Ratwn, the whole at it and no 
capad tribes, felt Ltaelf as suche 


1100-1020] SAMUEL 37 


vation, not only at a grave crisis but for a'l time to come, was 
to be found in the institution of the monarchy. The way out 
was shown by the aged seer Samuel (1100-1020). In his 
younger days, not so long before the battle of Aphek, he 
had been admitted to the temple at Shiloh and there initiated 
by Eli as an attendant in the sanctuary. After Eli’s death, he 
returned to his native city Ramah in the hill-country of 
Ephraim and enjoyed the esteem of wide circles as a seer. 

In those days the seer was in a manner the type of man 
that later came to be called a prophet. Yet the change of 
name indicated a subtle difference; the transition was effected 
in these troublous times and under the fostering care of 
Samuel. Prophecy gave to religion a mystic touch: it meant 
the complete absorption of the human personality in God, 
bringing with it religious exaltation and a purified and spir- 
itualized piety. Young enthusiasts traversed the country in 
bands, singing and dancing as they went along and carrying 
away the people by their ecstasy. The spirit that stirred 
them was love of God and love of country; religion and 
patriotism were one. 

The movement, in its incipiency, had in it much that. was 
bizarre; to curb its exuberance and to lead it back into the 
channels of the Mosaic tradition was the work of Samuel. 
He scrupled long about the increasing demand for a mon- 
archy. All the nations round about had kings, Egypt, Edom, 
Moab, Ammon, the Philistine cities. The advantages were 
certain; but so also were the dangers of Oriental despotism. 
The experiences of the previous attempts under Gideon and 
Abimelech were not encouraging; the institution itself seemed 
a perilous innovation. It had no place in the beginnings of 
the national existence and was provided for in the Mosaic 
Torah only as an eventuality none too desirable. Yet the 
necessity of the hour called for a consistent leadership such 
as only a king could give. Samuel took counsel with the 
notables of Israel assembled at Mizpah. The monarchy was 
determined upon; a constitution was drawn up. Then Samuel 
produced the man in the person of Saul son of Kish, of the 
tribe of Benjamin, a resident of Gibeah. 


38 THE RISE OF THE MONARCHY [1028-1013 


Saul was of a commanding appearance, taller than any of 
his compatriots. His temperament was such as to commend 
itself to the shrewd seer on short acquaintance. He had been 
caught early in the movement of the young enthusiasts, 
much to the surprise of his friends (‘Is Saul also among the 
prophets?’). Samuel’s interest in Saul must have been widely 
known. The Ammoiites, still smarting under Jephthah’s 
blow, saw in the weakening of Israel by the Philistine oppres- 
sion an opportune moment to regain their lost territory and 
invested the city of Jabesh in Gilead. The citizens appealed 
to the city of Gibeah for help. The messengers were received 
by the people with apathy. But Saul happened to be coming 
home from the fields behind his oxen. He was quick to act. 
Forthwith he took a yoke of oxen, cut them in pieces, and 
sent them broadcast throughout Israel, calling the people to 
arms with the proclamation: ‘Whosoever cometh not forth 
after Saul and after Samuel, so shall it be done unto his 
oxen.’ The summons was obeyed. An army was assembled. 
At Bezek, on the road from Shechem to Beth-shan, Saul 
assumed command; in the night they crossed the Jordan; on 
the morrow the siege of Jabesh was raised. In triumph the 
people led Saul to Gilgal; there he was acclaimed as ruler. 
For the first time in Israel the shout was heard: ‘Long live 
the king.’ 

The people were now ready to follow their chosen leader, 
and Saul could do ‘as his hand found,’ in accordance with an 
earlier suggestion by Samuel. Saul’s son, Jonathan, slew the 
Philistine governor at Gibeah. The signal was thus given for 
the uprising. The Philistines took up a position opposite 
Gibeah in the north, the gorge of Michmas separating the 
two camps. Three divisions of the Philistine army were raid- 
ing the country in several directions; only a small outpost 
guarded the pass of Michmas. Saul had but a force of six 
hundred men about him. Jonathan, without the knowledge 
of his father and accompanied only by his armor-bearer, 


scaled the cliff and slew twenty men of the Philistine out- — 


post. The others, believing that a larger force was behind the 
two daring Israelites, fled and carried consternation both to 


’ 
? 


. ign ot i, gah ec So ele alae aa ip ee Aa 
ae tae) Ets - 4h. ob ea WY <g> : 
+ Oe ok he ; bit : an ' , 
fe P ie - F 4 bad LJ > 


(MARES WaRe 39. 


ai are V betiekd rere panic asic Bia ckie: Parsi F 
foe, Sis sreait teres was augmented by 
alt finest tims had soughe safety in the . 
ry of Ephtain crawted out from their 
| in te puceuiit, which extended as far 
jopes of che westers range. Saul ordered 
fop to fuere food wai the evening, and 
Oranes wi the ¢ ommend had eaten some 
erished ts: «he hand df his stern father, 
edon behalfef ite hero of theday. 
rbo: ete engage in @ format battle; their 
t to gave the greater part of tHe. army 
ack howe. Sal's eipeess stiffened the 
mn The territory of Benjamin, probably 
cleared ed the eseney. 1. ikewise, the 
and Aramesne weet thiven off from 
1e Jordan. in orfite te deliver Judah 
malekites, Sou! andefteok an expedi- 
ge southern neighbor, The enemy was 
their king Agag sas taken captive and 
“Tt was recalled, tw oh the way from 
ites had treachereapdy fallen upon the 
children | Op. Segoe 
cooling off in Sanmee! 4 telations to the 
iu was soldier earee® and patriot, but 
lec ref understanding it the prophet’s | i 
teach betwee; tije Swe leaders of the | gone? 
t ‘on the remainder Gf the monarch’s . eet 
ition to excitebilmy, of the kind which ~ | 
arty when be theete Bissell into the move-. 
ic enthieiasts, tevetoped into a nervous = 
“spirit seemed to pommtas him; he was given | } tad 
te of terror acl suspicious brooding; a pro- 
‘rept over him, darkening. his mind. At 
well piayed, the ushappy monarch gained 


uy 
i. 
* 

; ‘ 
x 
s vm 
$ 
xt 


Spaeigtes feerte’ it the niovemeniesg 


tania fori rel ech eleraaeearicla ne et 
Heb ih meriegitlgi Pie temperannenga 
ee th Meats accr on shart 


i Tt ue ey a4 eR aa" es of hid Feta < 
ake! 's 1 teew ig 
Jus MENED hte. 


pata, oo aor ae ¢ ip 5g a en ke ith 


Heenan ithe 


qhghwe 


ip ae Won gee OG DR NGS 
: Pe, 2 gee ty 
ere Deke SR eh Fey Fees 
sa . = 


ectparet Rf: 
Saat 7 Bh ee M4 Wit 7 a r 
emi. 5 Test CR ER Mana 
eees a eevee P| coup hvtae de. ah 


SAUL’S WARS 39 


the outpost and into the camp of the raiders. The wild flight 
of the enemy was hastened by an earthquake. From the 
heights of Gibeah Saul beheld their panic and quickly pur- 
sued the retreating foe. His small force wads augmented by 
former deserters, and all those that had sought safety in the 
caves of the hill-country of Ephraim crawled out from their 
hiding-places to join in the pursuit, which extended as far 
as Aijalon on the slopes of the western range. Saul ordered 
that none should stop to taste food until the evening, and 
Jonathan, who in ignorance of the command had eaten some 
honey, might have perished by the hand of his stern father, 
had not the people intervened on behalf of the hero of theday. 

The Philistines forbore to engage in a formal battle; their 
generals were content to save the greater part of the army 
and to lead them back home. Saul’s success stiffened the 
backbone of the nation. The territory of Benjamin, probably 
also of Judah, was cleared of the enemy. Likewise, the 
Ammonites, Moabites, and Arameans were driven off from 
the country east of the Jordan. In order to deliver Judah 
from the raids of the Amalekites, Saul undertook an expedi- 
tion against the savage southern neighbor. The enemy was 
crushingly defeated; their king Agag was taken captive and 
executed at Gilgal. It was recalled how on the way from 
Egypt the Amalekites had treacherously fallen upon the 
Israelite women and children (p. 16). | 

There had been a cooling off in Samuel’s relations to the 
king of his choice. Saul was soldier enough and patriot, but 
somehow lacked a deeper understanding of the prophet’s 
religious soul. The breach between the two leaders of the 
nation cast a gloom on the remainder of the monarch’s 
career; a predisposition to excitability, of the kind which 
manifested itself early when he threw himself into the move- 
ment of the patriotic enthusiasts, developed into a nervous 
disorder. An evil spirit seemed to possess him; he was given 
to unreasoning fits of terror and suspicious brooding; a pro- 
found melancholy crept over him, darkening his mind. At 
the sound of music well played, the unhappy monarch gained 
temporary relief. 


CHAPTER avs 
SAUL AND DAVID 
(1030-1013) 


rom the day of the disaster at Aphek (p. 36) the tribe 
of Ephraim had lost its leading position in the nation. 


The center of gravity was moving southward; the 
capital of the new kingdom was in Benjamin. The Ben- 
jamite monarch drew Judah from a prolonged aloofness to 
take part in the affairs of the nation. The ascendancy of the 
southern tribe and the part which it came to play it owed to 
David, the greatest among its sons. This youngest son of 
Jesse, at Beth-lehem, was goodly in appearance, of ready 
speech, and a skilled player on the harp. Saul’s courtiers 
discovered him; the king grew fond of him and made him 
his personal attendant and armor-bearer. A warm friendship 
sprang up between David and the king’s son, the chivalrous 
Jonathan. David also won the affection of the king’s 
daughter. | 

War with the Philistines went on. There were repeated 
encounters, now here, now there. The king was frequently in 
camp with his army. His armor-bearer was naturally with 
him. On one of these campaigns David slew the Philistian 
champion Goliath, who was of giant stature. He also dis- 
tinguished himself otherwise at the head of a division over 
which the king had set him in command. The returning hero 
was received with acclaims. The women sang: 


‘Saul hath slain his thousands, 
And David his ten thousands.’ 


From that time on the king’s jealousy knew no bounds. 
One day, Saul, in his raving condition, threw his spearat 
David, as he was playing for the king. Dexterously David 
dodged the thrust. He repaired to his own home; the king 
ordered a guard placed about David’s house, that he might 
be seized in the morning. He was saved by the loving care of 


40 


I's younget sane ee! Re ae 2 mt Ged 
She let ieee Bais: dai aa xe ih. 
that hie “ape ee 4 Dah a: ea male a 
ag sent his heatetearentess, % eis. 4 a 76 oe 
ween yy entered the iia een re oe ay Y : er A Sed 
iy ; Tate fied vt ce as scale: “> 
Micha bee laid Gn the ne Hy, 2x4, Pi ig 


$0n Pils life $s panning Road “8 ai 

DeisAively consmetnen fede fai tet 
al who must be his paatate tk: an 
Ber eather agra fe Gee is Ee ior , 


a should take hits prise " ek bs Sans tite 
peand A haves, tive eit af ce OEY a 
pguired after the wisung TRcid; somarhan 
snce om the plea that fe fed heen granzed 
ipa’ e in a family ierits: * ie Ais native tren 
rem ikon f angry king usd. viteperative language 
we son as well as the oheers tievtd.- True friend 
o nat nan, who barely excapitt being struck by. 
cogent word w Davhl Sy a prearranged 
a with the inigng was pant renath; safety wid 


nt . Judah which be kaw ina Seed! aah witch 
iy hiding-places. He wee mesiry it feast aged 


af their sanctuary ‘im ei Pb 
was their head. feed ja 3 
na secret errand Freee ae at a rs sillee! 
ting enough to tales Ean Ht, «ite Sas 


wy 4 


fe oie sig 


» bt 


inued hi ih privates sea 
the stronghold of Actulinan, fies py ce. Fat 


* 
ee 
T° as 

‘ 
ae 
at | 


a 
i] 


iain soutiraadle ees en bated: a. 


ined both at Sub. 3 ane: aren north at 


eS ae” 
. io - a Jin . 
i‘ Sd» ac a” : p , 
* a a } r h ian Wy m > — ro . 
‘eaati, 2 body of malcantanin. aga RO RAK 
a or " sl Ae ys | Bane: a 


DAVID’S FLIGHT 41 


his wife Michal, Saul’s younger daughter; apprised of her 
father’s evil intention, she let David slip away in the night. 
She told the guardsmen that her husband was sick in bed. 
The maddened king sent his henchmen to fetch him, bed and 
all. But when they entered the bedchamber, they found rest- 
ing on a pillow the man-like figure of an idol (teraphim, p. 
32), which Michal had laid on the couch in the place of 
David. 

Were these attempts on his life the passing mood of a mad- 
man, or was the king definitely committed to the fixed notion 
that here was a rival who must be done away with? David 
wanted certainty, and Jonathan agreed to test his father’s 
intentions. The new moon was drawing near when, accord- 
ing to wont, David should take his place at the king’s table 
together with Jonathan and Abner, the chief in command of 
the army. Saul inquired after the missing David; Jonathan 
excused his absence on the plea that he had been granted 
leave to participate in a family festival in his native town 
Beth-lehem. The angry king used vituperative language 
about his own son as well as the absent David. True friend 
that he was, Jonathan, who barely escaped being struck by 
his father’s spear, sent word to David by a prearranged 
signal. The breach with the king was past recall; safety lay 
in flight. 

Naturally David turned southward, to his own home, to 
the mountains of Judah which he knew so well and which 
offered so many hiding-places. He was short of food and 
weapons. He obtained both at Nob, a small town north of 
Jerusalem. Here the priesthood of Shiloh had settled after 
the destruction of their sanctuary (p. 36); Ahimelech, Eli’s 
great-grandson, was their head. David pretended that he had 
left in haste on a secret errand from the king and Ahimelech 
was accommodating enough to turn over to him the sword 
of Goliath (p. 40) which had been deposited in the sanctuary. 
David continued his flight further to the south; he entrenched 
himself in the stronghold of Adullam. Here he was joined by 
his father’s house; moreover, there gathered about him some 
four hundred men, a body of malcontents and adventurers; 


42 SAUL AND DAVID 


their number increased as time went on to six hundred, and 
under the training of their leader they became proficient in 
the art of warfare. 

As soon as Saul heard of the aid which the fugitives had 
received at Nob, he inflicted exemplary punishment on the 
priests’ city. All the priests, as well as their retainers, were 
slain; only one of the sons of Ahimelech, Abiathar, escaped 
the bloody massacre and found refuge with David. The 
neighboring town of Keilah was being attacked by the 
Philistines. David fell upon the enemy and carried away 
much spoil. He was fearful, however, that the townspeople 
might deliver him up to Saul. Moreover, it was unsafe to 
remain long in a fixed place. David therefore chose to roam 
about in the mountains of Hebron which offered many 
caverns. Here the Calebite clan had its seat. The beautiful 
and discreet Abigail, the widow of a wealthy member of this 
clan, became David’s wife. This marriage was doubly advan- 
tageous for him; he succeeded to much property and was 
linked to the influential Calebites. But it also served to 
embitter the king still more and he gave his daughter Michal 
in marriage to another of his courtiers. 

There were not wanting sympathizers with the king 
against David and his band of outlaws. Repeatedly the loyal 
army engaged in pursuit of the fugitive general; once or 
twice Saul was in danger of being harmed by David’s men. 
David, however, was both magnanimous and prudent and 
spared the king’s life. Nevertheless, it was borne in upon 
David that sooner or later he might fall into the hands of his 
pursuers. His condition was desperate. He decided that he 
must quit Israelitish territory and seek safety with his peo- 
ple’senemy. For a full year and four months David placed 
himself under the protection of Achish king of Gath. The 
Philistine ruler hoped that David would fight on his side 
against Saul; nevertheless he was far from trusting him. He 
kept him away from the capital. David was content to dwell 
in Ziklag, not far from Gaza. From there he made repeated 
raids on Arab bedouins; shrewdly he pretended to the king 
that he was harassing the Judeans in the Negeb. 


bof his vassal wit ree, Ene Ee bie: Ste Pade; 
ic army. He was Fh bors ge cx a Syeee ol 


a fidelity. He TETREE ey? His as ere ¥ Ni i> isc 
32s. The Amal: okite Herdanasins. f. a good 
while David and Wier wet were away 


Spoil. David iost ne tiem. ay pursuing them; 
We, whom the Amaledtes Raed left half-dead 
- tec tOact as cuidse, Ph yoy Was over. 
fait, Save four hunedredl whe rede away upon 
addition to recovering aff of fils own, David 
: spoil to Ziklag, f 
‘Eli (p. 35), the Philtaclwewenifes poured 
mio the Plain of Jesres!, Vheir objective 
© the trade-routes t) Damascus joined. 
fed as far as Shunem in the eastern end of 
Saul somewhat tardily pitraned them with 
sited on the slopes af Mount Gilbea. Before 
‘would inquire of the will of God. No re- 
was to be obtained by nreans of the priestly 
me word of prophets. Samuel had been tong 
le Was his counsel more needed than at this 
Tt must be procured at all hazards. even if 
netherworld was to be disturbed and his spirit 
the magic arts of a witch, 
ne, had panishiod the wizards fram the land. 


vale and his toes tivthaace The og was hard 
he Philistine archers. He begged his armor- 


thy sok a by 


SRA Tae eer ON ore 
Ree re a oi Pe ey ed 


THE BATTLF Ov cases ; | 4:% 


: were NOW Titer vig co a titans wt Awayyart. 


ay for David, the oter Putin wings © arte 
hes bh 


Bice aesiec off the oxewia ged the children | 


an endl of his life. But the fad refused, So Saul” 


4 


il 


ree ys ae eT ae EN eek SAR 


AMOR aan? Sy m tae Sx 


x ye iaNex: BR OS oe Na re " 
ae sy OT * ee Ges TRA, a 
maak : - . é 
hat sores ik 


‘n 
iG 


prttue asad & 
tyme bee thee ving anit oe 


Bd to encedher of his 5 


tah - Ay, a 
See OB UE NAL BENET» afb i 


> nity, 
BY, r late 


i MeSH teers 


“Z ’ ae a Ree er | rE An b? ‘e 
rae Dar hieh sile deh Siting ; , ee ss fx nh TC 


Nast a pigs rules ened et ms 
ogseye acateai meer tie he jeeshers 


1013] THE BATTLE OF GILBOA 43 


The Philistines were now making ready to strike at Israel. 
Achish demanded of his vassal military service in the ranks 
of the Philistine army. He was summoned to the council of 
war. Fortunately for David, the other Philistine kings were 
suspicious of his fidelity. He returned to Ziklag, only to find 
the place in ashes. The Amalekite bedouins had made good 
the opportunity, while David and his contingent were away 
in the capital; they carried off the women and the children 
as well as all the spoil. David lost no time in pursuing them; 
an Egyptian slave, whom the Amalekites had left half-dead 
on the road, consented to act as guide. The enemy was over- 
taken; all were slain, save four hundred who rode away upon 
their camels; in addition to recovering all of his own, David 
carried away much spoil to Ziklag. 

As in the days of Eli (p. 35), the Philistine armies poured 
by way of Sharon into the Plain of Jezreel. Their objective 
was the spot where the trade-routes to Damascus joined. 
They had advanced as far as Shunem in the eastern end of 
the Plain, when Saul somewhat tardily pursued them with 
his forces. He halted on the slopes of Mount Gilboa. Before 
giving battle, he would inquire of the will of God. No re- 
assuring answer was to be obtained by means of the priestly 
oracle or by the word of prophets. Samuel had been long 
dead. At no time was his counsel more needed than at this 
critical moment. It must be procured at all hazards, even if 
his rest in the netherworld was to be disturbed and his spirit 
brought up by the magic arts of a witch. 

Saul, it is true, had banished the wizards from the land. 
But near-by at En-dor a woman necromancer was still 
to be found. The king, in disguise, sought her out at night. 
In his straits he grasped at the very superstition he had 
swept away. Saul saw not the apparition, but he heard the 
voice grimly announcing his doom: “To-morrow shalt thou 
and thy sons be with me.’ Broken in spirit, Saul led his army 
into the battle. The Israelitish forces were routed ; among the 
slain were Jonathan and his two brothers. The king was hard 
pressed by the Philistine archers. He begged his armor- 
bearer to make an end of his life. But the lad refused. So Saul 


44 SAUL AND DAVID 


fell upon his own sword (1013). The next day the Philistines 
came to strip the slain. They found the bodies of Saul and 
his three sons. They took the kimg’s armor to the temple of 
Astarte; his head they severed as a trophy, and his trunk 
they suspended upon the wall of Beth-shan. The inhabitants 
of Jabesh remembered how Saul had responded to their cry 
for help (p. 38) ; in the night they removed his body and gave 
it honorable burial in their own city. Subsequently, David 
had the bones of Saul and Jonathan removed to their family 
sepulcher at Zela in Benjamin. 

David mourned the tragic death of the king, ‘the anointed 
of the Lord,’ when the tidings came to Ziklag, with unfeigned 
sincerity. Forgotten was the private feud; David was stirred 
to his depths by the national calamity; his sorrow over the 
death of his heroic and chivalrous friend Jonathan was in- 
tense, and it found expression in his famous elegy: 

‘Saul and Jonathan, the lovely and the pleasant 

In their lives, even in their death they were not divided. 

I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan; 

Very pleasant hast thou been unto me; 

Wonderful was thy love to me, 

Passing the love of women. 

How are the mighty fallen, 

And the weapons of war perished!’ 


ess. 19065. 


xf the battle on: Gti pais set aoe 

for lee a eaaet osane thas ‘ 
tury was Acie ame a t 
Milketine let i Om wietine 

Be fourth gents ee fa Te Monee ew ie 

> Jebbok, acronteaeiaw OA ae 

$ tolerated Ly Sh Pata ecs ee atig 

ip wae acknowletge®. BA sey bars 

ted Remark out a CrmENe: Re geet Wi the 

grea: His ambitecia Oe Stable ta as 0 5 Ces 
feared it wanarngttigttte 1c Rave 

, be waa s facet’) eee Ys: aaah 

fad bos each ot tes: Hix sitet. 

“igh to realiee Ga Miter 1s Boxe 
a apoil, whick tes évmar dees: oe weie t 

ad SD aeekded, presente ty Sire Patpex i fedal 

aY it visited iby tea nee tad bik Sight. 
soved his haves aie? tee teedl-trsined 

4 the chief city of faideh. xbence he 
ation swith the notables 4 the ayath fountry. 

end: et to them as and af Theor own flesh 

ann of bis military geentge during Saul’s - 

: the Philistines: At Vebron David . 

of Judah; this dignity nassgeegones for 

wif (1013-1009). - | 

ed higher. jie soli ypc donned asthe: 

: andar in judeh but in ot forael. He. 

¢ citizens coment Jabesh in Gilead, whom he mie ny 


+ ho wee P sant 
hy ait a > ee ee Ey tN ts 14k 
“ an Ae ( }#, * ihe okt ee Le on Se ; ba 
a = i eee re Poe 
Pas eden gt, ivy 
fe” ae Wy eo ' 
Rae BO re 


3 < in pe s 
a ar i hoe ? vy! , wT; 
, i ee 4: Ce {Daw Pf 


~rW 
4 


I 


Ts nl Rupe, ri. the 


4 


qoaremibe es ‘how 


is era ie retell 
a ees sme bY. the yi Bis 


it fow new ext 


eT phy at his Pes CVE in 
i uve, distressed for thee; 
Kowith @ieesant t hast ‘thou 


' 
Pe 


See: g the foes 


| : Ans ued i the weapons of Warp 


ia! SN | 


CHAPTER VII 
DAVID. THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 
(1013-1006) 


HE outcome of the battle of Gilboa could mean only 

a state of vassalage for Israel. It would seem that 

Benjamite territory was again occupied by the 
Philistines and thata Philistine governor once more resided 
in Gibeah. Ishbaal, Saul’s fourth son, moved his residence to 
Mahanaim, north of the Jabbok, across the Jordan. His suc- 
- cession to the throne was tolerated by the Philistines so long 
qs their overlordship was acknowledged. On similar terms 
David was permitted to mark out a course for himself in the 
restricted southern area. His ambitions were well known; his 
superior generalship was feared ; it was advantageous to have 
him as a friend. Moreover, he was a match for the weak 
Ishbaal; the two would hold each other in check. 

David was quick enough to realize the situation. His first 
act was to send of the rich spoil, which the expedition against 
the Amalekites had yielded, presents to the elders of Judah 
in the principal localities visited by him during his flight. 
Forthwith David removed his harem and his well-trained 
troop to Hebron, then the chief city of Judah, whence he 
opened negotiations with the notables of the small country. 
David commended himself to them as one of their own flesh 
and bone and by reason of his military prestige during Saul’s 
early campaign against the Philistines. At Hebron David 
was proclaimed king of Judah; this dignity he maintained for 
seven years and a half (1013-1006). 

But David aimed higher. He looked upon himself as the 
real successor of Saul, not only in Judah but in all Israel. He 
sent messages of his accession beyond the tribal boundaries, 
in particular to the citizens of Jabesh in Gilead, whom he 
commended for their act of respect to his predecessor. The 
times, he indicated, called for courage, seeing that Saul was 


45 


46 DAVID. THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 


dead; the implication being that Ishbaal was altogether 
unequal to the situation. And so he was. The real ruler was 
the commander of his forces, his great-uncle Abner, per- 
sonally brave and, so long as Ishbaal let him alone, devoted 
to the house of Saul, but far surpassed by David in shrewd 
political judgment and military prowess. 

Civil war was inevitable. The first encounter took place 
near Gibeon, in Benjamite territory. Abner and his forces 
were worsted. David’s men were led by Joab son of David’s 
sister Zeruiah; with Joab were his two brothers, Abishai 
and Asahel. Light-footed, Asahel overtook Abner; the Ben- 
jamite commander, who was retreating with his army to 
Mahanaim, struck the pursuer down, not without reluctance, 
fearing the blood feud that must ensue between himself and 
the redoubtable Joab. ‘ 

The war between the house of Saul and the house of David 
was a protracted one. From day to day David waxed stronger 
and Ishbaal weaker. It must have come home to certain sec- 
tions of the Israelites, despite the antipathy of the norther- 
ners for the south, that the interests of the nation would be 
best served if David became ruler of united Israel. The 
movement gained strength when Ishbaal and his powerful 
minister fell out. It was not long before Abner made direct 
overtures to David. He offered to use his influence with his 
own tribe and the whole north. David stipulated the restora- 
tion of his former wife Michal (p. 42); a formal request was 
sent to the king at Mahanaim, who generously gave hiscon- 
sent. Michal was conducted to Hebron by an embassy of 
twenty men led by Abner. At a banquet in their honor 
Abner renewed his offer to win over the north. 

David was well content to let things take their course. The 
treacherous conduct of the minister was none of hisconcern; 
he was pleased by the growing sentiment in his favor; he 
was never in doubt of his fitness to rule over the entire 
nation. Joab had been wisely left out of the negotiations; 
David knew his bitter enmity toward Ishbaal’s minister, so 
he took the precaution to send him away on a foray. The 
general returned ahead of time; aside from the private feud, 


| ae #t' shils GEES 


fi ee tite Me De bee . arene 
paeit 1 Reine $2: Apgincrde yf 
. the ae a: ei Laeeuok 7 
to elas ‘nas Bets | thee wk: hese in , 
ps doe, ADEE De Pitep wit See dda be 
t deed. whl  Auaaone < tying £0 
‘plans; sencacil’ Merten: oye aad oer 
aaa pekiti ee 5 mit feet 


tae 2 
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a his Forgot: =). Pel Re tals, Fak too 

on ake there pws aye. ae Bares agente, 

" fiat i hain Cee nem and 

with: Tet Pe poe: a cyt hee 

he Y Officials, fare ssi bewaeil DAIS it Dee 

t he was toking 3 fea a ay: Pieri Shia 

pdaily, ar? aaa Rebel eS walle 

the murcis ence % eee Pees et 

; oe fe _ ea copa a 


ote tot #3 i et 


taal Guu. ined Ed nr wht des POE eae eta 
aal,a crt bagel eee waht: Rae a 
eeepre ited: by ct, RE. ee ’ 

Pthe throne 16:tae ee) ager aie 


r e rights and sei ae: hep Me hia ase re se 
on aia Sex igen ba ee fk ae ig 


A ooke ed ea the nee nadie a Delays: 1 ed 
Nor were. die Paty: cH sia $e Sig Bem 
a of David's elon RSE Man pi. % Wd » tebe 
the offensive. The: Pind tee Ai ‘a eee ts 
fore D< avid had time o ke ; Bape uses, ae ot 
ie iehem octupiat® ee he fice ‘ Reriigd- 
ae the strowgiraie abe. Sebiriiae coke digehci 
and here he romenidayd 3 a gine ba sp ag 
aKe his Bf ‘ Mics pee he Se ‘is 
sce = oy hear ne teense Oh eae 
Olt ao cr ie eT, 
into Aa in ste eats 


is s time Casal spines deo ys teas ot, ce 


he ase cr hes ef 
mie h ; PoE eo) Pe ee i PS hee nae i x pay a pee aaa ys fe Ange 


Ria te Tine Beat 


— seen! Soph aT 1 
Lape War Was wevi tal, 
here Tee, mm Bena 


ah : oF TRE oo. Oey ae . 
lee a ewtael. fo VKT S eR 


Li heesysesen, BLE Se 


re | 


iid Tabet weaker: bt awe 


SEI TM Lae CAC des 


ts fe Pei 5a wat 


" 


a ol an Abnenae 
a“ Aseupeed | has coffer to 
| Birks zh cmnitent i 
| ct of Shas 


ip pe diewer enmity 
say Tes send 
| - ‘times 


1006] DAVID KING OF ALL ISRAEL 47 


he feared the ascendancy of the Benjamite and, moreover, 
suspected hidden motives to betray David into the hands of 
his enemies. Without the king’s knowledge, he overtook 
Abner, persuaded him to return to Hebron, and there in 
the gate he struck him down. David had full reason to be 
exasperated by this foul deed which threatened to bring to 
naught his well-laid plans; sincerely he mourned the death of 
the princely Abner, who fell ‘with hands unbound and feet 
unfettered.’ Joab and his brother, however, were far too 
strong for David to make them pay for their dastardly crime. 

It is not evident that it had been the design of Abner and 
his followers to do away with Ishbaal; but whether or not 
instigated by higher officials, two Benjamite captains assas- 
sinated him while he was taking his noon-time siesta. His 
cause was collapsing daily, and David was a man who could 
bide his time. When the murderers brought their king’s head 
to Hebron in the expectation of reward, they met instead 
condign punishment. Naturally David profited by his rival’s 
untimely death. Of Saul’s dynasty there now remained but 
Jonathan’s son Meribaal, a mere boy and a cripple. So the 
tribes of Israel, represented by their notables, came to 
Hebron and offered the throne to David. Agreement being 
reached as to the rights and duties of both monarch and 
people, David was anointed formally and publicly as king 
over the entire nation. 

The people looked to the new ruler to break the yoke of 
Philistine bondage. Nor were the Philistines slow to under- 
stand the meaning of David’s elevation. David was far too 
weak to take the offensive. The Philistine plan was to act 
swiftly. Before David had time to assemble an army, Judah 
was invaded, Beth-lehem occupied, and Hebron menaced. 
David withdrew to the stronghold of Adullam. This was 
familiar ground, and here he remained for some time until 
he could consolidate his fighting forces. With these he made 
a sortie and was successful in striking tellingly at theenemy 
encamped in the Giants’ Valley southwest of Jerusalem. 
The Philistines came again; once more they pitched in the 
same spot. This time David attacked them in the rear, from 


48 DAVID. THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 


the east, and drove them northward as far as Gibeon and 
then toward Gezer, the western frontier of Israelitish territory. 
Many more battles followed, in which David’s chosen 
warriors distinguished themselves. Once David came near 
losing his life, when a giant, whose spear weighed three hun- 
dred shekels, boredown upon him; but Abishai forestalled the 
Philistine and slew him. Then David was besought by his 
faithful companions in arms never to expose himself in battle 
again, ‘that the light of Israel might not be quenched.’ At 
length David struck a decisive blow by capturing the city 
of Gath. The power of the Philistines was broken. Philistia 
was not subjugated nor were the Philistines annihilated. The 
coastland remained in their possession. But no longer did 
they dare to set foot on Israelitish territory. An enduring 
peace was made between the two peoples, who lived from 
now on in neighborly amity. The Philistines had taught 
David the craft of warfare; principally from them he re- 
cruited his body-guard, the Cherethites and Pelethites. 
With the Philistine peril removed, Israel was on the road 
to the period of ‘rest’ foreseen by Moses. David’s genius 
understood that the moment had arrived for creating a 
national center in order to provide a tangible expression of 
political and religious unity which might check the natural 
propensity to separatism. Hebron was suitable for the 
capital of a small country like Judah; but its situation far to 
the south as well as its close associations with David’s own 
tribe unfitted it as a rallying point for the whole nation. 
Amid the early campaign against the Philistines, David set 
out to look for a new capital. His fancy was caught by the 
Jebusite stronghold Jerusalem. No happier choice could have 
been made. If the roads connecting the Mediterranean and 
the east as well as Syria and Egypt did not exactly pass by 
the city, they were nevertheless not too far away; the site 
might therefore be considered central enough for trade and 
commerce. Yet it stood sufficiently aloof; save on the north, 
its weakest spot, it seemed inaccessible and well-nigh impreg- 
nable. The resistance which Jerusalem offered successively 
to Assyrians, Babylonians, and Romans demonstrated how 


SETHE crry et gees | se 
es | 


H's estimare a Es Bs abe, SA Sek i 
1 é city’ & SpPgiiewy cgi tsd sven’. t%s 
I ion. Morenme:? gh ond 7 Sig wy Parag ies 
the in might waetons wud, sCipote Ra 
Uncle: ees eee Lt 
zn-roxel at the ee een gee Ae 
pling @round dsr wins, 
trip, H which jor aeaegys ign het jab 
at ty had dwireited mae ta the Courae of 
wig ms and joat ai yuwer of resistance 
aul and Dav. barusalem-alone had : 
permed aate in they etrongly fortified 
oy bill of Zion, Ted would have pre- 
Fortress by wie hepotistions. The 
Hy replied that if the-welte were manned by 
tte , pany aaa? ». igh thi be a vain 

ih however, discoverad the mate) leading 
Mfortress; up thet wartelt he crawled 
: P warriors, thas treppiog the sorprised 
-  miaster of the ateeanghenll ; Be adeieal still 
neta the white Phe ttity-af Dawid. 
ak ¢ irore than a ntre myel peaklience, “the : 
CAMPEd. ’ She was ta be the (ity of “acy, aye ae ee 
haracter, which bas heea ters ever eine, 
pe capt by David himaet: Fs ana fat tow, 
st; bt he was deeply. imiwesbwith “eS gious 
Betakding of | ris people's desciwy? Ris.-< einai 
on immediate foundation ss the lisnos that tay 4 
He would. enhance the practige «i the new 
So ag it to the rélighige traditiues of . © © 
mid him, to those of Moses. The ancient 

u the Ark, lost by the Ephraimites to the | — i Se Sai 
age eed after mary wicies tudes been lodyed ca i x teh ieee | Ps 
yelling at Baalatl: in fudah. If Zion could be Pixs: 
ing-place of the Avk, 4 would come to be 
by ie horthern tribes as a veligiouseenterim = 
stession to Shiloh. An untoward jocident to the eg ne ne 
¢ cart upon i the Ark rested Cat es hee 


oe SARNe 


t 


a ! wish Que CAPTURE _— 4 


pi ae slate thet cscecn eo 
hice YS at Hat les . 


eh Se . wher a giang, whose 


- 


ie ae onan hi m, t het 


hi of i terael aul 
ruc ie a dee 


Hained in ther 
. Mey et foot Ded Live 


enw the craft of warfare? 
ae Ck he Le i. eee the ¢ 
e evhe | ative peril + re 
Aes | of ‘vest’ fore 


sepa retieme 
‘feline aul rere like 
vont Wer ma is Py jts-close: 
(Ae wheted it as a vallying? : 
: ex ve Bai ty ampaign again is 


: a; = 
9 ne ero or 2 pew co oo His: 


sail itinde: a oie | , 
tee past na uh ae's ai ta fre | 
Ce a they were neverthel 
esighe  thdiretore De considered 
= vise wie it atood a 


so aor. a 


THE CITY OF DAVID ‘49 


correct was David’s estimate of the site as a natural fastness. 
In ancient times the city’s springs and conduits were suffi- 
cient for her population. Moreover, the city lay close to the 
territory of Benjamin and might well be included within its 
southern border, the line running from the mouth of the 
Jordan, touching En-rogel at the southeastern end of the 
city, and then circling around due west. 

The Canaanite strip, which for a long time kept Judah 
severed from the north, had dwindled away in the course of 
the Philistine campaigns and lost all power of resistance 
before the attacks of Saul and David. Jerusalem alone had 
held out. The Jebusites seemed safe in their strongly fortified 
citadel upon the rocky hill of Zion. David would have pre- 
ferred to secure the fortress by peaceful negotiations. The 
Jebusites mockingly replied that if the walls were manned by 
the blind and the lame any assault would still be a vain 
undertaking. Joab, however, discovered the tunnel leading 
from Gihon into the fortress; up that conduit he crawled 
with his most daring warriors, thus trapping the surprised 
citizens. David was master of the stronghold; he added still 
further outworks and named the whole The City of David. 

Jerusalem was to be more than a mere royal residence, ‘the 
city where David encamped.’ She was to be the City of God, 
and this sacred character, which has been hers ever since, 
was stamped upon her by David himself. He was far too 
human to bea saint; but he was deeply imbued with religious 
feeling. He. had an inkling of his people’s destiny; his vision 
went beyond the immediate foundation to the issues that lay 
in time to come. He would enhance the prestige of the new 
national center by linking it to the religious traditions of 
Samuel and, beyond him, to those of Moses. The ancient 
national palladium, the Ark, lost by the Ephraimites to the 
Philistines (p. 36), had after many vicissitudes been lodged 
in a private dwelling at Baalath in Judah. If Zion could be 
made the resting-place of the Ark, it would come to be 
looked upon by the northern tribes as a religious center in 
legitimate succession to Shiloh. An untoward incident to the 
driver of the cart upon which the Ark rested filled David 


50 DAVID. THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM 


with apprehensions; so the Ark remained without the citadel 
in the house of Obed-edom the Gittite, a Philistine in David’s 
service. Only after three months, when it was seen that 
divine blessings came to the Philistine by reason of his hous- 
ing the Ark, did David renew his attempt to transfer it to 
his own city. In solemn procession, amid the tumultuous joy 
of the populace, the Ark was carried up the hill of Zion. 
David, robed in linen vestments such as were worm by 
priests, led in the dancing of the marchers as they followed 
the ‘sacred chest toward the palace. Michal, the proud 
daughter of Saul, condemned the undignified demeanor of 
the king. David retorted that for the sake of the Lord, who 
had elevated him above her father’s house, he would find 
honor in still humbler abasement. . 

The Ark was set down under a tent close by the royal 
residence. David must already have given thought to pro- 
viding a more solid structure for its housing. But there was 
just then much warfare ahead, if the new state was to be put 
upon a sure footing. Even when security was later achieved, 
the king gave heed to the counsel of the prophet Nathan to 
leave the project to his successor. The Lord was content to 
dwell in a tent; rather than that David should build Him a 
house, He would build a house for David, that is, a perma- 
nent dynasty. Still David was privileged to make prepara- 
tions for the future Temple; he even found an elevated place 
to the north as a site for the sacred edifice. 


TER S166 
: “WARS OR Dawn 
igtios andy 


um t0 tbe wont ed to thee serch took 
ey Prugrese 1 HwSidang the 
ites, humdded jt thestices of Saul, 
ai week ebuEeatitin ; Bow 
D pick a quarrel of thelticort atvond. 
Ptiamtin to the thrane afi ihe deach of 
ah me in obedhesee ‘ee Dhan demor sd 
issy fo the new caraapeh, Flee got basse 
ted and sent owwe. The gece wits 
ation of war. The Agmmtonives Fovgment 
pec! Aramean pendpakide (Rein, 
extending as far as the-spayh al Herrocdn, 
with Pthe Tsravlitints atten. Iie tacit hin- 
Bp the Ammonites facet Wty ey the oer | 
t e : reapital, while the Acaemelie thiengcerext 
tly he formed: his plas, Fie tole bali of 
ru command of bis hrothwe Msiady at Bee 
2 3; with the other fut be theew 4 pepelf 
The Arameans were fake hee Bigter : He 
Me to; withstand the onstae ef the 
ugh ‘safety i in their capital. 
my AN Ly however, was by ne eee deeiiadnereens: 
capital Rabbah (the sigdeerd). Awiceaies % 
; fortress on the upper jabhidh: aac weit 
. ver , in the following yeve Whe Acorietas 
1S ty were commanded by Sheduets. saegaen -. 
‘king of Zobah,; who had wow ; Se a 
sit the lands as far as the Euphéwtes. ‘fhe 
id ag ¥ | his @riny in person; a decisive hatin wae 
@ the enemy suffered @ crushing defeat: A larger 
thetr cavalry fell into David's hand. Shobach igeb 
eatce: Hadadezer was serene Sai pa 


$1 


¥ 7 m ° J 
bed as ; : ¢ 


' 


ee 


sdb ome) tee Ark 

Sai lingipatiaal Chext-ext om the€ 
erate’ Hiaety atier three mont 
fai Webnciniys t mae to the 
Rte otk, a 


faa we: ey a iaclesinh proor 
i eae ce, the Ark 
Pwend, tested, in linen < vi 
jicteeta, Ted in. rhe dancing. 
he ec chest toward) 
deaghner af Saul. cond f 
vet img, David re torted” . 
hat ehevated him above: 
jet still humbler a 
Ses axe was set t down 


~diing s wore xq! tid stra 
uat then wouch warfare: 
wixen Soure footing 


“ea: sik tie me prey Fon 4 3 ity his. Sk wee 


‘dwell in a tenc; rather than: 


4 


hensee, Fle Weu hel build: a 
rein, dynasty. steil Davi 


igen fey the future Terip he 9 
te the worth as a site for the: 


CHAPTER VIII 
THE WARS OF DAVID 
(1006-980) 


SRAEL’S neighbors to the east and to the north took 
| alarm at David's steady progress in consolidating the 

kingdom. The Ammonites, humbled in the days of Saul, 
had recovered during Ishbaal’s weak administration; now 
they felt strong enough to pick a quarrel of their own accord. 
On the accession of Hanun to the throne after the death of 
his father Nahash, David, in obedience to time-honored 
custom, sent an embassy to the new monarch. The ambassa- 
dors were rudely affronted and sent home. The action was 
tantamount to a declaration of war. The Ammonites formed 
a coalition: with several Aramean principalities (Rehob, 
Zobah, Maacah) extending as far as the spur of Hermon. 
When Joab arrived with the Israelitish army, he found him- 
self between two fires; the Ammonites faced him in the open 
country outside their capital, while the Arameans threatened 
him in the rear. Quickly he formed his plans. He left half of 
the army under the command of his brother Abishai to 
engage the Ammonites; with the other half he threw himself 
upon their allies. The Arameans were put to flight; the 
Ammonites, unable to withstand the onslaught of the 
Israelites, sought safety in their capital. 

The campaign, however, was by no means terminated. 
The Ammonite capital Rabbah (the modern Amman), a 
naturally strong fortress on the upper Jabbok, was still 
threatening. Moreover, in the following year the Arameans 
appeared again. They were commanded by Shobach, the gen- 
eral of Hadadezer king of Zobah, who had now summoned 
his vassals from all the lands as far as the Euphrates. This 
time David led his army in person; a decisive battle was 
fought and the enemy suffered a crushing defeat. A large 
portion of their cavalry fell into David’s hand. Shobach lost 
his life in the battle; Hadadezer was substantially weakened 


51 


S2 THE WARS OF DAVID 


so that there could be no thought of succoring his Ammonite 
neighbor. In the third year, Joab invested Rabbah and suc- 
ceeded in reducing the citadel which protected the water- 
supply of the city. The capture of the city itself was reserved 
for David. He possessed himself of much treasure, including 
the crown of Milcom, the god of the Ammonites, which 
weighed a talent of gold and was ornamented with precious 
stones. This crown the victor set upon his own head. The 
captured citizens were put to hard work at stone-cutting and 
brickmaking for the building operations in Jerusalem. The 
Moabites, who must have availed themselves of the initial 
successes of the Ammonites to harass the Israelites, were 
cruelly punished; two-thirds of the population were put to 
death. Moab, like Ammon, became tributary to Israel. 

Hadadezer was meanwhile bent upon retrieving his for- 
tunes. His vassals in the northeast, who had made peace 
with David, must be brought to book. David met him in 
battle and defeated him; the same fate overtook Damascus 
which had come to Hadadezer’s aid. Both Zobah and Damas- 
cus were annexed and governed by resident officers from 
Jerusalem. David’s realm now extended in the north as far 
as the Lebanon and Hermon, and in the northeast beyond 
Damascus to the western banks of the Euphrates. Toi, king 
of Hamath, who had been at war with Hadadezer, sent 
David a message of congratulation and costly presents. 
David’s friendship was likewise sought by Talmai, king of 
Geshur, in the Golan, east of the Lake of Galilee; the peace 
was sealed by David taking to wife Talmai’s daughter 
Maacah, who became the mother of Absalom. Friendly rela- 
tions were also established between David and Hiram, king 
of Tyre; they continued under Solomon. 

There remained the troublesome neighbors in the south. 
The Amalekites were completely annihilated and never more 
heard of afterwards. Edom, defeated in a bloody battle in 
the Valley of Salt (east of Beer-sheba), was made tributary; 
Israelitish tax-collectors were placed in the land. Thus David 
won access to the ports of Ezion-geber and Elath on the Gulf 
of Akabah. The Edomites yielded for the present to superior 


vi aot emit ea a imi says torn, oh, ae 

is st “ior real a a ey 

repitious. Egypt Se ae Bhan. Bena we, 
v ins ignificant : er eth | 

| to exercise pope “TAA dt a, 

Be amdertakings es snc lS eH, 


\e wate af . ae 
4 


@ for such heavy wuthsee yan Sige ah: 
care to perlert pi hin apet ie oa 
y consisted of Nas pe dyttidin ‘wa gies 
picked men, who hua! garment tani 
. eof his outlawrs: ax gageentacta” soe 
ate: ey eaeetty foreiguers. This Re) irsar ae 
Feon of jehoiada, who tabbed rah thy 
y of thirty ‘mighty men, peaehy foe the 
did service under three. gapiains, Pet 
meer the other mercenaries wufhéed for the 
e The brunt of the fighting fell upon alt 
able of bearing arms. The ancient wont 
spond as the emergency arose and the call 
L, Conditions, however, had changed; the | 
tion demanded a-stantling army. For that . 
| ordered to take a tensus of the entire 
¢ quarters of a year svere consumed in com- 
wt. Shortly thereaiter a devastating plague 
| pec ople, whohad only grumblingly submitted - 
fin the calamity a punishment from God. 
beached Jevasalern, it was stayed over the 
Te the Jebusite Araumah. Avan act of expia- - 
purchased this ground for hfty shekels of silver. » 
id erected an altar, destined as the sive of the 
Solonton built 1 in the Temple cert facing 


He WARS OF DAV 


zoe staal ! be no thought 
| ee wae third year, Joab tay 

he bering, the citadel | 

9 ab thy city. The capture gf th 
He posi essed ho 
of | the = aoe . 

PR pte 4 ident .. 
| The PLOW Ti he « vt 


a e 
Ay oF 


M bed ceaues Ou 
ergelly purr 


“'yY Wha Theanwe 


* 


ee 


F ty? 


wid 


% ioe were cofeeal 
eeewards. Edom, ¢ 
oot Sale (east “of Beers 
agi nice be tt the. ports of E zion: 
uf Aha’ tab. ¥ ‘he Edemnltes yield 


Ve 


DAVID’S FIGHTING MACHINE 53 


force; but they were on the alert to break loose and shake off 
the yoke of servitude. 

It was thus a veritable empire that David succeeded in 
building. Stretching from the Red Sea to the Euphrates, it 
commanded the most important trade-routes of the East. 
The times were propitious. Egypt was in a state of decline 
and Assyria was an insignificant power; so David was provi- 
dentially permitted to exercise to the fullest his military 
genius. In all of his undertakings he was ably seconded by 
Joab, a warrior intrepid and undismayed, and if not exactly 
fastidious in his choice of means, a prudent counselor, wholly 
devoted to the weal of his master. 

It is obvious that for such heavy warfare on many fields 
David must have taken care to perfect his fighting machine. 
The nucleus of the army consisted of his ever faithful body- 
guard of six hundred picked men, who had gathered about 
him during the days of his outlawry; as gaps occurred, new 
men were enlisted, chiefly foreigners. This troop was com- 
manded by Benaiah son of Jehoiada, who hailed from the 
Negeb. A small body of thirty ‘mighty men,’ ready for the 
most daring exploits, did service under three captains. But 
neither all these nor the other mercenaries sufficed for the 
larger campaigns. The brunt of the fighting fell upon all 
young Israelites capable of bearing arms. The ancient wont 
was for these to respond as the emergency arose and the call 
to arms was issued. Conditions, however, had changed; the 
security of the nation demanded a’standing army. For that 
purpose Joab was ordered to take a census of the entire 
population. Three quarters of a year were consumed in com- 
pleting the count. Shortly thereafter a devastating plague 
broke out. The people, who had only grumblingly submitted 
to the census, saw in the calamity a punishment from God. 
When the plague reached Jerusalem, it was stayed over the 
threshing-floor of the Jebusite Araunah. As an act of expia- 
tion, David purchased this ground for fifty shekels of silver. 
There David erected an altar, destined as the site of the 
great altar which Solomon built in the Temple court facing 
the eastern entrance. 


54 THE WARS OF DAVID 


David’s attitude to the surviving members of the previous 
dynasty was dictated by magnanimity coupled with pru- 
dence. He turned over to Meribaal, Jonathan’s crippled son 
(p. 47), the family estate at Gibeah, to be administered by 
a steward for the prince’s benefit. The prince himself was 
recalled from across the Jordan to Jerusalem; here he might 
remain under the eye of the king, who was circumspect 
enough to forestall any possible Benjamite uprising; at the 
same time Meribaal was treated with the utmost kindness 
and ate at the king’s table. Had David wished to rid himself 
of the surviving offspring of Saul, after the manner of Ori- 
ental rulers, willing agents would have been found to do his 
bidding. It was a different matter with the two sons of Saul 
by his concubine Rizpah, and his five grandsons, the children 
of his daughter Merab. The Gibeonites demanded their lives 
in expiation for the slaughter of their citizens by Saul, in 
violation of the oath of peace which the Israelites had sworn 
tothem (p. 22). There was a famine in the land; the curse of 
God seemed to rest upon it. There was nothing left for David 
but to deliver the victims, whom the Gibeonites put to 
death. Lovingly, Rizpah kept watch by their remains until 
the time of the first rains. David had the bones assembled 
and given burial in the family sepulcher. Force of circum- 
stances had driven him to acquiesce in this wholesale murder; 
but he carried his point in refusing to. yield up Meribaal, the 
son of his beloved friend Jonathan. ‘ 


a ie i. <4 art ts we © 7 
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a t * 
p . 
i . 
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y . 
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fo i 
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* Ay v =% 
— we fF 5. 


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i= a Silene. ry, 
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as 
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She ee SOE SR ae & 
F : ; 
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at =~ wi 
t S772 OE 4 ret " 
- sath % eh ih ie i? sine 
“SN < SRR te Hy 6 ge 
-.* ' ' \ 
eee eo ee ee ey 
ee ORMS, Cae oes 


ae ; ih _" sal a = 
res, ty ree LC tos heepattiey ce <ja 2 7 pas 
; wr 
¢ 


taitioe wa aaewirdged: ie hice ope 
te, Cee ey TERN Sheesh, ayReh. oe Foe 


oo the othe ected fA ier 


» fablenwert it aenes®e 4 ress, Fock a Peete 

AO od @ swaledt passions Dot Oi team 

ie atom’ igh stator, each tise eat 

Mews tt lugrace. Chevds ws -tor eeeipeve 
 * 


Moe y BrRY ps aes Pontes The 


ent cept? 4g. Shee. ae 


| veetation of the oath of peace sam 


| whe ean of the first rains: | 


: pone had driven him to ae 


dynieles ake TBicnited pe mage 
dence tie timed over to Merik 
me 7 ae eely e state af G 


Tes eet 


siabaae at ite fe ne’s Reis = 
il the surviving o Abin 
eetel rulers, willing agents 4 
idding. It was a different: 
by hia concubine Rizpab, ‘Al 
af his daughter Merab. T he : 
yy See for the slaught 


ahem {p. 2) . There was @ 
€ tid ebisred torent upon it. z= 
ae te deli ig the victims, 


@ given burial im the far 


tet fe carried his poiatin x 
wear of His beloved friend Jor 


Voges es 


CHAPTER IX 
THE REVOLTS OF ABSALOM AND OF SHEBA 
(980-973) 


HE military successes of David were offset by family 

troubles. The subjugator of nations was not strong 

enough to curb his amorous desires. While Joab and 
the army were investing Rabbah (p. 52), David entered 
into illicit relations with the wife of one of his captains who 
was away at the front. To cover up the consequences, David 
ordered Uriah, the husband, to be sent home on leave. But as 
the captain refused to spend the night away from the palace, 
preferring to remain there with the guards, the king sent him 
back to the front with a sealed letter to the commanding 
general to place Uriah in an exposed position and then leave 
him unsupported to his fate. The plot was successful. 

Uriah’s wife Bath-sheba was now taken into the haremas 
the king’s wife. She gave birth to a son. The scandal aroused 
public opinion; the prophet Nathan gave voice to it by 
means of a parable concerning a rich man who had robbed a 
poor neighbor of his sole possession. When David declared 
that such an offender ought to die, the prophet confronted 
him with the rebuke: ‘Thou art the man.’ Instead of frown- 
ing upon the unwelcome meddler, the king showed the depth 
of his religious nature by remorseful confession of his guilt. 
The child grew sick and despite David’s prayers and fasting 
died. The grief-stricken father acknowledged the divine 
judgment. Greater evil was to rise up against him out of his 
own family, in fulfilment of the doom announced by the 
prophet. 

Life at court must have been opulent; in the wake of 
luxurious ease followed looseness in morals. David’s first- 
born son Amnon conceived a violent passion for his beauti- 
ful half-sister Tamar, Absalom’s full sister, and after violat- 
ing her sent her away in disgrace. David was too indulgent 


55 


56 THE REVOLTS OF ABSALOM AND OF SHEBA 


a father to discipline his son; moreover, Amnon was the 
first-born and therefore heir apparent. So Absalom took 
it upon himself to avenge the insult to his sister. After 
two years’ waiting, he invited the court to attend a sheep- 
shearing festivity on his northern estate. Amnon and the 
other princes came. During the feast, Amnon was struck 
down by Absalom’s orders. David mourned for his son bit- 
terly. Absalom escaped to the court of his grandfather Talmai 
(p. 52) and remained there three years, until Joab shrewdly 
worked upon the king’s mind. Absalom was permitted to 
return to Jerusalem; after a lapse of two more years he was 
received at court, again through Joab’s intercession. 
Absalom, once more in the king’s good graces, was not 
content to await his father’s death in order to succeed him, 
but instead plotted to supplant him during his lifetime. He 
was good to look upon; he set out deliberately to captivate 
the people by his winning manners and to steal their affec- 
tion for the aging king by insinuating that redress at court 
was difficult to obtain. For four years he made his secret 
preparations. When the time seemed ripe for open rebellion, 
he asked his father’s leave to hold a religious festival at 
Hebron. The old capital was the seat of disaffection among 
the Judean nobles, who saw themselves pushed into the 
background by the king’s wider national interests. But also 
in the north the régime of David had given rise to animosities. 
A considerable number of northerners joined in the rebellion, 
which must have struck David as a bolt from the blue sky. 
The king decided to quit the capital and to seek safety 
across the Jordan. The east was less given to change; it clung 
to David, as it had previously stood by the house of Saul. 
With the king departed his household and his faithful body- 
guard; whether for life or for death, so his old companions in 
arms announced, their place was with their lord the king. 
The priests Zadok and Abiathar, with the Ark, desired to 
accompany him; David prevailed upon them to return, but 
arranged that their sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, should act 
as secret spies. He likewise dismissed his intimate friend 
Hushai, that he might counteract the counsels of Ahithophel, 


| wD FLERS AckOosS THY JORDAN * | BF 


er ¢ Pilath-chebs. Ahithophe! was reputed for 
Bs infallible as a divine oracle; he joined the 
a the family’s account with the 
phter. Absalom fourd adherents like- 


ee destrover of the house of Saul. That 

ong L sympathy with the rebel, was probably a 

Pamvented by his steward to further his per- 

u astother Benjamite grandee, Shimei son 
Jo. ted over the king's misfortunes. 

sto be succeasful, he must strike swiftly, 

#0 gather an army. Such was the sound 
Hushai, however, counséled delay. He 
id had with bim seasoned saldiers; that 


Gnitial stage would spell disaster. It 
until the whole of the ferselitish army 
ft; from Dan to Beer-sheba, with Absalom 
< sonia rebel prince suffered him- 
ckly the intelligence was conveyed to 
ein putting the jordan between him- 
The city of Mahanaim served him as a 
, Gileadite grandees, as Barzillai and 
[thé subjugated Ammonite king, Shobi son 
ip on icd ie rapidly assembling royal forces with 
a, formed in three divisions, under the com- 
GabiAbiehal, and Ittai the Gittite. The rebel army 

Jordan With Absaiom and Amasa, a son of 
Abiesil, in coramand. David himsctf remained 


> Fai te f Ephraim, a jungle east of the Jordan. The 

rn ap prouted; the rocky thickets were fatal to the 
ea. the forest devouring more people than the sword. 
it of wearing long, in the prickly boughs of 


a s riding trotted on, leaving him suspended in 


Hes, who, rightly or wrongly, looked. 


mood; it was futile to attempt to trap 


is 4 ries spital, while the two armies met in battle - 


ht, Absalom was caught by che hair, which 


cas his head was held fast in the branches, 


Se he ome 


i) YR WEVOLTS OF ABSALOMG 


a father to. discipline his sony. 
faabare and therefore heir a 
it woon himself to avenge the 
hia years’ waiting, he invited 
sheeting festivity on his 1 ts 
viiwe princes came. During 
age a! wee ead or agit % 


fan 94 


he ‘te see remained “chores 


oe! ig at court, ape 
Siiveatom, Sioa more. bende t 


ES ih | by Ais winning t 
Leng for Che 4 1) e kang by: 


= 


| ton The old capitabw 
cat Judean nobles, who: 
‘eground by the King’s 
aie porth the récime df] 
A gimiderabie number of ne 
which must have struck dD ; 
The king decided to quit 
ae the Jordan. Theeasts 
tae bias id, as it hud previoush 
Wenih > ig tbeparted nee 1 


¥ shorn bcc a ie | 
xemoupany bia; Davicl pre 
arranged thet their sons, Ak 
aa secret spies, He likewise dis 
Hushai, that he tight counteract’ 


DAVID FLEES ACROSS THE JORDAN ou | 


the grandfather of Bath-sheba. Ahithophel was reputed for 
his judgment as infallible as a divine oracle; he joined the 
rebellion in order to square the family’s account with the 
seducer of his granddaughter. Absalom found adherents like- 
wise among the Benjamites, who, rightly or wrongly, looked 
upon the king as the destroyer of the house of Saul. That 
Meribaal was in sympathy with the rebel, was probably a 
malicious slander invented by his steward to further his per- 
sonal interests; but another Benjamite grandee, Shimei son 
of Gera, openly gloated over the king’s misfortunes. 

If Absalom was to be successful, he must strike swiftly, 
before David could gather an army. Such was the sound 
advice of Ahithophel. Hushai, however, counseled delay. He 
pointed out that David had with him seasoned soldiexs; that 
they were in an angry mood; it was futile to attempt to trap 
David; failure at the initial stage would spell disaster. It 
were better to wait until the whole of the Israelitish army 
had been recruited, from Dan to Beer-sheba, with Absalom 
in personal command. Blindly, the rebel prince suffered him- 
self to be duped. Quickly the intelligence was conveyed to 
David, who lost no time in putting the Jordan between him- 
self and the enemy. The city of Mahanaim served him as a 
base of operations. Gileadite grandees, as Barzillai and 
Machir, and even the subjugated Ammonite king, Shobi son 
of Nahash, supplied the rapidly assembling royal forces with 
provisions. 

The army was formed in three divisions, under the com- 
mand of Joab, Abishai, and Ittai the Gittite. The rebel army 
crossed the Jordan, with Absalom and Amasa, a son of 
David’s sister Abigail, in command. David himself remained 
in the improvised capital, while the two armies met in battle 
in the Forest of Ephraim, a jungle east of the Jordan. The 
rebel army was routed; the rocky thickets were fatal to the 
fugitives, the forest devouring more people than the sword. 
In the haste of flight, Absalom was caught by the hair, which 
he was in the habit of wearing long, in the prickly boughs of 
an oak-tree, and as his head was held fast in the branches, 
the mule he was riding trotted on, leaving him suspended in 


58 THE REVOLTS OF ABSALOM AND OF SHEBA 


the air. Thus he was found by a common soldier of the pursu- 


ing army, who informed Joab. The general hastened to the - 


spot and, unmindful of the king’s order to spare the life of 
his rebel son, thrust three darts into the heart of the strug- 
gling Absalom. The signal was given for calling off the pur- 
suit; Absalom’s body was cast into a pit and covered with 
stones. 

The tidings reached David, as he sat at the gate waiting 
for the outcome of the battle. The father’s grief over the 
death of his erring, but beloved son was uncontrollable. He 
shut himself up in the chamber over the gate and sobbed 
bitterly: ‘Would I had died in thy stead, O Absalom, my 
son, my son!’ The victorious army entered the city in hushed 
silence and stealthily, as if it, and not the enemy, had been 
defeated. Joab strongly urged the king to show himself to 
the army. The general had reason on his side, but his harsh 
language was offensive, and this together with the killing of 
the king’s son left a rankling in David’s heart. 

The northern part of the nation was the first to come to its 
senses. On the other hand, the Judeans still sulked. It was, 
of course, necessary to conciliate them; the king went so far 
as to offer Amasa the command of the national forces. But 
it was a dangerous game which David played, to pit north 
and south against each other; the ill consequences showed 
themselves only too soon, and after a generation the breach 
which rent the nation in twain was complete. For the time 
being the Judeans forestalled their northern brethren in 
leading the king homeward. At Gilgal the belated representa- 
tives of the north came to meet him. They considered them- 
selves slighted, seeing that they had ten shares in the king 
against the two of Judah and Benjamin. 

The loyalty of the Benjamites was by no means a certain 
matter. Sheba son of Bichri led a fresh revolt; though he 
could make no headway in Judah, he won a following in 
Israel. Amasa was commissioned by the king to mobilize 
the army. The thing was not done speedily enough to 
suit Joab, who won the king’s ear and was sent off in com- 
mand of the trusted mercenary force. At Gibeon the rival 


THE SUCCESSION 59 


ib murdered Amasa in cokl blood. He then 
WHo bad eutrenched themselves at Abel 
of the Jordan. Joab made ready to‘storm 
chtize: # cut seh we eens of {the rebel leader 


Des Sod alas The question of succes- 
settle although there had been a private 
wees the king and Bath-sheba that her 
d reign i in his stead. By right of seniority, 
er Adsnijah considered himself heir pre- 
pee prone: by Joab and by the priest 
t’s Stone. west of En-roge!, Adonijah 
wing in order to prepare his proclamation 
m reached Bath-sheba and her party, t 


es > 
nt al 


ann 
. tol 


and Nathan the prophet. The king was 
roniise, and he gave orders to have Solomon 


by. Zadok and acclaimed by the populace. 
3 the old king charged his pucees sor todo 
aod the Benjamite Shimei (p. 57); on the 
mended to Solomon’s favor the family of 
the Gileadite 

M73, after a reign of forty years, thirty-t hree 
asadation of the City of David, where he 
[ le deft to his successor a rich heritage, and 6 
fakemory ef glorious ac hhiev ement. He had his 
alt record of his life, which is preserved in Holy 
fee-attemp: to cover them up er condone them. 


but also loved his fr tends; he was att over- 
Bi was prone tO sin, but was quic k to repent. 
station by dint of an indomitable energy; 4 
ior, he also pursued the gentle arts of song and 
Jed religious pomp and ceremony. Deeply pious 
raivined his people’s sacred vocation. ‘The holy 


~] * 


. (die Temple was his choice. His dynasty continued 


# the spring Gihon Solomon was anointed | 


vindictive and then again magnanimous; he . 


n was his foundatiou, the roc ky hill for the. - 


: 


Y 


60 THE REVOLTS OF ABSALOM AND OF SHEBA 


down to Persian times; patriarchs and exilarchs reckoned 
themselves to his house. To the last days the hope of Israel 
is bound up with this great figure, David the king, symbol of 
the Jew’s undying faith. 


MON. THE TEMPLE 


Erte” out’ his father’s instructions to the 
fe lost ne time in ridding himseti.of Joab, the 
; "of Adonijah, a: “il as of Adoniiah himeelf. 
he te Benaiah commander of 
enance of the fighting machine busit up 
the son's ; wate nful concern, There were 


Shek Gel to fey pt at the Gueel che seni te 
“i co te the Tanive ( wenty-first) dynasty could BG 
paver ail rise of the Pane empire 


‘cause of ie srael's enemies: So Hadad : 

at the Egyptian court and ‘received one fe 
miges in marriage. After David's death he = 

one and succeeded in wresting cer | 

frow or it is a ro bel hether 


t scafied « with aoeais i ebachaliaes Fs alana 
sere Pharaoh's soldiers engaged themselves 
: sof Gever, the last renmant of Canaarate, 
was the Pharaoh's present to his daughter, os 


nook as wife. 


6t 


Me 


d 


bie 


CHAPTER..X 
SOLOMON. THE TEMPLE 
(973-933) 


OLOMON carried out his father’s instructions to the 
GS letter. He lost no time in ridding himself of Joab, the 

supporter of Adonijah, as well as of Adonijah himself. 
In the place of Joab he appointed Benaiah commander of 
the army. The maintenance of the fighting machine built up 
‘by the father was the son’s watchful concern. There were 
rumblings among the subjugated nations. Hadad, of royal 
Edomite blood, had fled to Egypt at the time of the conquest 
of his country by David. 

The Pharaohs of the Tanite (twenty-first) dynasty could 
not but be ill at ease over the rise of the Palestinian empire 
which they had been powerless to prevent; they were ready 
enough to sponsor the cause of Israel’s enemies. So Hadad 
~ was made welcome at the Egyptian court and received one 
of the royal princesses in marriage. After David’s death he 
returned to his own country and succeeded in wresting cer- 
tain provinces from Solomon. It is a question whether 
Hadad was able to maintain himself long; certainly Solomon 
kept the port of Ezion-geber, which gave him access to the 
Red Sea. 

Egypt seems to have thrown soldiery into southern Pales- 
tine, thus renewing her claim to the land. It was politic both 
for the Pharaoh and for Solomon to come to terms. South of 
the Lebanon Solomon was by far the strongest potentate of 
his time; it was well, however, to have Egypt for a friend, 
and she was quite satisfied with certain commercial conces- 
sions. In return, the Pharaoh’s soldiers engaged themselves 
to reduce the fortress of Gezer, the last remnant of Canaanite 
power; the city was the Pharaoh’s present to his daughter, 
whom Solomon took as wife. 


61 


62 SOLOMON. THE TEMPLE 


In the north Solomon had difficulties with Rezon son of 
Eliada, a former general in Hadadezer’s army, who suc- 
ceeded in expelling the Israelitish Resident from Damascus 
and founded there a kingdom for himself. If Solomon was 
thus unable to prevent certain losses of territory at the 
extreme ends of his realm, he bent his efforts all the more 
upon consolidating the land of Israel proper. To that end 
he fortified Hazor in Naphtali; Megiddo; then Beth-horon 
in the pass leading to Jerusalem; lastly the newly won Gezer, 
as well as other cities through which the caravan routes 
‘passed. Store-cities were built which were stocked with 
ample ammunition, chariots, and horses. 

Solomon’s reign was preéminently one of enduring peace. 
Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and 
under his fig-tree, from Dan to Beer-sheba. Justice, impartial 
and even-handed, was to be had at the king’s court. The 
fiscal administration of the country was severely regulated. 
The country was divided into twelve districts, each presided 
over by a royal officer. The residue of the Canaanites was 
reduced to serfdom. But forced labor was exacted also of the 
Israelites. In the Lebanon ten thousand men did labor for _ 
the king under Adoniram, the master of the levy. Solomon 
had inherited great wealth, gold and silver and objects of 
art, accumulated by David during many wars. For his vast 
building operations both material and labor were needed ; 
the service of foreign, chiefly Phoenician, craftsmen had to 
be paid for in products of the soil. The king’s subjects were 
taxed to provide the luxuries of the royal table, as well as 
barley and straw for the royal stud. The burden grew heavier 
and heavier; but if disaffection manifested itself, it was put 
down with a strong hand. 

The plain Israelitish husbandman must have been dazzled 
by the magnificence of the king’s court. Solomon was fond of 
women, costly buildings, luxurious surroundings. But he was 
alive to the conditions of his time and to the advantages of 
the geographical situation of Palestine. The commerce of the 
world, from Egypt, from Arabia, from lands beyond, passed 
through Israel. It was inevitable that profit should be 


_-« 


en aS 


oe ee 


6? SD SRO ORO IN, vai THO 


f in the eeeth Solomon had diffe 
ae Eliade, &teener general in Hae 


hieel Sug: ieee tins " the sey da 


wie : J sik? ae % " 
zr ee eelt oe other cities: th 


: remained. Store-cities we 
Oty, z Cheinik 
amnple sranunition, Charice 


y e : 


eta Spkwtnon's reign wasp 
ae ae | heteband Israel dwelt safily j 
| eta weeler his hg-tree, from Danita 
Bande ped even-handed, was to be® 
: | aistration of the oe 


0, 
hag 
a 
ae 
ver 
bist 
wee 

2 
se 
nk © 

“ 
_ 


es. ate eee: Thy a sie officer. The 
ie | seduced to serfdom, Bat forced 


¥ ¢ 


teegeleres, In the 1 [. Lenehan Nig, 


eis Opera mar» ae 
ite wervice of foreign, chiet 
pula tor in Painy: of Bas 


Oe. wir tap ¢: Ao 
Termmey pigs * Birong 
) Veg iron Darnell tis - rasa 
b> es raaggiticence of the king 
¥ ‘AC A Say buildin ARE | Tuxur 
wt Re + Beg Ainiditions of his tur 
‘ the ger sng wotaedt altuation of Pate 
world, from Egypt from Arabt 


ye 


ISRAEL AND THE GREAT WORLD 63 


derived from it. The king took toll of the foreign merchants. 
But it was open to him to increase his wealth by mercantile 
undertakings of his own. He imported and exported horses. 
_ A fleet of the king’s, in codperation with that of Hiram king 
_ of Tyre, visited Ophir, on the coast of southern Arabia or of 
eastern Africa, and brought home gold and other articles of . 
merchandise. The Israelitish monarch thus entered into con- 
nection with the large world without; the queen of Sheba 
paid him a visit and brought and received costly gifts. 

Thus the land of Israel was opened up to the world, and a 
knowledge of the great world penetrated into Israel. The 
merchants, whether royal or private, had an outlook upon 
things transcending the narrow horizon of the stay-at-home. 
There was a touch of the secular, worldly-wise, about 
Solomon and his period. Beyond the immediate concerns of 
the nation, attention was turned to universal experiences of 
mankind, taking shape in sententious sayings which incul- 
cate a practical lesson. The king himself was known for his 
wisdom and for his interest in the collection of fables and 
parables (Proverbs), just as his father was famed as a poet 
who gave impetus to the lyric song, especially of the religious 
kind (Psalms). 

The erection of the Temple, planned by David, was exe- 
cuted in Solomon’s reign. With Solomon it was part of a 
large scheme of buildings with the object of beautifying 
Jerusalem. The site for the Temple had been determined by 
David (p. 53). It was the northern extension of Zion, the 
area corresponding nearly to what is known to-day as the 
Haram. The present remains of the western enclosure belong 
to Herodian times; but its foundation is Solomonic. In 
Solomon’s structure that was an Inner Court, so called to 
distinguish it from the other Court south, in front of the 
Palace, and the Great Court encompassing the whole com- 
plex of buildings. 

The Temple edifice itself lay east and west, satttth the en- 
trance on the eastern side as in Egyptian temples. It was a 
rectangular building of large squared stones and cedar 
beams. It consisted of two apartments, separated by a wall 


64 SOLOMON. THE TEMPLE 


in which was a door made of olive wood. The outer and 
larger apartment, the ‘Hekal’ or Nave, accommodated the 
Table of Showbread, upon which twelve cakes, six in a row, 
fresh every sabbath, were exposed; the Altar of Incense; ten 
golden Candlesticks, five on each side, at the entrance of the 
smaller apartment. The candelabra furnished artificial light, 
since the windows, narrow without, though widening in- 
wards, high above the ground and with wooden lattices, 
were not calculated to relieve the darkness. The inner room 
behind, the ‘Debir’ or Sanctuary, was lower, a perfect cube. 
It was the most holy part of the sacred edifice, the Holy of 
Holies, containing the Ark surmounted by two cherubim 
of olive wood plated with gold. Throughout the paneling 
was of cedar, richly adorned with carvings, while the floor 
was of cypress wood. 

In front of the building, the House, as it was called, stood 
a Porch, with two bronze columns at the entrance. On the 
other three sides, attached to the thick walls, ran a side- 
structure consisting of three stories of chambers to a height 
half that of the House itself. These chambers served as 
depositories for the Temple utensils and votive offerings, 
thus constituting the Temple Treasury. Within the Court 
enclosure stood the Bronze Altar upon which public and 
private sacrifices were offered. In the Court the worshipers 
assembled; here the prophets addressed the people. The 
Temple proper could be entered only by the priests, the Holy 
of Holies only by the chief priest once a year. The older line 
of priests of the house of Eli had forfeited their position 
through Abiathar’s participation in Adonijah’s intrigue. 
They were banished to their estates at Anathoth. In their 
stead Solomon appointed the sons of Zadok, the priest who 
favored his own accession; these sons of Zadok remained in 
office until the Maccabees stepped into their place. In the 
temple of Onias in Egypt the Zadokites continued until the 
closing of their sanctuary by the Romans (p. 204). 

South of the Temple area, the lower terraces of the hill 
were occupied by the King’s House or Palace and by state 
buildings. The Palace compound contained more than one 


AFFECTION IN THE NORTH 65 


. maha wife dwelt is, a manweom built 
m the Palace Court one entered another 
stood the Hall of Fustice and the House 
. The larter stinycture consisted of 
ee aces had forty-five cedar columns, 

@ appearanc: ofa forest; the large halt 


a asan arsenal. 
; of buildings, from the Porest House to 
ddan imposing spectacle; The building 
ito Jerusalem from, various quarters, 
m by Israelicish labor in the Lebanon;, 
ay Phoenician sailors down, the coast to 
Swes chiseled near the quarries; the bronze 
Valiey of the Jordan, Phoenician craftsmen, 
Bete of Tyre, were depended upen for 
Ber port of the work upon well-established 
ish artificers proved good pupils. Seven 
med in the building of the Temple, and 
E Spent in the erection of the other structures. 
et Losex af the Temple, a Feast of Dedication 
i; a with the solemn transfer of the Ark 
t Temple was the everlasting symbol of the 
a ferae!. Near to ali that called upon Him, 
‘semoved, above all comparison. The cloud 
red the Temple on the day of its dedication 
's wafathomable royatery,. 7° 
+ devoted to the service of the God ef his 


th many foreign powers.’ the herera con- 


g in his conception to he-a Gty. in which all 


which they might worship thee geats, Suate inter- 
A with a rigid interpretations » & Meossisa. There 


peo under the heavy taxes, ash in produce 


‘room for the elders of Israel. The 


of state, however, compelled him to enter’ 


Jon to the Egyptian princess, women of the - 
yonites, Edomices, Sidewians, and Hittites. 


ee th id feel at home. Bar. tint ik ty He fit he baiit d 


oth pr reason for disaffection. The sortherners, | 


Ae 


64 " $8LOMON, 780 SEMPRE 


mwhich was 4 - rt nace ul olive wor 


mS 


7 oe 
larger & pro etapa. Lhe ‘He tus ah or Nave; 


Table of Showhread, vpen whee trelve: 
: wavs every dabbath, were aaa the J . 


; rr SOVaALClrpett, ; he vaeulahiliaaell 
toe the wince ws, Harrow without 
warda, hugh shove the ground and. ¥ 
Ye eet mbvulated to rehewe the | : . 
ge od, the '! Jedi or Binet pss 


ia front of heed rile lek. thet 
a Porch, with two brome § 


exthper i ree She — atte het ae 


‘eiaials, sries for. ‘es ie . 
thus constitu ang the Temple 
enclosure stood the Brongea 
private sacrifices were offered 
AAO ished: here’ the ie! 
Temple proper could be ent 
of Helies only vy the chief 4 
of priests of the house of ei 
aan through Abiathar's particips 
ee icaraees They were banished to ete 
7 stead Solomon appointed thes 


office until the Maccabess's stepy 
temple of Onias in Egypt the ae 
sarin: of thls sanctuary by the. 


were 1 oniekall by oe King’ s Hot 
buildings. The Palace compound ¢ 


“ 


DISAFFECTION IN THE NORTH 65 


building; Solomon’s Egyptian wife dwelt in a mansion built 
expressly for her. From the Palace Court one entered another 
compound in which stood the Hall of Justice and the House 
of the Forest of Lebanon. The latter structure consisted of 
two stories. The lower story had forty-five cedar columns, 
which gave it the appearance of a forest; the large hall 
served as an assembly room for the elders of Israel. The 
upper story was used as an arsenal. 

The whole complex of buildings, from the Forest House to 
the Temple, presented an imposing spectacle. The building 
materials were hauled to Jerusalem from various quarters. 
The wood was cut down by Israelitish labor in the Lebanon; 
it was then floated by Phoenician sailors down the coast to 
Jaffa. The stone was chiseled near the quarries; the bronze 
was cast in the Valley of the Jordan. Phoenician craftsmen, 
supplied by Hiram king of Tyre, were depended upon for 
executing the larger part of the work upon well-established 
models; the Israelitish artificers proved good pupils. Seven 
years were consumed in the building of the Temple, and 
thirteen were spent in the erection of the other structures. 
Upon the completion of the Temple, a Feast of Dedication 
was celebrated; it began with the solemn transfer of the Ark 
to the Debir. The Temple was the everlasting symbol of the 
Divine Presence in Israel. Near to all that called upon Him, 
He was yet far removed, above all comparison. The cloud 
which enveloped the Temple on the day of its dedication 
betokened God’s unfathomable mystery. 

Solomon was devoted to the service of the God of his 
fathers. Reasons of state, however, compelled him to enter 
into alliances with many foreign powers. His harem con- 
tained, in addition to the Egyptian princess, women of the 
Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Sidonians, and Hittites. 
Jerusalem was in his conception to be a city in which all 
these nations should feel at home. For their benefit he built 
chapels in which they might worship their gods. State inter- 
ests clashed with a rigid interpretation of Mosaism. There 
was also another reason for disaffection. The northerners, 
in particular, groaned under the heavy taxes, paid in produce 


66 SOLOMON. THE TEMPLE [933 


or forced labor. An Ephraimite, Jeroboam son of Nebat, 
who was in charge of the compulsory labor of the house of 
Joseph, availed himself of the deep-rooted antipathy of the 
north for the south to conspire against the king. The plot 
was abetted by the prophet Ahijah, whose home was at 
Shiloh, Thus sectional rivalry, innate opposition to task- 
work, and religious motives combined to prepare the move- 
ment for secession. Solomon, so soon as it came to his ears, 
sought to apprehend the ringleader. Jeroboam, however, 
escaped to Egypt, where Shishak, the founder of the Libyan 
(twenty-second) dynasty, had seated himself on the throne 
of the Pharaohs. There Jeroboam remained until the death 
of Solomon (933). 


eee HAPTER XI. 
rH f SECESSION OF THE Ae teh 
: (933 ATS }. 


’ 


Fam eucteeded by hie gon Mehohoam. In the 
ohana was taken as. matter of course, so 
eee was the dynest@ principle in David's . 
€e if the north. Rcohohow;n consented: to go 
Gester of the disafected cibes, im order tw - 
A delegation presented a yeyuest for the 
burdens resting upon the people. The elder 
M tae king to yield. But bie yeurger coun- 
Were Rrown up with hint, favored repressive 
@ ase of force. The king’s defiant reply was 
iat, Adoniram, the hoted master of the levy, 
20 The king himself barely eacuped with 
ely the north seceded and established the 
Ee e (a0 Contradistinction fo the Kingdom of 
€ es Jeroboam, who had in the megztime 
nin © i, was proclaimed king in Shechem. 

x part of the inheritance from father and 
gi the ere eee rhe tribe of Sse 


ede 


: 


[ 


ban ato Seihe againet shai The 
- esti the w hole + his reign. As _ 


chem to Peniisk across the Fiabe. In his ap) 
tthe help of Shishak, who was not slow to Ae 
| isiract ap peared before the gates of Jeru- art 
ehoam was firced to buy him off by surreti- : 

i Pemple and palace treasures, including the | 
5 of the king's bedy-guard. After the with--_ Beit 
ie Egyptians, Rehaboam took care to prevent 2 nd 


67 


“i : P FET Poe eich Cinch See 
ae | PICA Sen Pe Syed ae wae wee |: 


a , Kesccuecmtcue bas 


a) ia wa ones of nae omyp 
Jowgh, avaiied. hirieel) of the ch 
mucth toe the south to ¢ conspire ag 
sora heited by the prophet Alix 
Ghildh, Tires sectional rivalry, inn 
wick, and réligivus motives Comp ; 
nment for gecession. % lomeay 80 3 
siugehet to apprehend thelmmgleader 
ungeged vo Egypt, where Shishak, ¢ e 
fiwenty-seoond) dynasty, had ; ; 
of the Phatachs, There Jerebs 
wf Solomon (935). 


SHAPRTER XI 
THE SECESSION OF THE NORTH 
(933-875) 
Germ was succeeded by his son Rehoboam. In the 


south his accession was taken as a matter of course, so 
firmly rooted was the dynastic principle in David’s 
own home. Not so in the north. Rehoboam consented to go 
to Shechem, the center of the disaffected tribes, in order to 
parley with them. A delegation presented a request for the 
alleviation of the burdens resting upon the people. The elder 
statesmert advised the king to yield. But his younger coun- 
selors, those that were grown up with him, favored repressive 
measures and the use of force. The king’s defiant reply was 
met by open revolt. Adoniram, the hated master of the levy, 
was stoned to death. The king himself barely escaped with 
his life. Immediately the north seceded and established the 
Kingdom of Israel, in contradistinction to the Kingdom of 
Judah in the south. Jeroboam, who had in the meantime 
returned from exile, was proclaimed king in Shechem. 
Thus the major part of the inheritance from father and 
grandfather was lost by the grandson. Only the tribe of Ben- 
jamin held to Judah, and of the subjugated nations, Edom 
alone. Rehoboam (933-917) continued to regard the seceders 
as rebels and mobilized an armed force against them. The 
fratricidal war lasted during the whole of his reign. As might 
be expected, the disorganized condition of the northern 
realm led to reverses. Jeroboam was compelled to move his 
capital from Shechem to Penuel across the Jordan. In his 
straits he called in the help of Shishak, who was not slow to 
respond. The Pharaoh appeared before the gates of Jeru- 
salem, and Rehoboam was forced to buy him off by surren- 
dering to him Temple and palace treasures, including the 
golden shields of the king’s body-guard. After the with- 
drawal of the Egyptians, Rehoboam took care to prevent a 


67 


68 THE SECESSION OF THE NORTH [933-875 


similar invasion by fortifying the exposed cities in the south. 
Though Israel was not reconquered, the territory of Judah 
was kept intact. 

Jeroboam (933-912) was determined upon detaching 
Israel from Judah both politically and religiously. So much 
had the Temple of Jerusalem accomplished that it stood for 
religious centralization, which proved attractive to thought- 
ful men even in Israel. It was therefore necessary to lead the 
people back to the idea of religious decentralization such as 
had anciently prevailed. From now on the north put itself 
squarely upon the position of the earlier Mosaic legislation 
which conceded more than one sanctuary in a given period 
(p. 17). Accordingly Jeroboam made it a point to restore the 
worship in two sanctuaries of notable standing, the one at 
Dan (p. 33) and the other at Bethel. Both were efdowed as 
royal shrines. But the very prophetic circles, which had 
made Jeroboam’s cause their own, were alienated from him 
when he set up in these two sanctuaries miniature bull figures 
overlaid with gold. These golden calves, as they were called, 
were derived from the Canaanite religion in which they 
symbolized the god of the storm and of vegetation. Mosaism 
received a setback. The religion of the north reverted to 
Canaanite paganism. It was a fatal step not only on the 
religious side. The Kingdom of Israel, immersed in idolatry, 
lost the consciousness of national distinctiveness which from 
the very beginning was linked to the religious, and thus 
entered upon a downward course which led to its ruin. 

War with Israel continued during the short reign of Reho- 
boam’s son Abijah (917-915). In order to harass his neighbor, 
the king of Judah concluded an alliance with Hadad son of 
Tabrimmon, king of Damascus. The Philistines likewise 
threatened Israel. While Jeroboam’s son, Nadab (912-911), 
was laying siege to their fortress Gibbethon, one of his 
generals, Baasa, conspired against him and was proclaimed 
king in his stead. Baasa (911-888) sought to win over Hadad, 
but he was outbid by Asa of Judah (915-875), with the con- 
sequence that several districts in the extreme north were 
ceded to the king of Damascus. The Aramean invasion 


ASA IN JUDAR (a 


ox eat Banna whi ich he a haat om fror esipohtes 
pao to Tirzuh. King Asa raved the aban- 
and used its material; stone and meal te 
mmite towns Gibeah and Mizpab Thue the 
Ture 4 Jerusaicm, iar irom ¢ ean biueleacted, 
. by 4 ring of defensive works 
YNaat: ni israel was as shorct-livertd ae tat w hiech 
ote cd. Tespeedily lost the support of the promhetic 
a’s'e0n, Bigh (888-887), was os sassinated | um Bus 
of his Captains, Zimwt;, who mounted. the 
7 y was again investing t tulbethon. The gen- 
i, he support of th overs for himself, He 
va ast Livni, who, wn He tx held ont, set fire to 
. in the fares. Another pretemder to 
gen of Eaetacats: ipo cei the cisime. of 
C Was divided wt bast Che parry rs | t dyer 
mi ; meet. Tibni ki Oni hw hie, aeee € ane Seine 


o mt in old age i sem “intoxtunate that 
{ Dovid and Salona 2s ges? bp t bear sheart- 
125 of aeviting Arament ~—e wth: the affairs 

ed matin. fc merely bee oy 5 the aeendenay of 


+ kingdom ite dawet oe at Hor the 
. A Ba eived safety. Rediziow BIW s ae ® es sent 

t oo heats us practices eveEr’ ay Sing Aen ted 
By abuses, such as redigicis Aner e The ere 
shad Won inany devoters areing Tewermaey 
Xe x hersel! was addicnwh te Vey aehetetie, yt 
. Laage. of me pot pea hie visemes oad 


casio ti a shesnee: Pee pen pag na 


fem. Forever ta fusion rragioed 9 
ted its head, and the high planes, Ae the 
f the land were called; disputed ten eae 

sole recognition and con tanved te son oe 


ch in the long runs veil sor ligt afect the _ 


ea which. liad bean reatcend bY mgt IF Fae 


_ 


Wors aie ni two sanctug a 


i Ine eos a 


geniiar wivasrn by fo 1 Pvacigt : ee Goce 
— tae wel wee Kt 
was kept ache ; aes 
Jerchoarm (933-912) won See . 
leract fremr Judah borh police 
hic obra =. od les ' oe wR 


eh ee | 
riety oe 


wi pens PYeN MN cigal 
teoide hack to the ide: 

had auciently prevail “ chy 
snuarely upon the p Dosrtics: 4 1 


whick conotded more tRae 


’ ~ ae) . at ~ 
(9) 17) Accordingly torah 


Dan fp, 33) and the otf ret we 
rove shrines. But tee vine 


tiade leroboam's cateé fae 


‘i 
; 
t 


When bo setup in these fag 

# om eS | $ ¥ 2° Ante a 
aetlaki with gold. These a 
wees derived from the tage 


usiiiie a a setback. The cera 
Canaanite pagvaism. Itwime we 
rebewnis side. The 2 Kingd cant ae 
ee the consciousness of naath | 


Fg pacha uion a downwardten 
War with Israel continamd im 
beam'sson Abiiah (917-915).gae 


beberomeon, kt file of - Damas 
rhreatened Isract. While Jerot 
Wie laying siege ta thet fort 
generals, Baasa, cor - red agak 
king in hisatead. Bass: : (S11 888 
bi he was outbid “sit ie of Juda 
sexyuence that several districts. im | 
ceded to the king of Damascus, 


915-875] ASA IN JUDAH 69 


called a halt to Baasa’s energetic military measures against 
Asa. He retreated from Ramah which he had been fortifying, 
and moved his capital to Tirzah. King Asa razed the aban- 
doned fortress and used its material, stone and timber, to 
fortify the Benjamite towns Gibeah and Mizpah. Thus the 
tables were turned; Jerusalem, far from being blockaded, 
was surrounded by a ring of defensive works. 

The new dynasty in Israel was as short-lived as that which 
it had destroyed. It speedily lost the support of the prophetic 
circles. Baasa’s son, Elah (888-887), was assassinated in his 
capital by one of his captains, Zimri, who mounted the 
throne. The army was again investing Gibbethon. The gen- 
eral, Omri, won the support of the forces for himself. He 
marched against Zimri, who, unable to hold out, set fire to 
the palace and perished in the flames. Another pretender to 
the throne, Tibni son of Ginath, disputed the claims of 
Omri. The nation was divided; at last the party of Omri 
gained the upper hand. Tibni lost his life, and Omri became 
king of Israel. 

Asa died of the gout in old age. It was unfortunate that 
the successors of David and Solomon resorted to the short- 
sighted policy of inviting Aramean meddling with the affairs 
of the divided nation. It merely led to the ascendancy of 
Damascus, which in the long run could not but affect the 
fortunes of the southern kingdom itself disastrously. For the 
time being Judah enjoyed safety. Religiously, all was not 
well there either. Idolatrous practices crept in. King Asa did 
away with many abuses, such as religious sodomy. The wor- 
ship of Astarte had won many devotees among the women; 
the queen-mother herself was addicted to the shameful cult 
and had made an image of the goddess. Asa ordered the 
image destroyed and removed his mother from her dignity.. 
He was, however, powerless to put down the worship in the 
rural sanctuaries which had been restored by the side of the 
Temple in Jerusalem. Foreven in Judah religious decentrali- 
zation had raised its head, and the high places, as the various 
sanctuaries in the land were called, disputed the claims of 
the Temple to sole recognition and continued to be tolerated. 


CHAPTER XII 
THE LORD OR BAAL?—ELIJAH 
(887-851) 


HE founder of the third Israelitish dynasty was an 

able and energetic ruler, with a vision almost equal 

to David’s. Omri (887-876) chose for his capital a 

new site, a hill six miles northwest of Shechem, rising over 
three hundred feet high from the valley leading to the coast. 
As later events proved, the choice was a happy one. Samaria, 
as the newly founded capital was called, was, in the condi- 
tions of warfare then prevailing, well-nigh impregnable and 
its reduction by an investing army a most protracted affair. 
Omri met resolutely the difficulties bequeathed by the 
former dynasties. Once for all the Philistines were done with; 
we hear of no further molestation from that quarter. The 
Moabites had, during the civil war following the secession, 
shaken off the yoke of Israelitish dominion; but now they 
were thrown back from Medeba upon their southern hold- 
ings and once more reduced to a state of vassalage. The 
annual tribute rendered by the king of Moab to the king of 
Israel consisted of enormous quantities of wool from the 
herds in which that country abounded. Omri was on terms of 
peace with his neighbor to the south. But it was not so easy 
to rid the land of aggressions from the north. The Arameans 
of Damascus, whose intervention had been bought by king 
Asa of Judah, did not rest content with the open road to 
Acco which the slice of Israelitish territory previously ceded 
(p. 68) had secured for them. Omri was forced to concede 
special quarters in Samaria for the Aramean merchants to 
set up their bazaars. In order to check further inroads, polit- 
ical and commercial, by the rulers of Damascus, Omri fore- 
saw the imperative need of an alliance with the Phoenicians; 
the friendship, interrupted since the days of Solomon, was 


70 


AHAG . “4 


me Ls: 
ne to the throne, Ahab. merry bevehel, 

| f Ethbaal, king of Tyre. 

my covenant’ was mruteiliy lweiehelut eh the 
i parties. Israel was the wateral iteteriond 
Beeeosns &, GOOMpys ‘ty. kr agar war Laur 
ir foodstutis and ree State her " Bibes Lana td tog 
their @XCERE pened ‘EES Tet th tio a i 
ee e and wares Ppa te $f Wii a pres? ® tye 
p founded upon political femandesathvns. Ui 
hk enveek. ome commercial fival, Phoenician 
Me ie dexter east a warlike power Lercinitisni up, 
por Satins acvess tis the Mediterranean 
h Rgvpt whatever wae its tithe to the nar- 


fim the Giret years after Abub’s accession, an 
Wmarehed ito northern Sytia; King Ashurtia- 
he tribute of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, arid othes 


1 e ft getion of Gee when the Assytian colomus 
( ther ecuthx. For the tine betsze Ahab woua 
With the nearer Aramean peril. it was pAlit- 
Hold fant to the policies inaugurated by his 
@nd father really followed th the lootstere 
significant that Ahab’s contemporary in 


bat (875-851), resumed his ancestor's Ophir 
ttutiately the ‘Beet was wrecked off the port 


also, Ahab heauti6ed bis capital, The 
his father was considerably enlanged: freta 
| in which ivory was ued in paneling, tm. 

ims and couches, it was known ee the Pyory 
in, like Solomon, to picase his Tyran wile Jom 


ff deity of Tym, Baal Melkarth (the Lev 


. _ swengrempedante But Ohadish, the sit 


Between then both. Yowards the end of 


an patric s resident in the capital, Abah tatift » | 


|. This acute danger to the nations) nigiiet 


ous opposition on the purt of the pouhets. 
fous person, who knew how to govers, pre - 


1! 


Fi as; get 
.. e Jars ay - { hak: 

p P’ 7 q +7, ° 4 4 4 -, 
Te: PP aa “rte, SPX pre tee 


ghee: bigpeicred feet ja 
Ax fatale NTT LFTs yeah, 
a8 tHewmewly founclect gag 
‘torn Gb weartare theti ore 
it sedwetion hy atu vewthty 

thew met renon italy the 
forioer cytiasties, Omee forall 
we heavy of no further ena 
Nicahites bach, durin i the '@ 
hater of the yoke of fem 
were ghreen back from Mee 
ingen andl once more redused 
dmnual tribute rendered by 
‘tevae! eonsisted of os 
herds in a that country am 
ee as witt his ely a) ibor tae ‘dal 
tq rid the ds ofa seureskionlel ; 

i Darmascus, whose interventt 
Aga of Fadah, did not rest 
Agee which the. slice of lsvaeliti 
‘9, 68) had secured for themog 
sneciqh quarters in Samazia for d 
set wo their bazaars. In order toa 
tml amd commercial, by the rile 
saw the imperative sieed of an allia 
the Iniendship, interrupted since the 


876-855] AHAB 71 


sealed by the heir to the throne, Ahab, marrying Jezebel, 
the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre. 

This ‘brotherly covenant’ was mutually beneficial to the 
two contracting parties. Israel was the natural hinterland 
upon which the Phoenicians, occupying the narrow coast, 
depended for their foodstuffs and raw material; the Israelites 
were glad to barter their excess products for articles of 
Tyrian manufacture and wares imported from abroad. The 
alliance was also founded upon political considerations. If 
Damascus was an unwelcome commercial rival, Phoenician 
diplomacy saw farther east a warlike power looming up, 
which was set upon gaining access to the Mediterranean 
and disputing with Egypt whatever was its title to the nar- 
row strip of land between them both. Towards the end of 
Omri’s reign and in the first years after Ahab’s accession, an 
Assyrian army marched into northern Syria; King Ashurna- 
zirpal received the tribute of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, and other 
Phoenician towns. 

It was merely a question of time when the Assyrian colossus 
would penetrate further south. For the time being Ahab was 
more concerned with the nearer Aramean peril. It was polit- 
ical wisdom to hold fast to the policies inaugurated by his 
father. Both son and father really followed in the footsteps 
of Solomon. It is significant that Ahab’s contemporary in 
Judah, Jehoshaphat (875-851), resumed his ancestor’s Ophir 
expeditions; unfortunately the fleet was wrecked off the port 
of Ezion-geber. 

Like Solomon, also, Ahab beautified his capital. The 
palace erected by his father was considerably enlarged; from 
the profusion with which ivory was used in paneling, in 
doors, in chairs and couches, it was known as the Ivory 
House. Again, like Solomon, to please his Tyrian wife Jeze- 
bel and her compatriots resident in the capital, Ahab built a 
- temple to the chief deity of Tyre, Baal Melkarth (the Lord, 
King of the City). This acute danger to the national religion 
met with strenuous opposition on the part of the prophets. 
Jezebel, an imperious person, who knew how to govern, gave 
orders to exterminate the prophets. But Obadiah, the min- 


72 THE LORD OR BAAL?—ELIJAH 


ister of the household, aided one hundred of them in secret- 
ing themselves away in caves. 

Since the days of Samuel, there had been a steady growth 
in the refinement of the character of the Israelitish prophet. 
The bands of roving enthusiasts had been transformed into 
brotherhoods or guilds, the members of which, under the 
guidance of a superior whom they called ‘father,’ exercised 
themselves in the arts preparatory to their vocation. These 
prophet-disciples nurtured the conviction that the national 
religion must be maintained at all hazards, no matter what 
the exigencies of statecraft might counsel. Religion was to 
them the be-all and end-all of national existence; they were 
jealous for the honor of God, who must be worshiped exclu- 
sively since He is the truly One. | 

The good old times, with their simple life untouched by 
the newfangled civilization inherited from the Canaanites, 
had their protagonists also in the Circles of the Rechabites. 
This group clung to the ideals of the nomadic past; they 
dwelt in tents and abstained from wine. A third group con- 
sisted of consecrates (Nazirites), who either for life or for a 
shorter period took upon themselves the vow of shunning 
all intoxicating drink. In all of these groups of zealots was 
concentrated an aversion to the intolerable present, and a 
fixed resolve to mold the future in conformity to the bygone 
past. | 

The root of the evil was the foreign alliance with Tyre. The 
dynasty was engrossed in the struggle for the land, to keep 
it intact against aggression, if necessary by support from 
the Phoenician coast. For the opposition it was a struggle 
with the land, with the indigenous civilization incompletely 
suppressed and now in ascendancy by reason of the entry of 
the Tyrian city-god. Who was to be God in Israel, the Lord 
who revealed Himself in Horeb, or Baal? Such was the ques- 
tion which presented itself to Elijah of Tishbeh in Gilead, 
the typical uncompromising religious zealot, easily the great- 
est figure since Moses. 

Unheralded, on a’sudden, did this prophet make his appear- 
ance. There was no mistaking his calling. He was cloaked in 


mm See - + :  * ’ 
ot 8) &. west ct ph Sy wae fall ™ 
’ “ 


are -* a « 
SRE - = cs ne 4 ¥ my ‘ z 

“his WAY ta the expel. WO 6 -gioeees 
yche dehy. erin? ber. FNGANASE: 52h SOMA ee 


ih, tet y hae ter stesy Het yoda 
i" on WeBeT ih Sse, ee ee site Pepe 
o. country. Pe the Sabewdan tyra a ates 
i gave him lexis ira: Cit; eres Sore ee Se 
widened or ous hint » Deby aera Sih e Bey Rg a 


* 


brated etd Ge Ali ted cy 4 ? 2 i Ex ZT ee er 
lee - , ' 1 
; minister hy wh als, weg, Teddy diy edsiely 44 


” 3 ats Pigevas he 
ee a Cr a. Tet Listes eo 
Pt = = : . we “3 
~~ ye & Soe cee | TASS e-tten U5 & 
+ oe ae 4 
ER TE La. F a 


: Se fkemce af the religion 
MAS De Pees $0 the pope 
wet ose, Car Moant Carmel 
igh? avi. The niceties of 
| 3 bee. Bio pe eh F igewng gx. Bat all 
foes wie * ewstocibss wyailed prot ta 
33 by Ore, At the som * fen 1b was ihe wont 
SGcriGe:. 2s mtiiee stoen from heaven 
Slijah iptiiering, apany che coqaired altar of the 
ent up fren: tke coupes: “Fin Lord, He alone 
Hands Rt RS ie aes oF Gaal wee 
Kian, wed ra. hts ae top of 
tet Can eeed iver “tay aR erperng of 
by er wich | eae 
mera ae sapien ee Sow qaasines, 
) put a task ent BF «ke Bye ae perpen 


Sint Hore, the sarod Oe seu <tr hace. 


shall Rot tons Grew a bs ye r ie ates ‘, } 


fe Pantha ii ict: Ye: Tess bor Bene 


y of Beer-shalas sete the: ses has ween, ; 


& 
i i 


t : 
a in Py eee 
* 4 
Ue bee eis, + 
y ere ce. ’. . 
ey es . 
‘ = Suh 
bs s ee: 
he i 2 
Ne mn en if h 
‘ 
ie : ¢ rs 


, * 
on ie « Wi 
3 ‘ee 
i » 
/ 
i Pao hay -¥ 


° 
in BLaeex 


mp, Moi ° 5h a 
a . * 
s . 
% ‘ 
nS c Nts ee a Phe 
’ 
¢ .. © » * ou ei 
¥ ‘ ree'b f 
A ae Vi Re ¥% 
vd ‘ has t 


oe edt ae ine, wh 


vee Fate 


$ ig 
4 ae eee 
Gnite io 4 ayy 
i 
2 wash, ay d 


of ss wenitaein <oast, 
‘ sn het eh 6 with + 
re vino 
‘ee a Tien iy aged 
wean Peet mene Hise Ho Hon 


{ae replet a sivennap: rising reli 
eae Sppyee sthee Mawes ; | 
eho ded, ema. dic this prep 
vanes: There was ne mis staking his ¢ calls 


THE CONTEST ON MOUNT CARMEL 73 


a hairy mantle, held fast by a leather girdle. From the 
steppes he made his way to the capital. With a sovereign 
fixity of purpose, he delivered the message of divine dis- 
pleasure: “There shall not be dew nor rain these years, except 
at my command.’ Forthwith he withdrew into the solitude 
from which he had emerged. By the brook Cherith he sus- 
tained himself with such food as the ravens let drop. When 
the brook dried up for want of rain, the prophet took him- 
self out of the country. In the Sidonian town of Zarephath, 
a poor widow gave him lodging and scant sustenance. But 
the presence of the holy man brought blessing to the hovel. 
When the woman’s son fell sick and lay all but dead on his 
couch, Elijah brought him back to life. 

Almost three years had gone by. The drought was un- 
broken, and famine stalked in the land. The king, accom- 
panied by his minister Obadiah, went forth in search of 
provender for the royal stud. On the way they chanced upon 
Elijah. The king-upbraided the prophet as the ‘troubler of 
Israel.’ Defiantly the prophet retorted: ‘Not I, but thou and 
thy father’s house are the troublers of Israel.’ The idolatry of 
Baal was the cause of all the evil. The future of the religion 
of Israel was in jeopardy. It must be proved to the people 
that the Lord, and not Baal, was God. On Mount Carmel 
the momentous contest was fought out. The prophets of 
Baal laid out an offering upon the altar of their god. But all 
their prayers, artifices, and wild contortions availed not to 
bring down heavenly fire. At the time when it was the wont 
to offer the evening sacrifice, fire came down from heaven 
and consumed Elijah’s offering upon the repaired altar of the 
Lord. A shout went up from the people: “The Lord, He alone 
is God.’ The four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal were 
taken down to the river Kishon and slain. From the top of 
Mount Carmel the prophet could observe the gathering of 
clouds. The drought came to an end. 

Jezebel, exasperated by the slaughter of her prophets, 
determined to put Elijah out of the way. The prophet 
escaped by way of Beer-sheba into the southern wilderness. 
There on Mount Horeb, the seat of the Mosaic revelation, 


74 THE LORD OR BAAL!——ELIJAH 


the zealot-prophet, well-nigh weary of life, was confirmed in 
his opposition to the sinful dynasty. If the cult of Baal was 
to be cut off in Israel once for all, it must be done by the 
sword. The house of Omri must be done away with. In the 
person of a young disciple, Elisha son of Shaphat, of Abel- 
meholah in the Jordan valley, Elijah found the man of polit- 
ical insight and moral fortitude to carry out the programme 
to a finish. 

If anything was needed to make the pppeditton to the 
royal house still more determined, it was the outrage per- 
petrated against a citizen of Jezreel, who owned a plot of 
land upon which the king had set his heart. Ahab made all 
sorts of offers, but Naboth refused to part with his vineyard, 
an inheritance from his fathers. So Jezebel had the man 
summoned before the elders of the city on a trumped up 
charge of blasphemy and sentenced to death. As Ahab went 
down to take possession of the property, which now fell to 
the Crown by escheat, Elijah confronted him with the dam- 
ning denunciation: ‘Hast thou murdered, and wilt thou also 
play the heir?’ The doom of the house of Ahab wasirrevocably 
sealed. 

As suddenly as Elijah had appeared at the first, so did he 
vanish. At the Jordan, near Jericho, the master divested 
himself of his mantle which now descended upon Elisha. As 
the first and foremost of Elijah’s disciples, he became heir to 
two-thirds of the spirit that was in his teacher. Elisha, 
amid the group of younger prophets, saw an apparition of 
a chariot of fire drawn by horses of fire, and the master was 
no more—he was translated to heaven. This prophet of the 
truly fiery word was from now on the symbol of the death- 
less religion which he brought back to life while on earth; at 
the time of the close of prophecy the day of his return to 
earth was taken to signify the last refining judgment which 
was to usher in the redemption of Israel. 


CHAPTER MAU 
8 AND THE ARAMEAKS 
(854-843) 


Muigious point of view. the contest between 
the puritanical prophets served to bring out 
ttorces of Mosaisin and to prepare its coming 
iam. [t was unfortunate that the king was 
| evil Spirit of his wife and failed to com- 
ster of the opposition, Measured by secu- 
hab Was eminently. successful during the 
pyeien. The country seemed to enjoy peace 
he Aratnean perii was kept off until near doer 
fie. The clash, however, was inevitable 40 2 
18 conceived the moment opportune. 

sen of the first Ben-hadad, Ben-hadad i1., 

@ force and invezied Samaria, Ahab was 
a sactifice his capital upon honorable terms, 
pking would listen to nothing short of 
oie render, Ahab made a sortie anid surprised 
fits train of vassals while éngagediin a 
f presumably in. anticipation of victory. The 
anes ec s only a portion of the. RE made 
be with their king. 

8 of the year, the Ararneans came back. A 
y pitched at Aphek, in the valley of Kishon; 
a the aeeetge forces oce apes the yids af” 


thadad was s taleen captive. Ahab, however, 
awas ominously threatening inthe back~. 
a Syria was in the hands of, Shalmaneser 5 
25 Ahab was satisfied with the terms offered‘by 
a * Galilean’ cities previously wrested fronr  ~ 


ed, and Ahab received the concession ‘to 
1S | 


Me NS eS ‘Sie aot: OR BASLE 


hie conset-ymeptet, well-nigh } 
Age iimypani tion to che sintubdys ot 
8 Opt Of in Israel once for 

nets. Tie Pose of Oret 3 
Reman de® young disciple, 
ines mths Jordan valle 
cea 2 ees aye tand moral fi 


*¥ 


Lara f OW he ‘Shike TTS : 


petted ayainst a cite 
mat 4 gi @itich the king 
weve it alfers, but Naik@riy 
any eth ance from Wie 

repened before the 4 

Lowe ot blasphemy awa 
jean fe take possess) 
(ee Crown by escheat; 2 
ebue tlentinciation ; ‘Hele 
wae the tet? The dogg 


hike 


aa the “Tostan, a 


2% pis thbide of the. spar 
\ $: aN i. tn . = a ul MAN : 
CMe tae BIeVAP ol YO 


- 


. 


Sap iee of fire drawa byt 
Sy padi dre was tr ansiated 


ie awn achich he browse 
(ie tetet-ot the close of areal 
— ‘ee wee! tay epenil y chet 


ie Males phe redemptions 


SOAPTER XLT 
AHAB AND THE ARAMEANS 
(854-843) 


ROM the religious point of view, the contest between 
Pets and the puritanical prophets served to bring out 
the latent forces of Mosaism and to prepare its coming 
victory over paganism. It was unfortunate that the king was 
dominated by the evil spirit of his wife and failed to com- 
prehend the character of the opposition. Measured by secu- 
lar standards, Ahab was eminently successful during the 
greater part of his reign. The country seemed to enjoy peace 
and prosperity. The Aramean peril was kept off until near 
the end of Ahab’s life. The clash, however, was inevitable so 
soon as Damascus conceived the moment opportune. 

A son or grandson of the first Ben-hadad, Ben-hadad II., 
mustered a large force and invested Samaria. Ahab was 
almost ready to sacrifice his capital upon honorable terms. 
But as the Aramean king would listen to nothing short of 
unconditional surrender, Ahab made a sortie and surprised 
Ben-hadad and his train of vassals while engaged!in a 
drinking-bout, presumably in anticipation of victory. The 
enemy was routed; only a portion of the cavalry made 
good their escape with their king. 

At the return of the year, the Arameans came back. A 
formidable army pitched at Aphek, in the valley of. Kishon; 
over against them the Israelitish forces occupied the slope of 
Mount Ephraim. A battle was joined in the open field, which 
resulted in a complete victory for Israel. The city was 
stormed, and Ben-hadad was taken captive. Ahab, however, 
spared his life. Assyria was ominously threatening in the back- 
ground; northern Syria was in the hands of Shalmaneser 
III. (860-825). Ahab was satisfied with the terms offered by 
Ben-hadad; the Galilean cities previously wrested from 
Israel were returned, and Ahab received the concession to 


75 


716 AHAB AND THE ARAMEANS [854-853 


set up bazaars in Damascus for Israelitish merchants, exactly 
as Omri had acquiesced in a similar arrangement for the 
Damascene merchants in Samaria. 

To oppose the well-understood designs of Shalmaneser, a 
coalition, called into life by Osorkon II. of Egypt, prepared 
to block the Assyrian advance. The lead belonged to the 


immediately exposed kingdom of Damascus, where Hadad-. 


ezer had mounted the throne, and to Hamath; Ahab occu- 
pied third rank, with a contingent of two thousand cavalry 
and ten thousand foot. Among the other contingents were 
Cilicians, Phoenicians, and Ammonites. A’battle was fought 
at Karkar, in the Orontes valley (854). The victory claimed 
by the Assyrian monarch in the famous Monolith Inscrip- 
tion could not have been decisive; certainly for some time to 
come no Assyrian army visited these parts. 

The immediate object being accomplished, the coalition 
fell apart. Damascus appeared to be sufficiently weakened 
for Ahab to strike at his former ally. The Gileadite fortress 
Ramoth was the bone of contention. The cause appealed to 
Jehoshaphat of Judah who offered to codperate. The two 
houses were at the time on amicable terms; Jehoshaphat’s 
son Jehoram had married Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab 
and Jezebel. The Judean king was not satisfied with the opti- 
mistic predictions of the prophets at the court of Samaria. 
He asked for one of the prophets of the Lord. Micah son of 
Imlah was summoned. Alone he stood out against the whole 
body of his brother prophets, whom he pictured as misled by 
the lying spirit so that Ahab might go up to battle and 
perish. | 

Despite Micah’s ill-boding message, the two kings ven- 
tured into the battle, Ahab in disguise as a common soldier. 
This very device cost him his life. One of the enemy archers 
aimed at him quite innocently, in complete ignorance of the 
fact that the soldier upon whom he inflicted a mortal wound 
was none other than the king of Israel. Until the fall of night 
the stricken king remained standing in his chariot. The 
Israelites lost the day and retreated, so soon as it was known 
that the king was dead (853), The body was taken in the 


ee eee 


77 


* 


ht was. 


my «, 


—«- 


* ‘Mah ANT THE 


P upts : ie Bee? Cg: Fi 5) oF 5 Boeke eh; for ae 


ot % 
nae X tyebee Pup tte ed a a sinmlar an 
er ‘mt oe i 
i 7 LS eas See oF i Se ehh a Sai Fn aria, 
“4 - £ of i $e 
; ne ta FR 4 ne % Ly 
ae 
; ithe Sat C 
[aE Tas . Ls wt ee 


toe Stee. sa iver ac VRS, 
modiotely coomeed Kingdon of Dg 
Peer het ey ae A che chore, and ta RNY 
weet Sabet yank. wth a onnthgent of two 
| : thansacd foak Araong the other 
Teak ff hoeriac ened, % ured Ammonites. A 
it Marker, % the cones valley (854), ” 

o the Assyrian mom * an yee famous 


t LAP reel 
5 *s 

; yt. a3 , ?. 

7” 

: bt? J tee a? § 
* | ’ 
rete Geta ‘ 

4 

roe ure Ta pe 
rey Pir was ftir 
é ; ee 
x 4 Fi a > 3 
*% Pea s- os utes 
His) ; Sere at the Cope ee 


a sea —. 


manic predictions of t thie pra shets 
iy anked for one at the prophet 


bejlgh woes «Teed. grit: yee 


“ +4 
< 


jil- bodinng 4 f 
tanned 1 thio the barrie, Ahab tag 
fT hie very device oost him his like. 
ait ay at ig quite ie ocenthy. i Le. 
fact that the solgier upor whom hei 
Was NGORS oe than the king of Has 
the stricken king remained a r 
Tsraclites lost the day and retreat = 
that the king: was <lead (853), Tes 


pire RMiewh 


853-843] AHAZIAH AND JEHORAM 17 


chariot to Samaria, where it was buried. Ahaziah, Ahab’s 
son and successor, died after a reign of two years (853-852) ; 
he was succeeded by his brother Jehoram (852-843). 


CHAPTER XIV 
ELISHA. JEHU 


(843) 


HE death of Ahab was the signal for Moab to throw 
off the yoke of Israel. Mesha, its vigorous king, lost 
no time in invading the districts wrested from his 
father by Omri (p. 70). Jehoram invited the codperation of 
Jehoshaphat, and the two kings marched against Moab from 
the south, through the Edomite country which was still sub- 
ject to the kingdom of Judah. The allied forces experienced 
a scarcity of water, which Elisha found a means of relieving. 
A heavy rainfall filled the torrent beds with water. As the 
sun, shining upon the water, gave it a blood-red appearance, 
the Moabites concluded that the allies had quarreled and 
annihilated each other. Mesha gave orders to rush forward, 
but his forces were routed, and the king himself was forced to 
retreat to his capital. Driven to desperation, Mesha, in the 
sight of the besiegers, offered his first-born son to his god 
Chemosh. Couragereturned to thedefenders of the city; they 
made a sortie; the allied kings were just able to extricate 
their forces and to return home. Mesha celebrated the vic- 
tory by erecting a commemorative monument (the Moabite 
Stone). , 

The example of Moab encouraged the Edomites to pro- 
claim their independence under a native dynasty. Jehosha- 
phat’s successor, Jehoram of Judah (851-844), tried to regain 
this country so necessary for commerce with Arabia, but was 
unsuccessful. Surrounded by the enemy, he barely managed 
to break through; his forces, unable to stand their ground, 
took to flight. In the southwest of the realm, towards the 
Philistine territory, the city of Libnah likewise revolted. 
It was a much shrunken kingdom that Jehoram of Judah left 


78 


i) 
a ee ee ee ee es eee ee eee ee 


as tonal. Se ie, 


x 6 
‘ > 
a a 
ad ’ 
“ 
bo ~s 
~ i 
a es Mr 4 
ae ef Se) 
¢ way t P ‘ ? 
aa ¥ Sey 
<— va 8 
iia is gee fi af jae 
5 , < 
yee Oa i; ie 
2. = + > “ 
mn —_ 4 . 
“> aks 1318 pera, 


ean Ri wosthed at their mess 
eit oe ite beekke ia upon er 
Soe ee Kise kiny im the name 
wel ow the garrison, and 
Witt. tx Hreve with a small 
op ateaader of the army 
pd ty saeet hima in their 

fat Saipan wy came face to face 
ae iets? aeheecher all was well, 
Pax ae ee, ot Varig aw Jezebel thy 
ir agtcivaelt:” Jebpram under- 
Beate. 4a CAME tO fee Tehu 
sient Le gegetatiy. “Fhe body was 
TaA the Cate AAs twat! heard the 
a ies ley the prophet Etizah: co 
4 ten The aed ieitticoed opon_ 
; ' pict Sy hia lager ed wnt he 
died: bin biel was taken to 


1, 


Meret. Phere jeachel was belding court. ee 
be bo Mart atrack. Decked cat in royal ies. 
22 ee haii wit head: witleed, this proud 
sad wat at the window, as Jehu entered 
he i peat, Ben Liat, thy master’s 


2 
all 


o a. 


CHAPTER Xx 


Ui EMERA, yi 


Tg tt, SUL toa eres giatts rae % sis a 


the Aigatutes comes 
@onikfoted cach other. MM 
tut his forces were cored 
Petpet fo ive fe 

were of the bers ‘Serh, 
i herpesh. (ourag returned : 
Yomi. a sortie; the a allied kine 
ther fayces an) to rei v3 
tory -by ereciing a corer 
Sobcotne} 


Srisghs ingle ete Mis 


shat’ Ss successor, } 
his COURT ry 60 NECEHaary fos CKN 

seucccsefal, Surv nett ieee sy thes 
ty bredk through; his forces, vine 
heh fo Hi, wht. In the SOU hwest 
Philistine territery, the city of } 


It was & much shrunken king sdomt 1 = 


78+ 


THE REBELLION OF JEHU 79 


to his successor Ahaziah, who reigned but one year (844-843). 

The prophetic party in the northern kingdom, led by 
Elisha, conceived the time ripe for the long-planned destruc- 
tion of the Omri dynasty. A change in the dynasty of Damas- 
cus, in which Elisha appears to have had a hand, brought the 
opportunity. Hadadezer, or whatever was the name of the 
reigning king, was smothered to death on his sick-bed; the 
throne was usurped by Hazael (843). Jehoram of Israel 
thought it safe to press his claims in Gilead. Ramoth was 
again stormed, the Judean king Ahaziah making common 
cause with his uncle. Jehoram was wounded and taken home 
to Jezreel, where his nephew came to visit him. The com- 
mand of the recovered fortress was left in the hands of Jehu, 
one of the generals. 

As Jehu and his brother officers were seated at their mess, 
a prophet-disciple, commissioned by Elisha, broke in upon 
them. He took Jehu aside and anointed him king in the name 
of the Lord. The choice was approved by the garrison, and 
Jehu was proclaimed king. Forthwith he drove with a small 
company to Jezreel, leaving the remainder of the army 
behind him. The two kings hastened to meet him in their 
chariots. In the stolen plot of Naboth they came face to face 
with the general. To Jehoram’s query whether all was well, 
came the reply; ‘Nothing can be well, so long as Jezebel thy 
mother has her way with her witchcraft.’ Jehoram under- 
stood now that it was revolution and turned to flee. Jehu 
shot at the king and wounded him mortally. The body was 
cast into the plot of Naboth, where Ahab had heard the 
doom pronounced upon his house by the prophet Elijah. 
Jehu then overtook Ahaziah by Ibleam and inflicted upon 
him a deadly wound. The Judean king lingered until he 
reached Megiddo, where he died; his body was taken to 
Jerusalem for burial. 

Jehu reéntered Jezreel. There Jezebel was holding court. 
She realized that her hour had struck. Decked out in royal 
raiment, with eyes painted and head attired, this proud 
daughter of Tyre looked out at the window, as Jehu entered 
the palace gate. ‘Is it peace, thou Zimri, thy master’s 


80 ELISHA. JEHU 


murderer?’ she called out. At the command of Jehu, she was 
put to death by the palace attendants. 

Samaria was still in the hands of the Omrids. There, in 
the well-fortified city, was the principal royal palace, with 
the chariots and the stud and the arsenal. It was to be feared 
that one of the surviving brothers of Jehoram, seventy in 
number, might be proclaimed king. Jehu dispatched a letter 
to the authorities in the capital, the minister of the house- 
hold, the governor and elders of the city, and the tutors of 
the royal princes, asking for the heads of the seventy sons of 
Ahab. The request was complied with, and the heads, packed 
in baskets, were delivered to Jehu in Jezreel. All that re- 
mained of Ahab’s house in that city, the second capital of the 
dynasty, including all sympathizers, perished at the hands of 
the revolutionaries. 

Now Jehu was free to enter Samaria. On the way he 
slaughtered forty-two Judean princes, who had come to 
inquire after the welfare of the Israelitish royal family. Jehu 
made his entry into the capital in the company of Jehonadab, 
a Rechabite zealot. The worshipers of Baal were surrounded 
in their temple and butchered. The temple itself with all its 
appurtenances was demolished. Thus the cult of the Tyrian 
god was destroyed, root and branch. The appalling blood- 
shed with which this destruction was accomplished left a 
scar upon the people’s conscience which a hundred years 
later was still unhealed. 


Ce Sa a a 


tide i as % Lay 4 ra Lif dix < si te Ke 77 
at oP ico SMA ee REF 459 oa 
oh te is ey) e%, aay ‘ at ate, een 
Rie % Ser ‘ 


BSH eae nat wmitured. He 
oes eet Ate pdence. Half 
repeacee ae Sesnegelae, while the 
eats * G a ad ¥ wae y macsbe th the 
toe ye eoagte ivngpe, One saby 
sei ip ace atekion in rhe 
Nie See Pt, weet, ee thot the 
tae ete i Be “gi Tes Rw top> 
peg oaks Bead Soy Hategerigand co 
Shere 2. Hie + Bel Kies stg 7-2 “ee pubes: 
en. F > hp Aa “gis ae ican’ ar 
"eget “an A ts ee e eS 
| pace wy Soe re tes 
PiBiiairte oo Des abit | 


stacey Boy 
ge ee ae ails ae 3 — 


at | ee 


PRR Ee! GX na: ¥; ou ee 


heciaae (ere @ 
; a Ry Figea zs ae: a 


t oe | Sa ‘ 1 i\erg ~e 
timer de vs. free te 
* & et shld WW tie t= 
ha ¢ =“ 4 oF i 4 ae i 
AAS PEEL thee roy CY ey : 
: rape ‘ee fy My 
imu. giter Lie Weare te 
, ” \ ce 
THRE Ta} PAtry iffy rete 
i> a5 7 7 “Th a sure ih 
ee dren disease 24 Teh Ae & ~~ bo Se abd 


‘ . © * ¥ ‘ -e 
woourtenances was demolahgh: 
GX ‘Aas destroyed, rt and 

L* re 


yet wth which this 


Mat WON ine pooped 


later was still anhealet,: 


PSE LER V 
THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT OF ASSYRIA 


(843-746) 


THALIAH, the mother of Ahaziah, was a true daughter 
A of Jezebel. Upon the news of her son’s death (p. 
79), she seized the reins of government, feeling that 
the policy pursued by the dead monarch under her guidance 
would be safest in her own hands. Apparently she was con- 
cerned for the interests of her mother’s native state, Phoe- 
nicia, and for the religious dominance of Tyre at least in the 
kingdom of Judah. To that end she sought to do away with 
all that was left of the seed royal in the male line, including 
her own grandchildren. Only one grandchild escaped, an 
infant son of Ahaziah, Jehoash, whom his aunt, the princess 
Jehosheba, wife of the chief priest Jehoiada, carried off. For 
six years the prince was kept in hiding in the Temple, while 
Athaliah reigned over the land (843-837). 

In the seventh year the priest’s plans had matured. He 
took the captains of the body-guard into his confidence. Half 
of the guard was always stationed in the Temple, while the 
other half was on duty ‘in the palace. Every sabbath the 
Temple guard was relieved by the palace troops. One sab- 
bath, as the palace guard went up to take its station in the 
Temple, the Temple guard was likewise retained, so that the 
palace remained unguarded. The young prince was intro- 
duced to the soldiers and acclaimed. Athaliah hastened to 
the Temple, but was just as speedily led back to the palace 
and put to death. The king was seated upon the throne and 
received the oath of the army and of the people’s representa- 
tives. The temple of Baal, with its altars and images, was 
demolished; Mattan, the chief priest of Baal, was slain. 

Jehoash had a long reign (837-798). At first the youthful 
king must have been completely under the tutelage of his 
priestly uncle. Throughout his life he was devoted to the 


81 


82 THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT OF ASSYRIA [839 


Temple, where his early childhood was spent. The sacred 
edifice was in need of repairs. The king gave orders that all 
gifts of money received by the priests from the worshipers 
should be used for the restoration of the Temple. But after a 
lapse of time it was found that the priests had kept the 
money for their own uses. Accordingly Jehoash commanded 
that all pious donations should be dropped into a chest 
beside the altar. From time to time the chest was opened and 
the money counted in the presence of the king’s chancellor 
and the high priest. Thus a fund was obtained for keeping 
the Temple in constant repair. 

In Israel, Jehu (843-816) naturally lost the support of 
Phoenicia. The friendly codperation of the southern king- 
dom, which remained in force during the Omri dynasty, was 
not to be counted upon during the reign of Athaliah. Nor 
were amicable relations resumed under Jehoash. Jehu, so 
soon as he was seated upon the throne, appears to have fallen 
out with the puritanical party by whose aid he had risen to 
power, whereas in Judah this party gained ground. Left 
largely to his own resources, Jehu, as early as the second 
year of his reign (842), deemed it prudent to throw himself 
on the side of Shalmaneser, who was then campaigning 
against Damascus. The Black Obelisk of the Assyrian mon- 
arch portrays Israelitish ambassadors delivering their king’s 
tribute, ingots of gold and silver, golden vessels, and precious 
articles of various sorts. 

The Assyrian campaign against Damascus failed of its 
object, both then and three years later (839). The natural 
result was that Hazael turned with redoubled fury against 
Israel. The whole of the country east of the Jordan, as far as 
the river Arnon, fell into the hands of the Arameans. The 
invaders operated with great cruelty. They set the fortified 
towns on fire and put the fighting youth to the sword; babes 
were dashed in pieces, unborn children were not spared. 
Over the Gileadite prisoners instruments of torture, with 
sharp iron knives, were drawn. The invasion was by no means 
confined to the territory of Israel. On one of his expeditions, 
Hazael captured Gath and made ready to march upon Jeru- 


) 

4 art 
_* 4 
oat 3 


aoa 
are 4 
)) ae 
ae 


. THE ARAMEAN Wakd | 83 


substan tribute from the Temple and 


Oditions furnished an opportunity ie 
8 ronad about to make predarory mea 
, Moabites, Edonvite 6, Phittatines,. sud 
the population «f many a ving. igs: 
3 imax during the miga a fetes son, 
The kingdom of lead watend heary 
lost its independenwe, “Fhe staxgrant a1 
di it to reduce its fighting fires te Girt 
nil ten sepamape i it Pikes & oepicee 
Sirrestca Samarin «dd ka Rv he ee 
to the verge of fered, Soi to abes 
if babes. Suddteriy a ¢usakae: aepetven he 
or Egyptian ge a, ae pagan ae eS 
d beset city, raat thaw 2 Pai ae Bett i 


d after him Mari. OTN PO Show ear tk te 
c m of Tsracl, whe wn Sater: AS Wes BIC 
| pemoesh (800-7 it, (eae whegessive 
faimeans Were worsted. te comikest was the 
ne kin yo! Damascus ree “aves & Ry Hem vhat he 
gtore Israelitish ulna peo Taken. 
; CHV. of — RIGTH ayy the “deky 
- indemnity Was DE nich seo Het 
, WLS ‘other Palestini ae ft he ak Set eR feud 
a potentate Still then wai eee ger Ane 
i onde of the larae uo SS Gago, wT 
: was Basaswinn est. i0 Meal Cal gee se" wae 
AMAZIAl (798-7 RE ¥s me Sat BPS Gates”? | ot 
Det he spared the coe si eda Sra: Wh 
h the humanitarce: <asueots tol ee Stem: 
ae my r 24,16). Armedeaa Berets ove + eS 
uites in the V alles bit Age pata ome saa 


Oh, 


“f 


Judah, thus aperesig: Wy st cee ee 
Pup by success, Atari crete OK tg 


© “ . é » 
ee | —aA. S” p et. me, . -) . 


g left for Jehoesh exvept vo tay his” 


Deick-bound | CPETHGE RED FOL  e|  HR 


a 


= 
* 
x 
c, ] 
—_ 
—_— 
+ 


Phe 


i 


— 
tee 


hree. j 


turmed @ 


. i 2 
f tT “a '% he c’ 4 Foy, * ‘HN, 


© 


CLOW TS Oi Gi wad pp 
were dashed. in Asay tnbort 
Over the Gileadite prisoners mig 
sharp irew knives, were drawn, The 
confiter! to the territory of Israeli 
Hazael captured Gath and made rem 


780] THE ARAMEAN WARS 83 


salem, There was nothing left for Jehoash except to buy his 
departure with a substantial tribute from the Temple and 
palace treasures. 

The distressful conditions furnished an opportunity for 
the smaller nations round about to make predatory incur- 
sions. Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Philistines, and 
Tyrians enslaved the population of many a village. The 
misery reached its climax during the reign of Jehu’s son, 
Jehoahaz (816-800). The kingdom of Israel suffered heavy 
defeats and virtually lost its independence. The suzerain at 
Damascus compelled it to reduce its fighting forces to fifty 
horse, ten chariots, and ten thousand foot. Hazael’s succes- 
- sor, Ben-hadad III., invested Samaria and brought the be- 
leaguered population to the verge of famine, until mothers 
ate the flesh of their babes. Suddenly a rumor reached the 
enemy that Hittite and Egyptian kings were marching to 
the relief of the hard beset city, and the Arameans fled in 
a panic. 

Ben-hadad, and after him Mari, renewed their attacks 
against the kingdom of Israel, when Jehoahaz was suc- 
ceeded by his son Jehoash (800-785). In three successive 
battles the Arameans were worsted. So complete was the 
blow which the king of Damascus received at Aphek that he 
was forced to restore Israelitish territory previously taken. 
King Adadnirari IV. of Assyria (810-783) was the ‘deliv- 
erer’; a, heavy indemnity was imposed upon Damascus. 
Israel, along with other Palestinian principalities, submitted 
to the Assyrian potentate. Still there was respite from Aram. 

In the second year of the Israelite king Jehoash, his 
Judean namesake was assassinated in the palace at Jeru- 
salem. His son Amaziah (798-780) had the murderers of his 
father executed, but he spared the lives of their families, in 
accordance with the humanitarian ordinance in the Mosaic 
Code (Deuteronomy 24,16). Amaziah gained a signal victory 
over the Edomites in the Valley of Salt, southwest of the 
Dead Sea; their rock-bound fortress, renamed Joktheel, was 
incorporated into Judah, thus opening up the roads to the 
south. Puffed up by success, Amaziah challenged the king of 


84 THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT OF ASSYRIA [780-745 


Israel to a test of power. Jehoash replied with the fable of the 
thistle that asked for the hand of the daughter of the mighty 
cedar and was trodden down by a passing beast. Battle was 
joined at Beth-shemesh, overlooking the Valley of Sorek. 
Amaziah was beaten and taken captive. Jehoash entered 
Jerusalem, broke down a portion of its walls, and despoiled 
the Temple treasures. The terms of peace were exceedingly 
humiliating for the defeated king, who was compelled to 
deliver hostages as a guarantee of his good behavior. The 
disaffected Jerusalemites conspired against their king; 
Amaziah fled to Lachish, where he was overtaken and put 
to death. 

Amaziah was succeeded by his son Azariah or Uzziah 
(780-740), while in Israel Jehoash was followed by his son 
Jeroboam II. (785-745). These two kings, for nearly half a 
century, were able, by reason of the happy political situation, 
to restore the territories of Israel and Judah almost to their 
extent in the times of David and Solomon. Damascus was 
weakened by further Assyrian campaigns, and the Assyrian 
retreat during the reigns of Ashurdan III. (772-755) and 
Ashur-nirari IV. (755-746) gave the two monarchs in Israel- 
Judah a free hand. It seems that Jeroboam was the more 
powerful and energetic ruler, and possibly Uzziah, by reason 
of his father’s unfortunate venture, owed allegiance to the 
northerner. At any rate they worked in harmony. Uzziah 
recovered the port of Elath from the Edomites; Jeroboam 
carried the war into Aramean territory. From the entrance 
of Hamath in the Orontes down to the Gulf of Akabah, the 
whole continuous stretch, including the country east of the 
Jordan and the lands of Ammon, Moab, and Edom, was once 
more in the hands of the Israelites and Judeans. It was a 
half-century of tranquillity and prosperity such as had not 
been enjoyed since the days of Solomon. Monarchs and peo- 
ple must have hugged the feeling of confirmed stability and 
enduring security. . 


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ay bisviath im the Orontes ee 

Whale coartinuweus stretch, a0 

Leuputaa an and the lands Aomg 

aa: <i pore wothe hands of the hee 
| hadt-tontury of rranquillieral 
inten enieved since the dayeet 
ly wnast- have hugged thi-teeli 
iilsiaia Sas3 sourity. 


CHAPTER XVI 


LIFE UNDER THE MONARCHY 


E HAVE caught many a glimpse of the life of the 

people as it had formed itself since the rise of the 

monarchy; we may pause for a moment to com- 
plete the picture. The land was intensively cultivated. In the 
plains and valleys the husbandman, with ceaseless toil and 
moil, plowed and harrowed the ground and sowed and har- 
vested his wheat and his barley; the heaps of sheaves he 
conveyed in a cart to a floor freely exposed to the wind, 
where he threshed and winnowed; the grain he stored up to © 
be ground into flour and to be baked into bread, while the 
chopped straw served as provender for his cattle. A yoke of 
oxen—or, if a man was rich, as many yokes as he could 
afford—sometimes a team of donkeys, drew the plough and 
trampled with their hoofs the heaped up sheaves. These 
beasts were likewise put to use as draught animals. Where 
pasture land was available and water plentiful, small cattle 
were raised, herds of sheep and goats. In the terraced hills 
the vine, the olive, and the fig were cultivated. It was blissful 
happiness for a man to be able securely to ‘sit under his vine 
and under his fig-tree.’ Patches, surrounded by irrigating 
ditches, were covered with fruit orchards and vegetable 
gardens. 

In the villages life was simple. Domestic labor took care of 
the ordinary wants. The women assisted the men at harvest- 
ing time, and often tended the flocks. The farmer’s wife, and 
for that matter also a woman in the small towns, was kept 
exceedingly busy. Preparing the daily meals, fetching water, 
carrying bundles of sticks for fuel, she found time also for 
spinning and weaving and needlework; she made clothing 
for her household and increased the family’s income by 
working at fine fabrics which found a ready sale. The men 


85 


86 LIFE UNDER THE MONARCHY 


constructed their own simple dwellings of sun-baked bricks 
upon a clay foundation, and fashioned the wooden furniture, 
such as tables, chairs and bedsteads; they alsocut the thongs 
for their sandals and prepared skins for holding water or wine. 

In the larger towns and cities there was a demand for 


specialized handicrafts. Trades were hereditary in certain © 


families: the craftsmen were formed in guilds and occupied 
definite quarters; there was a bakers’ street in Jerusalem, 
and a road led to the fullers’ field outside. The potter turned 
out earthen jugs, bowls, plates, lamps; it may be that his 
ware lacked the artistic finish of the imported articles, such 
as only the very rich could acquire, but he was a good learner 
and imitator. The smiths and workers in metal supplied the 
farmer’s implements, swords and spears and arrow-points 
for the soldier and the tools of daily life. Silversmiths and 
goldsmiths cast the images for private and public idolatrous 
shrines, and produced rings and seals set with precious stones, 
upon which figures or written characters were engraved. 
The pretentious mansions of the wealthy, not to speak of 
temples and royal palaces, built of hewn stone, gave employ- 
ment to architects who made the design, masons, stone- 
cutters, plasterers; the woodwork and paneling were executed 
by carpenters and wood-carvers. The weaving and embrot- 
dering of cloths, hangings, and rugs had reached a high stage 
of development, even though the models were foreign in 
origin; so also the art of dyeing. 

Altogether life in the large cities, particularly in the capi- 
tals, was full and rich. The magnates had their winter houses 
and their summer villas, within which they were served with 
choicest viands and strongest wines, while reclining on soft 
damask couches. The young men of the aristocracy were 
entertained by male and female singers, and themselves per- 
formed on musical instruments. The city bazaars, whether 
of the domestic or foreign merchant, were filled with luxu- 
rious articles of wear and adornment. The matrons of 
Samaria and the damsels of Jerusalem were decked out in 
sumptuous finery, vying with their sisters at Tyre and 
Damascus, Nineveh and Memphis. Their hair artistically 


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UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 87 


waved, their eyes enlarged with paint, and their bodies 
anointed with perfume, they affected in the streets a tripping 
gait, attracting attention by the jingle of their anklets. 

There was wealth in the country, but it was unevenly dis- 
tributed. As commerce expanded and capital was accu- 
mulated, small holdings were gradually extinguished and 
land was concentrated in the hands of the few. The impov- 
erished farmer was more and more entangled in the toils of 
the rich creditor. If he was unable to meet his obligations, his 
pledged belongings were seized, or he was compelled to suffer 
his children or himself to be enslaved. Slavery was by no 
means the fundamental institution that it constituted else- 
where; the Israelitish slave was on the whole mildly treated. 
But there was a growing number of laborers who hired them- 
selves out for a shorter or longer period, and of the less fortu- 
nate who lived from hand to mouth. The capitalist in the 
city would buy up and sell the produce of grain, both at his 
own price. Naturally the harsh landlord or cruel creditor was 
in a position to sway the courts of justice; it need not always 
have been by direct bribery. Still the case of Naboth of 
Jezreel shows how ready magistrates and courts were to do 
the bidding of those in power. 

The social rift between rich and poor had a counterpart in 
the struggle for power between sectional particularism and 
nationalist centralization. We saw how the unification of the 
nation and the central system of administration conceived 
by the first three monarchs were thwarted by the innate 
jealousies of north and south. The monarchy had taken 
root; but it was hedged about by limitations which derived 
their force from old habits and the self-sufficiency of the 
cities, in which the leading families absorbed all political 
power. The king was primarily a soldier. In the north, 
dynasties were made and unmade by ambitious generals, 
and even in the south, though the dynasty persisted, the 
kings were victims of repeated plots. The king was supreme 
judge and maintained in his capital, at least in Jerusalem, a 
court of appeals made up of priestly and lay judges. The 
colleges of city-elders acted not only as an administrative 


88 LIFE UNDER THE MONARCHY 


body for their district, but also as a court of justice, and the 
cantonal authorities often clashed with the central power. 
The king was dependent for his revenues upon the good-will 
of the provincial magnates. He was merely the greatest 
magnate of them all. His palace was somewhat more pre- 
tentious than the mansions of his wealthy subjects; his chief 
minister went by the name of master of the household. 
Sovereignty was vested in the people. During an interreg- 
num or whenever there was a dispute about the succession, 
the ‘people of the land’ assumed authority and seated the 
rightful heir upon the throne. Whatever democratic tend- 
ency may have inhered in this institution was stifled by the 
preponderance of the gentry, and essentially the polity 
remained aristocratic. | 

In the spiritual sphere of life, likewise, there were manifold 
divisions. Education was widely diffused; the mass of the 
people were able to read and write-The sons of rich houses 


had their tutors; parents of more modest circumstances 


taught their own children. Parental discipline was rigid, and 
the schoolmaster did not spare the rod. There was piety in 
the land; but in the popular religion it took on forms border- 
ing upon heathenism and retained outworn superstitions. 
Men were eager to know the will of God, and the priests 
were the natural keepers of the people’s conscience. But 
there were priests and priests, those that favored image wor- 
ship and those who opposed it, worthy messengers of God 
and others who misused their holy office and had an eye only 
to their emoluments. Counsel might be had also at the hands 
of wise men and wise women, persons of ripe years and com- 
manding the accumulated experience of generations; their 
wisdom had a touch of the practical and tended in the direc- 
tion of a mild scepticism. Over against the ritualist priest- 
hood and the secularist teachers of worldly-wise maxims 
stood the prophets who saw deeper and truer and farther, 
brushing aside sacerdotal quibblings and cold reasoning alike, 
penetrating to the core of things, insisting with all their 
might and courage on inward piety for the individual and 
the moral conversion of the nation. But not all prophets 


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itandine the accumulated ex 
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beusting acide sacerdctal quibh 
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might and courage. on inward y 

‘the rocral comrversion of the nati 


SPIRITUAL DIVISIONS 89 


ag eed among themselves. There were prophets and proph- 
‘ets—the easy-going preachers who fawned upon the people 
nd confirmed them in their downward course, and those 
mighty heroes of the spirit who stood like isolated rocks 
when all about them was tumbling. How these movements 
and counter-movements, currents and cross-currents, deter- 


mined the events that followed, will be shown immediately. 
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CHAPTER XVII 


AMOS AND HOSEA 


(760-734) 


URING the reign of Jeroboam II., two years before an 
1) earthquake which shook the land so severely that it 

remained ever after in the memory of men, a ~ 
momentous scene was enacted in the royal sanctuary of 


Bethel. A large concourse of people was assembled for wor- 
ship, when the tones of a dirge broke in upon them: 


‘The virgin of Israel is fallen, 

She shall no more rise; 

She is cast down upon the ground, 
There is none to raise her up.’ 


The message spelt national catastrophe, involving the de- — 
struction of the dynasty and the state: ‘Jeroboam shall die 
by the sword, and Israel shall be led away captive out of his — 
land.’ The messenger was a Judean, Amos of Tekoa, in the 
wilderness of Judah by the Dead Sea. He was not a profes- ~ 
sional prophet, nor did he earn his bread as a prophet- 
disciple; he stood outside the guilds. While pursuing his — 
ordinary business of life as an owner of herds and sycamore : 
plantations, he heard the call bidding him prophesy. He 
regarded himself as special envoy amid the regulars who 
spoke in the name of God. 

Prophecy was to Amos an all-impelling force. ‘The Lord 
God hath spoken, who can but prophesy?’ If misfortune 
befalls the state, it is purposed of God; design, and not 
chance, rules the history of nations. When an action has been ~ 
determined upon by God, the prophets become privy to the ~ 
divine council. It is then their duty to forewarn, just as the 
sentinels sound the alarm on the approach of calamity. 
Israel is on the. brink of ruin, though the ruling classes, — 
immersed in their pleasures, take no thought. A nation— 


90 


AMOS THE MOBALse? eae: 


Wemesni the Assyrian), af wher for the 
a A unlikely —iresitalsty, by oastiety, will 
tw ikon, the proater (lovee: aini the lnevey 
eaiateover | i teiup raiaers up ry Cid Hire- 
pp aie of the prophet = & aotece wm the 
yret s ey ate cadl torepentaace. 
wil tbe merciful wrth the rénunast 
t in the eieventh hour the deager will be 


pOSnvinced os aty.oF ben. pacgne tant 
Wimation anny the faailee af mankued 
oo with it great réespensibalimes; it 
my gees ony have F kparen of ail 
| peank: therefore | will visit upon you ail 
5.) The miher caticna are not tees from mis- 
S sin een when x cenrsitted by Moeh against 
peeeeres gy, ihe Edormites. Phe prophet knows 
Shaan oe Seat Sat ie Crest, erxi is Sia tally con 
the “The sei are moms in their way, but it 


i bietieaties ut ‘wit th the exaggerated value 
le ep Worshiv, at Berkel or Dan, at Gilgal o: 
Pitatipesiess of rich offerings, the very 
te ervice. Seeking God means some- 
pnts th means social justice. These very 
Se Shaie piety ave at the same time the 
epic the nich art — ieus, the courts 
eal the aristocratic ladies and the sump- 
@t their palace » ere bought with the 
apimpoverished tenants. ‘Let justice well 
eiphtrousness is @ pereanial stream.’ 

“ tina just, then he ia ao more mm God's eyes 
med Ethiopians. The Lord led up Israel 
1 80 did He guide Philistines end Arameans 
Sents. Ambs meets the objections of the 
pick forward to the Day of the Lord, the day 
phelp of God, the nation wil overcome: its 
that dss will bring them: the very omposive of 


{ 


Se plosts ee Baia 
at 
% 
CHAPTER xvi 
AMOS AND HOSEA ee 
 eteg raa) ai 
rhe reigit or ler CLC li,¢ 
l= ike which shook fae land § 
‘Tem: eae ever after in tie me 
momentous scene Wee Cnac ‘ted in the 1 
Bethel. Av! large CONCQUISe of people was ¢ 
ship, wren the (ones ols dirge broke 3 11. 
‘ ‘The virein Of lerael is fallen, 
She shall nv more Sho ee 
She is cast Gown Upon the gro 
‘ There is nore to raise her up." 
The message sp he rabbit marl catastrophe oF 
struction of the dvriasty and the | state, 
hy the sword, and loomed shall be led awa 
land.’ The meéessenget was @ a Judean, A 
wilderness of Judah by the Déad Sea. 
sional prophet, aor did heeds his Br 
disciple; he stoart outside the guilds, i 
ordinary business of hfe as ant owner of 
plant: ations, he heard the call bidding 
regarded hin self as special nisin ar 
nc A = in the name of God. 7 
Prophecy was to Amos an ale impels 
Cod hath spoken, who can but prophesyies 
befalls the state, it is purposed of God 
chance, rules the history of n ations, When | 
determined upon by God, the prophets b 
divine counerl. It is then. their <7 
sentinels sound the alary i On the a ap 
lstael is onthe brink of ruin, though 
immersed in their pleasures, Rea, 
- 


AMOS THE MORALIST 91 


Amos can only have meant the Assyrians, of whom for the 
moment fear seemed unlikely—inevitably, irresistibly, will 
tear down the two houses, the greater (Israel) and the lesser 
(Judah), and the destroyer is being raised up by God Him- 
self. The very appearance of the prophet is a notice of the 
enemy’s coming; the prophet’s mission is to call to repentance. 
It may be that the Lord will be merciful with the remnant 
of Joseph and that in the eleventh hour the danger will be 
averted. 

Amos is as thoroughly convinced as any of his people that 
Israel is God’s elect nation among the families of mankind. 
This distinction carries with it great responsibilities; it 
entails dread consequences. ‘You only have I known of all 
the families of the earth; therefore I will visit upon you all 
your iniquities.’ The other nations are not free from mis- 
deeds; sin is sin, even when committed by Moab against 
Judah’s inveterate enemy, the Edomites. The prophet knows 
_the delinquencies of his own people best, and is specially con- 
- cerned with them. The people are pious in their way, but it 
is the wrong way. With a one-sidedness which is character- 
istic of Amos, he is impatient with the exaggerated value 
placed upon temple worship, at Bethel or Dan, at Gilgal or 
Beer-sheba, the ostentatiousness of rich offerings, the very 
music of the elaborate service. Seeking God means some- 
thing entirely different; it means social justice. These very 
people who parade their piety are at the same time the 
oppressors of the poor: the rich are rapacious, the courts 
venal, the luxuries of the aristocratic ladies and the sump- 
tuous appointments of their palaces are bought with the 
produce exacted from impoverished tenants. ‘Let justice well 
up as waters, and righteousness as a perennial stream.’ 

If Israel will not be just, then he is no more in God’s eyes 
than the black-skinned Ethiopians. The Lord led up Israel 
out of Egypt; but so did He guide Philistines and Arameans 
_ from their original seats. Amos meets the objections of the 
optimists who look forward to the Day of the Lord, the day 
when, with the help of God, the nation will overcome its 
enemies. No, that day will bring them the very opposite of 


92 AMOS AND HOSEA 


what they expect; it will be the Day of J udgment, of divine 
retribution upon the sinful kingdom. 
Was the destruction of the nation the ultimate end which 
Amos contemplated, on the plea perchance that justice must 
prevail, though Israel perish? By no means. Amos was nota 
mere doctrinaire, clinging to justice in the abstract; what he. 
desired was a just society, and that could be brought into ~ 
existence among his people only by the grace of God. Out of — 
the ruin of the present state there would arise the restoration — 
of ‘the fallen hut of David,’ the old Davidic kingdom glorified 
and idealized. It is true, nevertheless, that for the time being 
the aspect of evil predominated in the preaching of Amos. 
Amaziah, the chief priest of Bethel, was shocked by the 
prophet’s utterance; he denounced him to the king as a 
traitor and had him banished to his Judean home. A younger 
prophet arose, who, though equally stern in rebuking sin, 
complemented Amos by dwelling more emphatically upon — 
divine forgiveness which must come to the penitent nation. — 
If Amos was essentially a moralist, Hosea had a deeper — 
insight into the nature of religion. He began his career while 
Jeroboam II. was yet on the throne, but he lived on to wit- 
ness the disintegration of the state which soon set in. A q 
domestic experience presented itself to the prophet asa sym- 
bol of the national situation. His wife proved unworthy of — 
his trust; yet he loved her dearly, and a divine voice bade — 
him take her back. Israel is gone astray from God. The wor- — 
ship is to all intents and purposes Baal worship, on the same 
plane as in the old Canaanite religion. The name of the Lord — 
is almost forgotten in the land; the blessings of the crops and ~ 
the increase of the herds are ascribed to the local deities, in 
whose honor sabbaths, new moons, and festivals are cele- — 
brated. The people are misled by a spirit of impurity; upon — 
the high hills, under evergreen trees, the Canaanite sanc- ~ 
tuaries are maintained and the homage paid to stocks and — 
stones is attended by obscene rites. 
But even in the larger temples there is the abhorrent — 
image worship. The calf of Samaria, the work of the crafts- — 
man, is adored, and human beings degrade themselves by — 


tA es Peete PL ‘ 
‘at? a Wy ; 
A SoRARSES LIVIN, GRACE 93 


Tre Lerogie Dees Bre eager to accept 
Ty dats Mice wich vield them revenue. 
a 46 tcheer et, tee Mes of one's duty to 
to have been 3 cpialte, Yet. the priests 
’ i for en mae alee the prophets, , 
Pon a hie ticebe Pye Book of God's 
teach. the teen’ tacomterige of God,’ that 
Lint religion. Bar wrew tee dhousandsuch 
h Unhonored. The a assign all 
s they: swear farhiale: tihiese ics jeder, they 


Vet the arte that iepuernal is piety ‘ 
‘of God and knw ni tip) nw aacrifices; 
ng of religious duty. ¢ Sth ingen burnt- 


eae aitdints snd Coty. 24. Morn- 
which the heat aaa ey Ohah. Mriests, 
| 0" al courts alike jpeIwery Bae Shee: BE Sy nis are 
es re set lage}. Fier ou gr ee? ther 
pac Gll Qesy doin ames Jcicemains 
r as a@ bird bhreste< in Sian Lering 
RM bepwixt Beige seth hole. Oe, 
prophet’: similis, 5p eaten ge he Insane 
great POWETS, > see &: We Sak, = eR aT 
is Don one gigie : weg a eae Seneahh te iy Sale 
grown abcd OMe cay Pity. te pee gid 
Be lavor often 
Si se strat cei Prete Pied ign 


oneal The ety got a Fee, 
Scod is not vin®& en ah Tele a 
pure of marsdgny Hinks ae a 
| RR ETE OO 
faith. Or the rtigesa: ay Syce a 2, cy ee A 
roe ; then God caunet Pee Hie. pits Shi asa 


We to God, give up Ble sAes, cco oan 
. And if exile anger ny- ar §: Kae te 


#2 | no eee 


wheat (heresies, 2 de tne Day: 
pecriidoe wyscin Hor alia tet ndont, es, 

Pa the dandy tom of thee aation t “ 
Jefe? Seve att pie plea De 
jrewinal, thar, Ser 1 oiialil ‘s By a ne 
NA er hads - ey Oe tustice t Le 
eer ww Qf poe ay that o 
eee ain bret satuueys Ys Boe ely by ie 
Che veia of ioe banetet Bale Shae wr 


af ine dived 14.45 fot = sieverthelet 
ote, fool oped sated is’ 


vag compat 2, eye te HRS e © ee , : 
ihre at bomglt teh pae vatiobed eahianc ul 


weagbrinta the natwe of rehgion aaa 
leo tec 1. wee wet on the Chinen, 
we. the chontegration ol the: gtate? 
Ce ane hey pee oe tt ented eet 
nad situpecion, Bnei 
A wits set fe lowed! her dearly | ie 
cr ibh bey beck. lomel 6 gone ae 
wi fe allintentaand purposes F & 
mains i the old Uanaantie religion. 
a alesis ins Srtien in the? aru: the k i 


A, 
a 
pur 


= eS Beer SAayiou is 7 thew OCR, eit 
: ‘ 7 » = 5 Is a ; 
worm. ihe PeOIne are pane by — 
7 : Me CoRY by} » 


te atimeded by obscene rites. 


ie. te ated, aud butian bag 


- 


HOSEA STRESSES DIVINE GRACE 93 


paying it homage. The temple priests are eager to accept 
the people’s propitiatory sacrifices which yield them revenue. 
So long as the ritual is observed, the sum of one’s duty to 
God is thought to have been accomplished. Yet the priests 
ought to know better; for that matter also the prophets, 
who ordinarily remain on a low level. The Book of God’s 
Torah is there to teach the true ‘knowledge of God,’ that 
which is essential in religion. But even ten thousandsuch 
books would remain unhonored. The people transgress all 
the commandments: they swear falsely, they murder, they 
steal, they commit adultery. There is no faith in the land, no 
love of man for man. Yet the thing that God desires is piety 
touched by love, love of God and love of man, not sacrifices; 
a right understanding of religious duty, rather than burnt- 
offerings. 

Israel’s piety is as unsubstantial and evanescent as a morn- 
ing cloud, as the mist which the hot sun dispels. Priests, 
magistrates, and royal courts alike pervert justice. Kings are 
deposed, and kings are set up; the men change, but their 
policies remain the same: all they do is to make covenants 
and break them. Just as a bird blunders into the fowler’s 
net, so Ephraim flutters betwixt Egypt and Assyria. Or, 
with another of the prophet’s similes, Ephraim, as he mixes 
himself up with the great powers, is as a cake not turned 
which is burnt to a crisp on one side, while it remains raw on 
the other. Israel is grown prematurely old; his strength is 
sapped by courting the favors of foreigners. 

The futile leaning upon the stranger, the aping of foreign 
customs, the want of a national policy, the prevalence of 
idolatrous worship, and the decay of morals must combine 
to bring about the catastrophe. The divine anger would be 
-unrelenting. Yet God is not vindictive like man. Hosea 
operates with the figure of marriage: there will be a new 
betrothal, in which Israel engages herself to practise justice 
and kindliness and faith. Or the relation of Israel to God is 
that of sonship; then God cannot stifle His paternal love. 
Israel must return to God, give up his idols, cease depending 
upon Assyria or Egypt. And if exile must come, it shall be 


94 AMOS AND HOSEA 


followed by a restoration under the lead of a new David. 

With Amos and Hosea is ushered in the line of the ‘writ- 
ing prophets.’ Men of action they continue to be, like their 
predecessors; but they are eminently men of the word, of the 
finished address, which they commit towriting. Apparently 
they believed that they had a message beyond their imme- 
diate generation. It was a literary age. Priests and wisemen, 
singers and story-tellers had long since begun to make use of 
the scribe’s pen. There were books of the Torah, books of 
songs and parables (Psalms, Proverbs), and books of his- 
tory. The kings had their annalists; in the guilds of the 
prophets the marvelous deeds of Samuel, of Elijah, of Elisha 
were strung together to form ‘lives.’ All these activities con- 
tinued beyond the period at which we have now arrived. 
But a new literary product sprang up, books no longer about 
the prophets, but by the prophets, arranged by themselves 
or under their immediate supervision. This new genre of 
book stands unrivaled in the world’s literature. Posterity 
cherished these prophetic writings, because it recognized in 
the prophets the masters of the nation’s destiny. The proph- 
ets imparted to their people a distinct character which 
enabled it to survive the loss of statehood. As so often in the 
history of Israel, the healing process preceded the stroke; the 
new order was preparing while the old order was wearing 
out. At this stage of history, it was the prophets who under- 
mined the state that the nation might live on. 


P1 “ER XVIII 
p Ths ASSYRIAN ADVANCE: 
ae Gitt-t20 


of Jehu came to an end when Zechariah, 
ec {his father Jeratioass il, was assassi- 


c his veat aa ae a ies anes he was 
nahem, who marched om Samaria from 
h. Tt 3 is obvious that the civil war was 
fest of two rival parties, the one leary 
¢ other favored Assyria. . 


s — the atone Assyrian monatch 


a nitted of Ghelr own accord: St chan 
‘to dispatch to the king of Assyria a 
gand talents of silver; the amount was 
opti men sane wealth oy. shekels 


we 
n of Bematiah, who entered the palace 


5 y Gileaddites. 
yrian party was now at the hein, Egypt was 
more than moral suppert; on the other 


h rose against Tiglath-pileser at 2 


“Philistine towns and da Amey daesep by 
. But in the north the Teena. 


95 


737) the pro-Assyrian sacle won the. 


of Assyria looked for substantial aid to: 


buey further east with the Medes, A. 
id; Pekah of [srael and Resin of Damascus. 
“2s two Phoenician seaports Tyre and Sidon 


i} 


Fe Ao wiate: x sy ge o DR eee FoR euder the 


‘, 5 * 
en oe Migue. qeret Gh ea. SS ah ered. m 
a oe 
ia Verte ‘ $ 
Ka a oF 4 = 
fsa § he, hae j 
, 
hw i ot oe P > 
td Pa ess * x q . 
. : Z 

Shove! Pain ae Vege a mennaee ey 
AAG. Bee Khe. Fe RE aX 
MEER AS eh Ceca Tad A ong since Si 
ie Sa } 

¥ ah, af; . 

“yy 
YF 
. Vy 

rie Sa Sa ; x 

+4 SS ie a3 

+ * = t@ Rea? 

* 7 + 

Pye er 

? 2 

rapt ia 

ca bony 

hE Fh " = 

; 
§ Lf 


eter poole ai at 


= < ~~ a < : af P 
5 et Po yy t? if Skt %} ee {ett tome ‘ state 
a+ 
fHsiory ai israe the 

™ ¥ > . % 
Tey Gast V 


out, At this eta ge a epee: iewand 
mined the state that the nation mig 


ae 
wt 
Ft 
- 
- 
* 
4 
be 
ra . ri 
i; 
} abt 
; 
t ; 
X 
me 
ms y fe 


CHAPTER XVIII 
ISAIAH AND THE ASSYRIAN ADVANCE 
(744-720) 


HE dynasty of Jehu came to an end when Zechariah, 

who succeeded his father Jeroboam II., was assassi- 

nated, after a reign of six months, by Shallum (744). 

The conspirator held his seat only for a month, when he was 

overpowered by Menahem, who marched on Samaria from 

the old capital Tirzah. It is obvious that the civil war was 

precipitated by the contest of two rival parties, the one lean- 
ing on Egypt, while the other favored Assyria. 

With Menahem (744-737) the pro-Assyrian party won the 
ascendancy. The advances of the powerful Assyrian monarch 
Tiglath-pileser IV. (745-727) seemed to leave no other choice 
open. With the rehabilitation of Assyrian power in northern 
Syria, exemplified by the incorporation of Arpad as a prov- 
ince of the mighty empire (740), Rezin of Damascus and 
Hiram of Tyre submitted of their own accord. Menahem, 
likewise, hastened to dispatch to the king of Assyria a 
tribute of a thousand talents of silver; the amount was 
raised by taxing sixty thousand men of wealth fifty shekels 
each. Menahem’s son, Pekahiah, sat on the throne barely 
two years (737-736), when he was murdered by one of his 
generals, Pekah son of Remaliah, who entered the palace 
with a body of fifty Gileadites. 

The anti-Assyrian party was now at the helm. Egypt was 
powerless to lend more than moral support; on the other 
hand, the enemies of Assyria looked for substantial aid to 
Armenia (Ararat), which rose against Tiglath-pileser at a 
time when he was busy further east with the Medes. A 
coalition was formed; Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus 
were joined by the two Phoenician seaports Tyre and Sidon 
as well as by several Philistine towns and an Arab queen by 
the name of Shamsi. But in the north the Phoenicians and, 


95 


96 - ISAIAH AND THE ASSYRIAN ADVANCE [736 


in particular, the Hittites, then the southern principalities, 
Judah, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and a part of Philistia, 
refused their participation. War was. declared against the 
recalcitrant states. The allied armies of Israel and Damascus 
marched into the territory of Judah. | 

The old king Uzziah had been incapacitated by reason of 
leprosy, and during the latter part of his reign his son Jotham 
had acted as regent. The son did not long survive his father; 
he appears to have died at the onset of the Syro-Ephraimitic 
war (736). His successor Ahaz (735-720) was a youth of 
twenty when heascended the throne. The allied kings, who 
had won over the Edomites by recovering for them the sea- 
port Elath, made ready to annex Judah and to place upon 
the throne a creature of their own. Jerusalem was in a state 
of panic. The king resolved quickly to appeal to the king of 
Assyria; ambassadors were dispatched bearing silver and 
gold from the Temple and palace treasures. In the mean- 
time preparations were made to withstand the siege by con- 
serving the water supply of the city. On a personal tour of 


ee Le OO eee eee 


—— 


inspection, at the end of the conduit of the Upper Pool, the | 


king was confronted by Isaiah son of Amoz, perhaps the 
greatest of the new order of prophets. 

Isaiah was called to the prophetic office in the year of king 
Uzziah’s death. The conditions in Judah were analogous to 
those which obtained in Israel at the close of Jeroboam’s 
reign. There was prosperity in the land, silver and gold and 
no end of treasures; the military strength was unimpaired, 
with a multitude of horses and no end of chariots. But, like 
Amos, Isaiah was alive to the reverse of the picture: the 
growth of large estates, the oppression of the poor, the 
frivolous pursuit of pleasure, the spread of superstitions and 
of idolatrous practices. Like Amos again, Isaiah stressed the 
gloomy aspect of the ‘Day of the Lord.’ God, for Isaiah, 
was the supremely Holy, sanctified through justice; all that 
is lofty in nature or in the creations of human ingenuity, the 


mighty cedars, the high hills, the towering fortifications, the — 


tallships, must be brought low that God alone may be exalted. 
The judgment over Judah was inevitable, but it was not to 


ne water supply aah yl: 
iaepection, at the end.af “ ie ce 


a 


as the supremely Noly, _ sanctified eh: 


‘5 és 4 x a 1 a : 5 i = 
Lee tbe} COTAER the hin bite 
ks eee 
Cit SAILS 


734] THE COUNSEL OF FAITH 97 


come through Ephraim or Damascus. When all Jerusalem 
was in consternation, the prophet had no fear of the flicker 
of those two expiring torches. Accompanied by his son Shear- 
jashub—a symbolic name expressing the prophet’s convic- 
tion that a Remnant would turn to God and be saved— 
Isaiah met the king’s nervous apprehensions with the counsel 
of quietistic faith. ‘Keep calm, and be quiet; if ye will not 
have faith (ta’aminu), ye shall not be established (te’amenu).’ 
So certain was this eminently religious personality of the 
futility of the combined attack that he bade the king ask a 
sign in confirmation of the prediction, in the netherworld 
below or in heaven above. As the monarch artfully declined 
to test God, the prophet unfolded the divine plan in its ful- 
ness. This very year, he announced, a young woman will have 
a son and call his name Immanuel (‘God is with us’). Before 
the boy shall be two or three years old, the allied kings will 
have departed from Judah. Then evil days will come upon 
Judah, such as she has not seen since the secession of Ephraim. 
Egypt and Assyria will lay the land waste. But then the 
Remnant that is left will return to the simple life of old, and 
a reign of everlasting peace and justice will be inaugurated 
by the ideal king who will supplant the present unworthy 
_ ruler. Isaiah had clearly in mind the Messiah from the stock 
of Jesse, a scion of the house of David whose advent he 
expected within his own lifetime. 

The policy of Ahaz, short-sighted though it was, had for 
the time being the desired effect. It was not difficult for the 
Assyrian king to break up the coalition. Damascus still 
offered forceful resistance. But Israel was stripped of Gilead 
and northeastern Galilee, and the population was deported 
to Assyria. That was the first act in the Assyrian captivity. 
Samaria was still left intact, for the reason that the opposi- 
tion made away with Pekah and placed his assassin, Hoshea 
son of Elah, upon the throne (734/3). Thusthe much shrunken 
kingdom of Israel was pacified, and Tiglath-pileser was ina 
position to invest Damascus. The siege lasted two full years, 
but at length the city was conquered. King Rezin was put to 
death, and the population deported. 


98 - ISAIAH AND THE ASSYRIAN ADVANCE 


Ahaz had accomplished his immediate purpose, but at the 
price of complete submission to Assyria. Judah, no less than 
Israel, was now a vassal state. Annual tribute was exacted of 
both. At Damascus Ahaz paid homage to the Assyrian con- 
queror. Here he saw an Assyrian altar; the conquest had 
naturally been sealed by the introduction of the Assyrian 
cult. The Judean king showed his obsequiousness by copying 
the model and sending it on to his priest Uriah in Jerusalem, 
who had a similar altar erected before the Temple in the 
place of the Solomonic altar. Ahaz furthermore introduced 
in Jerusalem the Assyrian worship of the constellations and 
the sun, which was conducted by an especial priesthood ; 
within the precincts of the Temple itself figures of sacred 
horses were set up in honor of the Assyrian sun-god. The 
national religion was eclipsed, as a sequel to the king’s pro- 
Assyrian policy so vigorously opposed by Isaiah the prophet. 


JAPTER X 
4. OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAH 
| (729-092) 


R was‘now free to turn against the 
of Babylon, whose ting Nelenassar 
the siege of Damascus, Nervi -the 
‘and the play of opposiog parties. The 
ast monarch was crowned with success, 
d Babylon and on the first of Nisan, 
ian new vear, ‘seized the bands of rhe 
oes Snes * Babylon under the 


= kt 


in the Pharaonic country shortly after _ 
maneser, and Hoshea of lerae! reached. 
aK h Deve, one of the Favptian dynasts, 
he payment of thé annual tribute to Assyria, eee 
ever, left Hushea in the lurch, and Shalmaneser 
in capturing and incarcerating the revolted 
gol not minded ‘to , wantenndes For three 


BO eculishe i his sticdéssor est 
with the custom of the Assyrians 
practised by. the Babylonians, the 


imen of wealth, the army and the priest- 
From Samaria ‘alone nearly thirty 
arried away. The exiles were transplanted to — 
i Media. The great maes of the people was | Stee 
who from the start had been friendly to. ae 
ers who were too feeble to offer resistance. | \ pe eee 


99 | 
° ; ; Os 
Y . 
: « 


e 
Pa 
© 
E= 
- 
& 
ty 


“it Lite 


cert (act vk by 
the tar 
hi ihe let woth. ts os ~ iia ee i? ate Be af al 4 he 
natione! respi weet ee wad. Soe ws 


Loy’ yy Vigne 
a 
ae 
’ 
; 
’ r , ‘ 
7 


CHAPTER XIX 
THE FALL OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAH 
(729-692) 


IGLATH-PILESER was now free to turn against the 
proud city of Babylon, whose king Nabonassar 
died during the siege of Damascus, leaving the 
country in confusion and the play of opposing parties. The 
ambition of the Assyrian monarch was crowned with success, 
when in 729 he entered Babylon and on the first of Nisan, 
the day of the Babylonian new year, ‘seized the hands of the 
god Marduk,’ thus becoming king of Babylon under the 
name of Pul. He died in 727 and was succeeded by Shal- 
maneser V. (727—722). The absence of the Assyrian monarch 
and the change in rulers stirred in the west hopes of inde- 
pendence which were fostered by Egypt. Thus Hanno king 
of Gaza left his exile in the Pharaonic country shortly after 
the accession of Shalmaneser, and Hoshea of Israel reached 
an understanding with Seve, one of the Egyptian dynasts, 
and stopped the payment of the annual tribute to Assyria. 
Egypt, however, left Hoshea in the lurch, and Shalmaneser 
had no difficulty in capturing and incarcerating the revolted 
king. His capital was not minded to surrender. For three 
years it was able to hold out against the Assyrian army. 
Shalmaneser died before the siege came to a close; the cap- 
ture of the city was accomplished by his successor Sargon 
(722). In accordance with the custom of the Assyrians 
(p. 97), subsequently practised by the Babylonians, the 
upper elements of the population of the country, consisting 
of functionaries and men of wealth, the army and the priest- 
hood, were deported. From Samaria alone nearly thirty 
thousand were carried away. The exiles were transplanted to 
Mesopotamia and Media. The great mass of the people was 
left behind, those who from the start had been friendly to 
Assyria and others who were too feeble to offer resistance. 


99 


100 - ‘THE FALL OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAH [720 


The land of Israel became a province of the Assyrian empire 
and was administered by an Assyrian governor. Neverthe- 
less the country was far from being pacified. 

A fresh revolt was organized by the king of Hamath, who 
won the adhesion of Hanno of Gaza, supported as he was by 
an Egyptian contingent under Seve. Samaria was drawn into 
the venture, perhaps unwillingly, while Judah wisely kept 
aloof. Sargon hastened to Syria before the allies effected a 
juncture (720). The king of Hamath was beaten at Karkar; 
the southern rebels were overwhelmed at Raphia, near Gaza, 
south of the Egyptian frontier. To prevent future disturb- 
ances, Sargon threw into Samaria foreign settlers, chiefly 
from various Babylonian cities but also from Arabia. Thus a 
mixed race arose, which came to be known as the Samaritans. 
Bethel was still the chief sanctuary, and an Israelitish priest 
instructed the new-comers in the cult of the land. At the 
same time the religion’ was inevitably contaminated by the 
paganism imported from the former homes of the colonists. 

The fall of Samaria, even while it was imminent, filled her 
Judean neighbor with apprehensions. ‘The evil is come unto 
Judah, it reacheth unto the gate of my people, even to Jeru- 
salem,’ so expressed himself the prophet Micah at Moresheth 
(a town in the Judean Lowland), whose antipathy to mili- 
tarism, as well as his denunciation of moral and religious 
corruption, equaled that of the Jerusalemite Isaiah. It was 
fortunate that Ahaz refused to be involved in the intrigues 
against Assyria. Hateful as the initial act of vassalage had 
been to Isaiah, the prophet saw that to throw up the allegi- 
ance to Assyria now would mean the immediate end of the 
Judean state. He was quite clear as to the futility of succor 
from Egypt. The course of submission to Assyria com- 
mended itself to Isaiah particularly when once more the 
throne was occupied by a man in the twenties. 

Hezekiah (720-692) may, at his birth, have inspired 
Isaiah’s song of the Wonderful Child upon the throne of 
David, the anointed Prince of Peace; but the young ruler 
was far from fulfilling these high Messianic expectations. 
Nevertheless, he was thoroughly imbued with. the idea of 


fF and compass Ch The fee 


. “be no more ex pre a ef Pea Cees 
convinced that at beta) war tided wore 
iMérent adjunct to spitiew 2 Pea. For thent 
of She “Torah was seceile ethical: ‘Do 
hn — yaa with “\eb “Seek justice, 
<i rar ies 


“a & 


lemple. “i he pig <= 


ti 


at the earliest pices taciment. Fis 
peide with Hanno (a. 1G) trvelved the 


ittively avainst siege, Mecekial had the 

Gihon stopped and ite waters comniected 
is tunnel to 2 Pool weatwand of the City of 
S Siloain inscription capenpnomnersting the 

@iscovered in 188% | 
dng of Ashdod, iw expectation a aid frets 
to rally the scanthera states egainet 
Gpscaded to give her adhesion. tr required 
sition of Isaias to inetpaee thet keieeg iz. with- 


3 he tant ae thy eh we re 
aod wee actin 


160) Te BA, ae 


throne was orcupied hy: 

Hezelsah (720-692) 
Isaiah’s song of the We ; 
David, the anointed eas of t | 
was far from fulfilling these high 


Nevertheless, he was thorough 


HEZEKIAH’S REFORMATION 101 


religious centralization and purification to which the better 
minds of the people, among priests, prophets, and thoughtful 
‘laymen, clung. It may be that there were differences of 
opinion as to method and compass of the reformation which 
was being set in motion. Radicals of the type of Isaiah and 
Micah, with their vision of the Ideal State in which war 
among nations would be no more and peaceful arbitration 
takeits place, were convinced that at best the sacrificial wor- 
ship w was an indifferent adjunct to spiritual religion. For them 
the quintessence of the Torah was strictly ethical: ‘Do 
justly, love mercy, walk humbly with God;’ ‘Seek justice, 
relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the 
widow.’ Much as they deprecated unmerited, and therefore 
false reliance upon the help of God, the conviction was 
rooted in them that God dwelt in Zion and spoke from the 
Holy Temple. Certainly the practical reformers set great 
store by abolishing the provincial sanctuaries and concen- 
trating worship in the Jerusalem Temple. The king readily 
fell in with their ideas; the country sanctuaries were closed; 
the idolatrous emblems were destroyed; in the Temple itself 
such stumbling-blocks as the figure of the Brazen Serpent 
were removed. 

Hezekiah did not dare to irritate his Assyrian overlord by 
doing away with the sun-horses erected by his father; nor 
was his reformation as thoroughgoing as it might have been. 
Politically, likewise, Hezekiah was wary, though disposed to 
break with Assyria at the earliest possible moment. His 
father’s refusal to side with Hanno (p. 100) involved the 
son in a -war with Gaza; fortune was on his side. To prepare 
Jerusalem more effectively against siege, Hezekiah had the 
issue of the Upper Gihon stopped and its waters conducted 
through a circuitous tunnel to a Pool westward of the City of 
David; the famous Siloam inscription commemorating the 
undertaking was discovered in 1880. 

When Azuri, king of Ashdod, in expectation of aid from 
Egypt, attempted to rally the southern states against 
Assyria, Judah was minded to give her adhesion. It required 
the drastic interposition of Isaiah to induce the king to with-. 


102 THE FALL OF SAMARIA. HEZEKIAH (711-701 


draw from the alliance. The prophet walked through the 
streets of Jerusalem half-clad and barefoot, in order to 
symbolize the capitivity in store for the chief instigators of - 
the trouble, the Cushite rulers on the throne of the Pharaohs. 
Ashdod was captured by Sargon’s general-in-chief and its 
population deported (711). 

Things looked more favorable when Sennacherib (705- 
681) followed his father Sargon at Nineveh. On the one side 
the Ethiopian dynasts in Egypt kept inciting the Palestinian 
states to revolt, and on the other, Merodach-baladan, who 
had raised himself as king of Babylon, was dispatching his 
embassies to stiffen opposition to the Assyrian empire. No 
one followed the negotiations with keener apprehension and 
clearer perception than Isaiah. How could one trust in 
Egypt, which was willing enough that the northern allies 
should do the fighting for her, while she remained passive in 
the background? From the height of his religious conviction, 
Isaiah counseled implicit faith in God. Hespoke to Hezekiah, 
as he had spoken to: Ahaz. ‘In sitting still and rest shall be 
your salvation, in quietness and confidence your strength.’ 
Politically expressed, it meant neutrality. Isaiah was as little 
pro-Assyrian as he was anti-Assyrian ; what he wanted was 
a national policy. | 

There was, however, an anti-Assyrian party at court. 
Hezekiah resolved to fall in with their views. Sidon in the 
north and Ashkelon in the south declared against Assyria; 
the king of Ekron, who persisted in his loyalty, was over- 
come and imprisoned by Hezekiah. Sennacherib wisely 
attacked the evil at its root; in 702 Babylon was stormed. 
The next year (701) Sennacherib marched against the west. 
The Phoenician cities, from Sidon to Acco, were subdued; 
Ashkelon was captured. At Eltekeh a battle was fought 
between the Assyrian forces and an Egyptian contingent. 
Sennacherib won a costly victory which enabled him to pro- 
ceed against Ekron. Ammon, Edom, and Moab hastened to 
make peace; Judah alone resisted. So Sennacherib reduced 
one Judean fortress after another. Hezekiah, shut up in his | 
capital, made offers of submission. Sennacherib demanded 


Doe ePRUSAI Cee 


e hinders (aioe of waiver and thir t; 
ak strained Hy “isimst to deliver (ax 
eee es 4 ee ie be ‘perpetrate ro 


igen ms ae bee Ying rent bis 
Prax Pens ot {geuyh, '&. ratercession 
: prophet rcs sn ae eee nor merehy 
yr hid ahaa ea Mixxer: suscepreta- 

lites. Paci) Ca ety the exbirer vf 
ope 53 a rf ha: ee Baie - ee ‘for 44 


ie deutysen shorn te “world. 
3 ges om, Chat Barer davies 
ed Ros oa teed ase 


coum annie 
tele: celal iarpbacy 


¥ 
’ Py =: ° 
7 . 
= 
. op. 
4 we 
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ho y :% ie ri aX 
= 0 \, mie e ioe 
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= > eee aie 


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ceed syaaet Reon. Am c —* aoa 
make peace; Judah alone resisted; Set 
one jadean fortress alter auother ¥ 
capital, sade offers of swhmissiony 


701] JERUSALEM DELIVERED 103 


an indemnity of three hundred talents of silver and thirty 
talents of gold. Hezekiah strained his utmost to deliver the 
tribute to the Assyrian camp at Lachish. Sennacherib, how- 
ever, dispatched his commander-in-chief to ask also for the 
surrender of the capital. As the negotiations with Hezekiah’s 
ministers led to noresult, the commander proceeded to invest 
Jerusalem. 

The city was in a panic. What could be done hastily to 
strengthen the fortifications, was done. The king rent his 
garments in mourning and implored Isaiah’s intercession 
with the Lord. The prophet rose to the occasion not merely 
as a patriot, but from the depth of his religious interpreta- 
tion of international politics. To him God was the arbiter of 
nations; what power was given to Assyria was solely for the 
purpose of carrying out the divine plan. Asshur was merely 
the instrument, the rod of the divine anger, to destroy sinful 
Israel and Judah. But arrogant Assyria considers world- 
conquest an end initself and boasts of leveling the boundaries 
of nations and of amassing endless spoil. ‘Should the axe 
boast itself against him that heweth therewith?’ God there- 
fore is jealous for His city. Out of Jerusalem shall go fortha 
remnant. The king of Assyria shall not come unto the city, 
nor shoot an arrow there. 

Whether it was the rumor of an army marching from Egypt 
or of fresh disturbances in the east, or because of a pestilence 
which broke out in the army, or for all these reasons, Senna- 
cherib concluded peace with Egypt. The Palestinian cam- 
paign was abruptly terminated. Jerusalem was delivered. 
The hearth of God on Zion stood inviolate. Isaiah’s prophecy 
was magnificently fulfilled. 


CHAPTER XX 
MANASSEH. JOSIAH. JEREMIAH 


(692-609) 


Pr “ur Assyrian overlordship, of course, remained in 
force. Assyria was at the zenith of its power. Tirha- 
kah, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, tried his best to 

instigate new revolts in the northern lands; but they remained 

fruitless. Sennacherib’s son, Esarhaddon (681-669), and 
grandson, Ashurbanipal (668-626), carried the war into 

Egyptian territory; Memphis was conquered in 6/1 and 

Thebes in 666. Both these kings strengthened their hold on 

the province of Samaria by fresh colonization from other 

countries. In Judah there may have been slight fluctuations; 
but in the main the pro-Assyrian party had the upper hand. 
The long reign of Hezekiah’s son, Manasseh (692-638), 

who ascended the throne at the age of twelve years, was a 

period of reaction, both politically and religiously. The 

reforms of the previous reign were wiped out; the reformers 
paid for their obstinacy with their lives. According to a late 
legend, the aged prophet Isaiah was cruelly done to death. 

The rural sanctuaries were reopened and the impure rites 

reintroduced. Old and gruesome practices were resuscitated. 

In the valley of Hinnom, west and southwest of Jerusalem, 

children were passed through the fire; the king offered his 

own son, exactly as Ahaz had done. The ancient forms of 
augury and divination, repeatedly suppressed, were revived. 

The Assyrian cult of the heavenly constellations was par- 

ticularly favored. In the Temple itself an image of the Assyr- 

ian Ishtar, ‘the queen of heaven,’ was erected. Within the 
sacred precincts young women offered their bodies in honor 
of the deity; the proceeds flowed into the Temple treasury, 
and the children were raised for menial service of the Tem- 
ple. Mosaism was completely eclipsed, and all copies of the 
Torah of Moses were destroyed or sequestered. 


104 


SARE RPFORMATION OF JOSIAn 10s 


tereguiariy, and fudean contingents fought 
WW expeditionary force in Egypt. The con- 
fwever, proved illusory. Psammetich I. 
ex ed his omens secboiapeabvray i645), 


"The etic power began rapidly te 
es had sét up an independent kingdom under 
tes eet were threatening from the east; in 

imme fans were held at bay with the aid of the 
Bebemnscy exerted iteelf in playing. off 
es, ail of Aryan stoek, one against the 
the ‘enemics of Assvvia could count on 
port. Well might the refersier-disciples of 
ke heart. Asshur was ntt invincible: God 


ts Head. Amon war axsasifiated in the 
eur (638). But che ‘pedite of the land’ 
#evolution and placed. upon the throne 
an) Wie was but eight vex obt> The Aasyr- 

it to be reckoned with, dud the reactionary 


ia menacing Asavela. atel. Fevpt alike. 
Bed along the coast. ei ving the exterior of 
tea, The voice of propiacny-te* ete more 


au. To the serine aeeeaed id ve eiet 
sis™ it meant @ weet! “olmeest> fram 

fd-emerge purifetl. P52; fue ste cone 
Rdting: idolatry, aplege mm smeiiee, poiat 


Sha Was Come try nea det Boe tase eye Zig 
is reign (621), he wes ee ree get Pathe 


n reform pari. it as Knsepillmectiet 4, See cane 


| need of repairs. The thawncin Salone wee 
Fooniunction with the High pew (Awe oe take 


quite reconciled to vassalage under Assyria; 


But the Seyth ran . heuties hod spread: 


“laren and Zephassah wisp che vmceniinty 


i 


itp. 


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chaiclees soow pris | Pea the | 
owe ooxactiy ae Abas hee Sionaly 
diya: ¥ ase cb vie beri rope peartexkly 
The Awyrian eulp of the heewemnge 
dietary favored, In the Teenpla ts 
mA Tatter, “the queen of heaved am 
sabre precincts young women: Nea 
om the diniy: the peren. eects fowed . ‘i 
and the chidren were raised for “ae 
me. Mosalsr was completely celia 
Torah of Moses were destroved Or §¢ 


, 368 


621] THE REFORMATION OF JOSIAH 105 


Manasseh was quite reconciled to vassalage under Assyria; 
he paid his tribute regularly, and Judean contingents fought 
among the Assyrian expeditionary force in Egypt. The con- 
quest of Egypt, however, proved illusory. Psammetich I. 
(664-609) renounced his allegiance to Ashurbanipal (645), 
at a time when the Assyrian monarch was busy in Elam and 
the revolt of his own brother in Babylon strained all of his 
fighting resources. The Assyrian power began rapidly to 
sink. The Medes had set up an independent kingdom under 
Deioces before 645 and were threatening from the east; in 
the west the Cimmerians were held at bay with the aid of the 
Scythians. Assyrian diplomacy exerted itself in playing off 
these warlike peoples, all of Aryan stock, one against the 
other. Naturally the enemies of Assyria could count on 
Babylonia for support. Well might the reformer-disciples of 
Isaiah in Judah take heart. Asshur was not invincible. God 
in Zion was supreme. 

When Manasseh was succeeded by his son Amon, the 
opposition raised its head. Amon was assassinated in the 
second year of his reign (638). But the ‘people of the land’ 
suppressed the revolution and placed upon the throne 
Amon’s son, Josiah, who was but eight years old. The Assyr-: 
ian power was still to be reckoned with, and the reactionary 
party was in the saddle. But the Scythian hordes had spread 
over western Asia, menacing Assyria and Egypt alike. 
Luckily, they passed along the coast, leaving the interior of 
Palestine unscathed. The voice of prophecy was once more 
heard in Judah. Nahum and Zephaniah saw the oncoming 
of Nineveh’s downfall. To the serious mind of the strict: 
followers of Mosaism it meant a world judgment, from 
which Judah would emerge purified. For there was much 
that required uprooting: idolatry, aping the foreigner, social 
injustice. 

When King Josiah was come to man’s estate, in the eigh- 
teenth year of his reign (621), he was ready to give ear to the 
anti-Assyrian reform party. It so happened that the Temple. 
was again in need of repairs. The chancellor Shaphan was 
ordered, in conjunction with the high priest Hilkiah, to take 


106 MANASSEH. JOSIAH. JEREMIAH [626 


the necessary steps. While the restoration was in progress, 
when much rubbish had been removed and ancient layers 
uncovered, the priest chanced upon a copy of the Torah of 
Moses. It may have been the copy sequestered by Manasseh 
(p. 104) or one immured during the repairs under Jehoash 
(p. 82), if it was not the volume deposited at the time of 
the building of the Temple by Solomon. The priest handed 
the book to the chancellor, who read it. When reporting to 
the king concerning the progress of the Temple repairs, 
Shaphan produced the recovered book and read it to the 
king. Josiah was profoundly impressed. The forecast of evil 
with which the nation was threatened for its long dis- 
obedience moved him to send a deputation, consisting of the 
priest and. the royal ministers, to the prophetess Huldah, 
that she might intercede on behalf of the penitent king. 
Josiah then convoked the elders of Judah and Jerusalem. 
In the presence of the priests, the prophets, and the assem- 
bled people, the Book of the Covenant, which was found in 
the Temple, was read. From a platform erected in the Tem- 
ple court the king proclaimed the Torah of Moses as the law 
of the realm. The people gave solemn assent. Then the king 
ordered the most thoroughgoing demolition of all idolatrous 
altars and symbols in the Temple area, in the city, and in 
itsenvirons. The rural sanctuaries in the realm were rendered 
unfit for sacrificial service; their priests were granted main- 
tenance from the Temple revenue, but were disqualified 
from officiating. The king’s officers overran the Samaritan 
province—it shows how little interference could be offered 
by the Assyrian governor and garrisons—the high places 
were closed; the temple at Bethel was destroyed. In Jeru- 
salem, the feast of Passover was observed in the purified 
Temple in accordance with the prescriptions of the Torah. 
Among the supporters of the rehabilitation of Mosaism 
was the young prophet Jeremiah, who belonged to a branch 
of the priesthood at Anathoth and whose ministry began in 
the thirteenth year of Josiah (626). It was his fate to be 
disillusioned as the first enthusiasm died away. The popular 
religion could not be ruled out of existence by an official 


©) THE FALL OF NINEVER | 107 


e surface again. The retuen to the Lord was 
hearted; only a definitive judgment from 
@ nation to penitence. Jeremiah was in 
red sors in the prophetic office when 

erated value placed on the sacrificial 
joned its Mosaic sanction, He believed 


Pe vain, The Sake kind of Tovak | is the 
heatt. Tiere must be an inward willing: 
| paid ahi srg Riper eeencaune T ie 


848 Bees, ne wie out wife ae chit. 
cated a man ot strife e with a arid the ie 


h phe Scythian hia if had thrown together 
( e: ; Beypt and Assyria. Moreover, Egypt 
t pee with Assyria and ensure itsown hold 
is side of the Euphrates. This plan, the coali- 
‘monarchs, Nabdopolassar of Babylon (625- 
S Of Media (624-585), resisted with all their 
th of Ab, 612, Nineveh fell before the com- 
tbylonians, Medes, and Scythians. The 
turned into a mound and ruin, which it 
A new capital was established westward 
fe the commander of the Assyrian forces, 
imed the throne. The new ruler waa com 
eet city i retire to — (610). In 609 


-- 


a? ee SS 


>, 
oS 
a, a 
o 


ayo Ce NAABED. OMAR GRR 


hedh pepe tsuki eheges. Wire tine restorat 
sehen. eatin Fi opine badd tegen sees 
; apradinmdinst, he sariest cha aed — ~ } 
ikewa bs Penis s eee Cee, Tae eopy 

Cute: jerry pied Et per iss ict 


es Se way cor the sole dep 
a a ' ¥ relay ; * te Fy gy wer y neniec 


Sw tire coucerainy <he: egos es 
bel aes ehh Bat AMR ta recovered 
wots, Friar wee prin isnt fine 

wilt: seek che on we threat 


a te: Teter ries: eg. tie ee: the « te 

tibet gempe. he Book 3 J the Covenant, 
tee. Taranic, teas eco, Frome plattoi Orit 
ges Qe Et hae kine orocleumnedt the Te y ¢ 
4 { i Pena. ‘the perv nt § rie solemn ot 
idee shee ‘sost Thoreug hong: cer 
_ fs ae evmibole on the se are 


nhs fee moewitit fe be BES VIOES > theix priests 
teriatice ‘aici the Femple revenue, ; 
from. officiating. The king's officers & 
proexvinge-~ji showa how wae ites 
ly the Asvrien governor and 2 
were closed; the tem; det at Bethel was 
adiem, the feast of a was ob: 
Teenie in accordance with the presen it 

Agony the supporters of the rehabilita at 

way the voung prophet Tererniahs, who sels 
d tne t priesthood : at Aner ane e 


duiteeiennd as the beet entbusiaamd 
me could not be ruled out of € 


612] THE FALL OF NINEVEH 107 


act; it came to the surface again. The return to the Lord was 
seen to be half-hearted; only a definitive judgment from 
God would bring the nation to penitence. Jeremiah was in 
line with his great predecessors in the prophetic office when 
he deprecated the exaggerated value placed on the sacrificial 
cult, and he even questioned its Mosaic sanction. He believed 
in no compromise; it was useless to sow among thorns; the 
soil should be broken up afresh. Like Hosea, he realized the 
ineffectiveness of the written Torah alone. “The pen of the 
scribes hath labored in vain.’ The right kind of Torah is the 
one written in the heart. There must be an inward willing- 
ness to obey, a mind receptive of spiritual influences. The 
voice of the stern moralist was needed in the face of false 
security. Jeremiah led a lonely life, without wife and chil- 
dren; he knew himself as a man of strife with priests and the 
ordinary run of prophets. But the fire of true conviction 
burned within him; there was a compelling force to speak the 
truth, to chide but also to sustain. He loved his people 
tenderly; beyond the catastrophe which he knew must come 
he saw hope. He looked forward to a reunion of deported 
Israel with Judah; the continued existence of God’s elect 
people was to him as certain as the permanence of heaven 
and earth. 

Clouds were gathering on the political horizon. Such is the 
game of politics that the Scythian peril had thrown together 
the former enemies, Egypt and Assyria. Moreover, Egypt 
hoped to come to terms with Assyria and ensure its own hold 
on the lands this side of the Euphrates. This plan, the coali- 
tion of opposing monarchs, Nabopolassar of Babylon (625- 
605) and Cyaxares of Media (624-585), resisted with all their 
force. In the month of Ab, 612, Nineveh fell before the com- 

bined attack of Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians. The 
proud city was turned into a mound and ruin, which it 
remained ever after. A new capital was established westward 
in Haran, where the commander of the Assyrian forces, 
Ashuruballit, assumed the throne. The new ruler was com- 
pelled to evacuate the city and retire to Syria (610). In 609 
Necoh II., who had just succeeded his father Psammetich, 


108 MANASSEH. JOSIAH. JEREMIAH [609 


hastened to join forces with the Assyrian monarch in order 
to advance on Haran. 

The Egyptian army marched along the coast. Gaza, which 
offered resistance, was overcome. As Necoh made ready to 
descend into the Valley of Jezreel over the Carmel passes, 
Josiah, who had annexed the Israelitish country and was as 
little minded as the Philistines of Gaza to forego his inde- 
pendence, sought to prevent the passage by force of arms. 
A battle was fought at Megiddo; the Judeans were worsted, 
and Josiah was mortally wounded (609). The body of the 
dead king was taken to Jerusalem for burial. The ‘people of 
the land’ placed upon the throne his son Jehoahaz, who 
could be trusted to continue his father’s policy. 


MPT ER XX 
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as vermoved to Egypt, where he died. In 
6 fis brother Jchoiakim (608-598) and 
Pel a hundred talents of silver and one 
im apparent!y favored a policy the 
thers and {fendiy to Egypt. 1¢ also 
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en was eagerly and openly pursued. ‘The 
laf were addicted to it, and they baked 
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ad | mae. 


4 bet seciirity, mee tee at eet same time 
al corruption and idolatry in the land. 
em destroyed aforetime? So would it faré 
mise of God in Jerusalem The Peroren 


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iin the time of Hezekiah. Jeremiah had a 
Bpectable following, while another prophet, 
pai mind, was put to death La the king's: 


th ae ally tad siege to lew: but were 4 
' pepyosions and Medes: In 605 Necohagain : 
cross the Euphrates: but he was beaten at. ae 


BR diticco off for. good. Babylon had become 


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THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH 


(608-586) 


to the Assyro-Egyptian headquarters in Syria (at 
Riblah in the province of Hamath) and put in bonds; 
subsequently he was removed to Egypt, where he died. In 
his place Necoh set his brother Jehoiakim (608-598) and 
exacted an indemnity of a hundred talents of silver and one 
talent of gold. Jehoiakim apparently favored a policy the 
very reverse of his father’s and friendly to Egypt. It also 
meant a step backward on the religious side. The cult of the 
‘queen of heaven’ was eagerly and openly pursued. The 
women in particular were addicted to it, and they baked 
cakes upon which the image of the goddess was formed. Had 
not misfortune come since they left off worshiping her? so 
reasoned the common man. 

In official circles reliance was placed upon the Temple. 
Jeremiah thought differently. It was vain to point to the 
Temple as a guarantee of security, when at the same time 
there was gross moral corruption and idolatry in the land. 
Had not Shiloh been destroyed aforetime? So would it fare 
with the holy house of God in Jerusalem. The outspoken 
prophet was set upon, and the populace clamored for his 
death. But his friends intervened, pointing to a similar bold 
prophecy by Micah in the time of Hezekiah. Jeremiah had 
apparently a respectable following, while another prophet, 
Uriah, who was of like mind, was put to death by the king’s 
orders. 

Necoh and his Assyrian ally laid siege to Haran, but were 
repulsed by the Babylonians and Medes. In 605 Necoh again 
attempted to cross the Euphrates; but he was beaten at 
Carchemish and driven off for good. Babylon had become 
the seat of power. The Babylonian forces were commanded 


109 


EHOAHAZ reigned but three months. He was summoned 


110 _THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH [594 


by the crown-prince N ebuchadrezzar, who within the same 
year succeeded his father upon the throne of the new empire. 
Jeremiah hailed him immediately as the Servant of the Lord, 
from whom he had received dominion. Jehoiakim gave in 
to the anti-Egyptian party and swore allegiance to the 
Babylonian king (601); he must have realized by then that 
no help was to come from Necoh. But after three years he 
broke away. At the command of Nebuchadrezzar, Judah 
was invaded by contingents from the neighboring nations in 
conjunction with Chaldean troops. Jehoiakim lost his life 
(598) and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin. After three 
months, Nebuchadrezzar appeared in person to direct the 
siege of the city. Jehoiachin immediately surrendered. 
Accompanied by the queen-mother, his harem, and hiscourt, 
he was taken to the enemy’s headquarters; thence they were 
deported as captives to Babylonia. With them were carried 
away likewise the nobility and the substantial part of the 
citizenry constituting the army, seven thousand in number, 
as well as one thousand craftsmen, with their families. A 
portion of the sacred vessels, along with treasures from the 
Temple and palace, wasalso carried off to Babylonia. This 
was the first Babylonian deportation (597). 

The last king on the throne of David was Zedekiah (597-— 
587), another son of Josiah. He bound himself by an especial 
oath to serve the king of Babylon. But Egypt continued to 
stir up trouble; the two parties—the loyalists who stood by 
Babylon and the hotheads who looked to Egypt for help— 
were pitted against each other to the point of violence and 
bloodshed. The political division involved religious con- 
sequences: on the one side men, and especially women, gave 
themselves up to the worship of the Babylonian goddess of 
love (Ishtar) and her son Tammuz, as well as of the sun- 
god; and on the other side the cult of the sacred animals of 
Egypt was carried on in an underground chamber. Appar- 
ently those who favored leaning on Egypt thought it dis- 
cretion to plot in secret. | 

In 594 the court of Jerusalem was visited by embassies 
from Edom, Ammon, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon, in order to 


in a coma tet mgsiee WAST 


By re 


a: 


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Hopes were being mie SOD ch pert eg 
Mhdme and among gic idiaeg tise) Res 

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Sae-7) JERUSALEM INVESTED 111 


induce Zedekiah to join in a coalition against Babylon. Jere- 
miah exerted his utmost to keep the king on the side of 
prudence. False hopes were being raised by ultra-patriotic 
prophets, both at home and among the deported exiles in 
Babylonia, who predicted the speedy collapse of the Baby- 
lonian power and the restoration of the sacred vessels. Jere- 
miah appeared with a yoke around his neck, as a symbol of 
the continued domination of Babylon; but a prophet of the 
opposition, by the name of Hananiah, broke the yoke in the 
sight of the people. Jeremiah dispatched letters to the exiles, 
counseling them to prepare for a protracted stay in captivity 
—to build houses and make homes for themselves and pray 
for the welfare of the state in which they dwelt—until God 
in His own time should lead them back. It was the year of 
accession of Psammetich II].in Egypt (594-588). In 590 we 
hear of an Egyptian campaign in Palestine. Psammetich’s 
successor, Hophra (588-569), was more active in pushing his 
claims. The Phoenician cities yielded to the force of his arms; 
Zedekiah, half-willingly, threw himself on the side of Egypt. 

Nebuchadrezzar was now determined to make an end of 
the aggressions of the rival power. He established his head- 
quarters at Riblah, exactly as Necoh had done previously. A 
part of his army was dispatched against Tyre; with his main 
forces he appeared in the winter 588/7 before the gates of 
Jerusalem. He proceeded at once to lay siege to the city. 
The walls were strong and the defenders fought stubbornly. 
So Nebuchadrezzar built a rampart about the city with a 
view to starving the population within. An Egyptian army 
advanced towards the stricken city, and the Babylonians 
were compelled temporarily to raise the siege. As Jeremiah 
made his way to his home in Anathoth, he was seized on the 
charge of deserting to the enemy. He was placed by the war 

party in a damp subterranean dungeon. 
King Zedekiah had the prophet transferred to the guard 
house. A secret meeting was arranged between the king and 
the prophet in the Temple precincts. Jeremiah persisted in 
his advice to save the city by timely surrender. But the war 
party was too strong for the vacillating king. Jeremiah was 


112 “THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH [586 


once more confined in the guard house; there he received his 
daily rations as long as bread was to be had in the beleaguered 
city. The Egyptians had been fought off by Nebuchadrezzar, 
who now set up his engines against the northern wall. On the 
ninth day of Tammuz, 586, a breach was effected. Zedekiah 
fled toward the Jordan, but was overtaken at Jericho. He 
was conveyed to the enemy’s headquarters at Riblah and 
there witnessed the slaughter of his sons and of members of 
the Judean nobility. Then his eyes were put out, and the 
blind king was taken in chains to Babylon. 

A month later, on the seventh of Ab, Nebuzaradan, the 
Babylonian commander-in-chief, came with orders to destroy 


Jerusalem. The remainder of the sacred vessels was carried © 


away; so also a quantity of bronze from the dismantled 
columnsand basins. The Temple, the royal palace, and many 
of the mansions of the nobles were set on fire. The walls were 
razed to the ground. ‘The population was led captive to 
Babylonia. This was the second Babylonian deportation. 
The conqueror was resolved not to leave so formidable a 
fortress standing to thwart the advance on Egypt which he 
must have contemplated. With the Judean fighting strength 
destroyed or else in exile under his own eyes in Babylonia, 
he had no desire to annihilate the Judean nation. On the con- 
trary, it was good policy to consolidate that part of it which 
from the start had been loyal, as a bulwark against Egyptian 
machinations. So on the very day on which Jerusalem was 
destroyed, Nebuzaradan sought out those friendly to Baby- 
lonian rule, among them Jeremiah, and set up an autonomous 
community, with Gedaliah, the grandson of Josiah’s chan- 
cellor,as governor residing at Mizpah. Thus the restoration 
had begun, anda Remnant wassaved. Jeremiah was rewarded 
with a pension from the Babylonian king. _ 

But the community was not to last. There had gathered 
about Gedaliah all of the poorer folk that had not been car- 
ried away; Jews—for we must from now on call the people 
by the English name, which is but a corruption of ‘Judeans’— 
who had fled to the neighboring countries, returned, among 


them several princes and princesses of blood royal; even | 


fg MURDEE OF GEDALIAR pea AAS 


elites in the marth attached tbermselves 
h. he But the very constitution of the new 
m int the flesh of the Ammonite king 
: designs upon the vanquished toun- 
Stigated the murder of Gedaliah by 
of the defunct royal house, Ishmael 


sd the reprisals of Nebuchadrezzar, 
ian garrivon at Mizpah had been 
arms: Sin té emigrate to Eeypt, roauch 
a frei, whom they” eas * with 


res: sort of aug that tock up their phic} in 
a. 1 h pin WIS! th stile ia Egypt was destined to 
1t0 ihe land of the Pharaohs ata much 
. € const’ relations with Egypt since the 
f dynasty in the tirnes of Solemon, especially 
s as ts: inany a Jew settling in that coun- 

: come away as slaves, and still others, 


ui carmy. After the exputsion of the Ethi- 
ine oom of, Jewish descent guarded the 
tin “Upper Egypt. Thes Joremiah found 
is both in Upper amd in Lower Egypt. 
ve their nationality and practised the re- 
hown in the rural distriega of Judea from 
me, Jeri met with stubkern opposition 
1 the Bevptian Jews for their unwilling- 


down to Persian tinsesc 


Rassapains eacaped to Ammon. Those © 


¢ Babylonia, bat Jews had com- - 


, found emysloytment as mercen-_ 


pworship of the ‘queen of heaven,’ ane 


Aili 


a Thy, (a 


apart ee 4 CLA ee yell ssieaae sii 
ntkeprae a + AE ee pees 
“star. Kees 20?) ak eae eae 


hak ee ~~ Of ‘ fs we Oe 

wnt 2 tees 

ce i ea 

tee tee (eset pap ees ‘ee 
Duets wicomsat 2 re nantes nf his 


ie Taplin vedablits mp pee eyes & 

ssi fe opel.’ 2s ET CARS ANS ‘®, Babyt . 
5 aie iihs Avon xis sey seveuth of A . 
Paci oy bash g OR yg —_— 


Pe } : 
rome i 
. 

yi e By > - 
» * x > ‘ $ ¥ 
2 Paige's Fy 

< 
bev uty TA Se 
dhtjed Feo g cst 

" Pw ~ ‘ 

Cee eee? ct Ce ee red be dial 


y 


v9 whta- god polls > consolidate 
freien fiw: afarh foie’ hee ay vl, asa Drude 
ragolinat cms.» eS ae ery duce ‘on: 
gestreyed, Nchurarain pied ne 
hovevaars 3 He, aUrorig 


Ponies, whl 


et 2 os we Trea 

Wer’ bree Capri 
athens? i sedaliah all of the pinter folks: 
rie) ayer; seesBiaal © we tiat frost 2 
by side } ‘ane acne, whch is bata 
who tus fed ey rah ys wnhb KTH 4 
them vers! prin Ces and prt 


THE MURDER OF GEDALIAH 113 


remnants of the Israelites in the north attached themselves 
to the residue of Judah. But the very constitution of the new 
community was a thorn in the flesh of the Ammonite king 
Baalis, who had his own designs upon the vanquished coun- 
try. Accordingly he instigated the murder of Gedaliah by 
the hands of a member of the defunct royal house, Ishmael 
son of Nethaniah. The assassins escaped to Ammon. Those 
who were left behind feared the reprisals of Nebuchadrezzar, 
seeing that the Babylonian garrison at Mizpah had been 
butchered. They determined to emigrate to Egypt, much 
against the advice of Jeremiah, whom they dragged with 
them into involuntary exile in the land he most thoroughly 
abhorred. 

It was the poorest sort of Jews that took up their abode in 
the Delta. The Jewish settlement in Egypt was destined to 
become a center rivaling Babylonia, but Jews had com- 
menced to drift into the land of the Pharaohs at a much 
earlier period. The constant relations with Egypt since the 
rise of the Libyan dynasty in the times of Solomon, especially 
the trade in horses, led to many a Jew settling in that coun- 
try. Others were carried away as slaves, and still others, 
among Asiatics in general, found employment as mercen- 
aries in the Pharaonic army. After the expulsion of the Ethi- 
opians, soldier colonies of Jewish descent guarded the 
southern frontier in Upper Egypt. Thus Jeremiah found 
Jewish communities both in Upper and in Lower Egypt. 
These Jews clung to their nationality and practised the re- 
ligion they had known in the rural districts of Judea from 
which they came. Jeremiah met with stubborn opposition 
when he upbraided the Egyptian Jews for their unwilling- 
ness to abandon the worship of the ‘queen of heaven,’ and 
her cult persisted down to Persian times. 


CHAPTER XXII 
THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 
(586-538) 


Jews left in their home country at all. What happened 

was simply that the repeated deportations to the north 
and the exodus to the south had thinned the population and 
left chiefly the poorest classes. Some stretches of the land 
must have been desolate, and none too friendly neighbors, 
like the Edomites, moved up into the territory vacated. The 
loss of statehood and Temple was a staggering blow, which 
called forth sorrowful lamentations; but time proved a won- 
derful healer, and life fashioned itself as tolerably as condi- 
tions permitted. 

The backbone of the nation was, however, in Babylonia. 
By the rivers and canals of Babylon they sat, they wept. In 
the first few years they were deluded with the hope of a 
speedy return. Their king, Jehoiachin, was in custody; but 
another king was still sitting upon the throne of David, and 
they watched with beating hearts the developments at home. 
The news of the catastrophe of 586 produced consternation ; 
now there remained nothing but to heed the counsel of 
Jeremiah and to make themselves at home in the foreign 
land. The majority of them were settled in compact colonies 
or groups. The soil was more fertile than on the rocky hills 
of Judea; it was well irrigated by a system of canals. One of 
their settlements was Tel-abib, by the Great Canal (the 
‘River’ Chebar) near Nippur. They enjoyed a complete 
measure of autonomy; they kept up their old family ties; 
their internal affairs were ordered by their own bodies of 
elders. Thus they had their own jurisdiction and felt them- 
selves to be a national group. 

What differentiated these new-comers from the Israelites 
whom the Assyrians had deported more than a century before 


114 


| 7 MUST not be supposed for a moment that there were no 


’ 


BZBRIWS 415 


igtance that thie srp rmgtte kad intir- 
b brethren pratwpsy Sain eter bed by 
at-—we speak at Com Mest ter vei 
dust have mainte itn identiy in. 
and beyond, bo te minegitel Lxene with 
| : Jews, on: the wites Gane, im their 
pilonia, had betters osname of che 
which set them apart from ali ocher 
ssa the rehabilitysion of the Moeaic 
other sites were the ‘wigna® by which 
and beld together; they had been 
Lrebubes of the great prapnets, «hose 
mever before, took to heart, ti was 
ake present getictation was expist- 
sere. (the fathers. have eaten sous 
r “3 *s teeth are set on edge’). Some in 
dAumed to the worship of stocks and 
8 beddy of che peuple proved poriay a) and 
hey iad 4 prophet among tletia, ch as 
thd) or alcver the dead Hema 
B eartied away with Ube fer dhe 
Gas @ cavimber of the saucer ioe 
; im at Zartiok, Im has ‘Cae ine a Sindeed 2" 
ofS $iet fantastians, ad eekly atone 
a ure. a Trataen let ay - ‘tapRiondl 
ra tien. His serene te Rie gna: com: 
re eyrtien ol tie lites pued of 
: COL | bes aterp prnwehe MOMS Rye eae vey 
¢ war sich aocked sheen Oe wnilies ce 
/ 0 er evect —e $reg Hiyeer ot EPS: £% 
— im. bis reek on 
aa Be tastes. = Soak eyes, Br RLS, , bhai 
rie be: cighvety atom, irrenpen try 
te the rosin ahs serrata sf. 
elope: wolely. wel tie iye. colmia pee 
ts pemitivg Rectan prices = ae ctar ane om 
new + 2 geri at pak Ayaedk acne Sk F uge'aae 
: ips cama. ail wad % gle ceeded | 


lepetece x; ry 
lasned Sey Pat ea 
pees ete yh : 
eee we reir Tee 
\ = Prost: ware Curt regres tee 7 ~*ee 7 


EZEKIEL 115 


was just the circumstance that this very respite had inter- 
vened. The Israelitish brethren probably were absorbed by 
the foreign environment—we speak of the ‘lost ten tribes’— 
though some residue must have maintained its identity in 
the Median highlands and beyond, to be merged later with 
the Jewish people. The Jews, on the other hand, on their 
transplantation to Babylonia, had become conscious of the 
religious uniqueness which set them apart from all other 
nations. They had witnessed the rehabilitation of the Mosaic 
Torah; the sabbath and other rites were the ‘signs’ by which 
they knew each other and held together; they had been 
chastened by the stern rebukes of the great prophets, whose 
lessons they now, as never before, took to heart. It was 
depressing to think that the present generation was expiat- 
ing the sins of the fathers (‘The fathers have eaten sour 
grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge’). Some in 
despair stumbled and turned to the worship of stocks and 
stones; but the main body of the people proved penitent and 
docile. Moreover, they had a prophet among them, such as 
their brethren in Egypt had not after the death of Jeremiah. 

Ezekiel, who had been carried away with the first deporta- 
tion under Jehoiachin, was a member of the regular Jeru- 
salem priesthood, the sons of Zadok. In his person prophetic 
imagination, bordering on the fantastical, and priestly sober- 
ness of judgment were united in a measure singularly called 
for by the changed situation. His service to his people con- 
sisted, indeed, in the recognition of the imperative need of 
the moment. He could be a stern preacher after the manner 
of the ancients; he was much shocked when his audience 
admired his pleasing voice and then went home to persist in 
their evil way. There was for him no compromise with sin. 
But he held out hope to the sinner. Each man, he taught, has 
in himself the power to be righteous or wicked, irrespective 
of hereditary predisposition; the individual is master of his 
own destiny and responsible solely for his own doings. This 
doctrine opened the possibility to the prophet’s generation 
to turn a new leaf and to look hopefully into the future. 

His principal concern, however, was not with the individ- 


116 THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 


ual Jew, but with the corporate Jewish people. He looked 
upon Nebuchadrezzar as the instrument in God’s hand to 
chasten His people; he was just as certain that Egypt and 
other nations would be doomed. The Jewish people were at 
present as it were in a grave; but the dry bones would be 
Glled with life, and the revivified nation rise from its grave. 
Ezekiel was the prophet of the undying hope. When the 
elders came to him and suggested the erection of a Temple 
on Babylonian soil, he vigorously and relentlessly set him- 
self against such a plan, which apparently meant a renuncia- 
tion of future restoration at home. Against their own will, if 
‘t must come to that, the dispersed were to be gathered back; 
they must pass again, as in the times of Moses, through the 
wilderness, the wilderness of nations, that the sinful mem- 
bers might be lopped off. ‘For in the holy mountain, that is 
Zion, there alone shall the Temple be built.’ And so, with 
painstaking detail, he laid out the plan of the new Temple, 
as well as the lines of the future policy of the nation, based 
upon the Mosaic Torah, albeit with some modifications. He 
expected a reunion of Ephraim with Judah, under one shep- 
herd, a glorified David. The supreme condition was national 
penitence, a new heart and new spirit, which themselves 
would be the gift of God. The divine honor was at stake, so 
long as the reproach of desolation rested upon His land and 
upon His people. 

The fortunes of the Babylonian Jews must have greatly 
improved as time went on. Babylon, ‘the city of merchants,’ 
was nigh, and many must have grown opulent through 
mercantile pursuits. They acquired influence in court circles, 
and when Nebuchadrezzar was followed upon the throne by 
his son Evil-merodach, his first act was the release of 
Jehoiachin from prison. The Jewish king was accorded royal 
honors; the event is the last recorded in the Book of Kings 
in the Scriptures. Jewish restoration under the old dynasty 
had been determined upon as a matter of principle. But Evil- 
merodach reigned only two years; there followed a period of 
revolt, and the last king, Nabonidus (555-538), was occu- — 
pied in repelling the attacks of the Medes under Astyages. 


ye SRS MOICT OF CYRYS 1t7 


hip between Babylonians and Medes had 

When the Medes were vanquished by the 
yrus, the chaage brought no relief to the 
WAuyrius contiaued che policy of the Medes and, 
quering Lydia and ie tonian cities of Asia Minor, 
et aster of Babylon. The Babylonian army, 
mmand of the crewn-prince Belsharuzur (Bel- 

ble resistance: the city was taken and 
Papon che throne of Babylon (539). A 
mded among the Jews. ‘Fallen, fallen 
h the oppressing exactress ceased!’ The 
f when, in the spring of 538, Cyrus, from 
eet Ecbatana, made deciaration in a 
ng permission to the Jews to return to 
id the ‘Temple of the God of heaven. 
st ordered that the sacred vessels of the 


o 


ig of the steps toward restoration taken by 
is predecessor upon the throne of Babylon. 
y uf ihe Achaemeniar rulers from Cyrus 
wh they were to their own religion, the 
ate the cults of the subjugated national- 
h “i . declaration was preparing, the meaning 
pimdching evest was grasped by none more exuber- 
pre on 1 dix than by the great unknown prophet, 
at “ Qe | erm che sequel to the Book of the Visions 
beh Amox. He appears to have lived in Palestine, 
tae mad the goings on in the great world as they 
oe tral theme. the rhapsody ‘Zion Restored.’ 
rt } Beleete ti) acclaim the victorious Persian king 
pred, the shepherd sppointed by God, 
het’s own people might be deaf and blind, 


Seinen pH He were, opene to himself, and 2 flood of 
Aeamed there!rom. Tic divine purpose, framed in the 
eine of titine, was revealing itself to the seer's mind, and 
e the dia of battling hosts and the crash of falling fast- 


A 


wp 
an 


returned to the Jews. It is obvious that - 
sroached by Jewish notables, who re- 


— 
— 


‘ . & i ae rt ee ee 
ee pew, Bias ater... THE Ay Ora ae 


Ne had PGE eA Ae. Chee ne 
CU et iy fet ecole SI hie Se a att A nalie 
athey Bates weld be doesn lh. ‘The 
own we Kk were it a gees rar the 
tiles! wich Whe, and the never pation 4 
{epbiel aia the prophet OF the: waayin 
i 


eeiets Came TO DD ind cuggented: . 


+i dati ian 4a ey vid ty sh he ane t 


tik Peet edi parte as in ‘the tigies 

wilerians:, Fixe: eiderness of vations | 
ers sigh: bie id te “tj ft : ‘For bah the 

iin, there alone shall the | Temple Y 
3 eT StAisw Geta, he are etit the ¢ 
% eegs the lines of the futmre fh 
_ $63, heat Maosdiy ‘Torahi albeit wee 
ex sda rewnion of Ephragn with) 


iM, A Rew ecart amd sews 
smaia We ete ote of Ut ud. The ceiee't 


lone as the reproach € { desnkaots 
eon Fe pew 


The forranca of t the c Boise 
mpeeved as (one went on, Babylep i 
wew nigh, and 1 se: AVE have. 
narroaatihe pu . They aca 
ely een Se cdesrhuchaes wine whe 
bu son Pevth-merodach, his feet pet 
imiokactun from prison. The Tusetsh & 
howe: tie event is che ist Peeey deat 
u the Deinoreres. jewish restoration € 
tage] bees sepcoewhaoraiian ‘pon nasa a matter: 


pied Ja aaa eh atts a ot the A 


538] | THE EDICT OF CYRUS Ads 


The old friendship between Babylonians and Medes had 
long been broken. When the Medes were vanquished by the 
Persians, under Cyrus, the change brought no relief to the 
Babylonians. Cyrus continued the policy of the Medes and, 
after conquering Lydia and the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, 
made himself master of Babylon. The Babylonian army, 
under the command of the crown-prince Belsharuzur (Bel- 
shazzar), offered feeble resistance; the city was taken and 
Cyrus seated himself upon the throne of Babylon (539). A 
cry of jubilation resounded among the Jews. ‘Fallen, fallen 
is Babylon; how hath the oppressing exactress ceased!’ The 
joy was still greater when, in the spring of 538, Cyrus, from 
his summer residence at Ecbatana, made declaration in a 
royal rescript granting permission to the Jews to return to 
Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple of the God of heaven. 
The same royal edict ordered that the sacred vessels of the 
Temple should be returned to the Jews. It is obvious that 
Cyrus had been approached by Jewish notables, who re- 
minded the king of the steps toward restoration taken by 
Evil-merodach, his predecessor upon the throne of Babylon. 
It was the policy of the Achaemenian rulers from Cyrus 
down, devoted though they were to their own religion, the 
Zoroastrian, to tolerate the cults of the subjugated national- 
ities throughout the empire. 

Even as the royal declaration was preparing, the meaning 
of the epoch-making event was grasped by none more exuber- 
antly and profoundly than by the great unknown prophet, 
whose utterances form the sequel to the Book of the Visions 
of Isaiah son of Amoz. He appears to have lived in Palestine, 
whence he observed the goings on in the great world as they 
affected his central theme, the rhapsody ‘Zion Restored.’ 
He did not hesitate to acclaim the victorious Persian king 
as the Lord’s Anointed, the shepherd appointed by God. 
Though the prophet’s own people might be deaf and blind, 
the heavens, as it were, opened to himself, and a flood of 
light issued therefrom. The divine purpose, framed in the 
beginning of time, was revealing itself to the seer’s mind, and 
above the din of battling hosts and the crash of falling fast- 


118 THE BABYLONIAN EXILE 


nesses he heard the voice of God: This is My work. The 
deliverance of Israel was being wrought in a manner so un- 
wonted, so strange, yet who hath fathomed the spirit of 
God? If God is One, who else but He was doing it? If Israel 
‘s the elect of God, for whose sake else were old empires 
tottering, was a new polity arising? ‘The time is most 
opportune, the hour propitious: hasten, flee, depart,’ so he 
called to the Jews of Babylonia. 

The Unity of God implied for this great poet and teacher 
the unity of world history. How he scorns the lifeless images 
of the gods of Babylon, how he mocks the wisdom and star- 
gazing of the Chaldean soothsayers! how rapturously he 
sings of the Incomparable God, whom no similitude can 
portray! Amid the changes of nature, God’s word abides 
immovably; in the flux of the events of history, as nations 
come and go, a divine purpose stands transcendent. The 
religion of the Jew is the religion for all mankind, the true 
world religion. The Jew is its chosen missioner, the elect 
Servant of God, who vicariously must take upon himself the 
sins of the world, willingly submit to contumely and martyr- 
dom, be cut off as it were from the land of the living, but 
just as surely rise from the grave, triumphant with the suc- 
cess of God’s work which he was called to accomplish. And 
because of this Servantship, Israel is indestructible. God’s 
loving covenant with Israel will outlast the tremors by which 
mountains are moved. In order that Israel may be the teacher 
of mankind, a light unto the nations, the disseminator of 
God’s Torah, the nation must be redeemed. God, in whose 
hands is the destiny of nations, offers to the world-conqueror 
Egypt and Ethiopia as a price. God is paving the way for 
His people’s return across mountains and desert. The 
prophet bids Jerusalem take heart; he is the bearer of good 
tidings to Zion, the comforter of his people, the voice that 
calls out the advent of God. By the hands of Cyrus Jerusalem 
shall be built, and the foundations of the Temple shall be 
laid for Israel, God’s elect Servant. 


CHAPTER 3 G8 2 
THE RESTORATION 
(538-432) 
the caravan wh ich i ees Petty Wer OO 
3260 persons, not coane Ate +, 337 83 laves of 
(The home comese were bel by Shesh- 


sison of King Jehote: daa, wind eieeivedthe 

ernor (nasi) of the met comumasity and 

vessels had been delivered By the royal 

itory assigned to therm wae wery emai. 

g Jerusalern and the ‘and about it, ae far 

and Jericho, and as fer as Keilsh, Beth. Pur, 

mth. dom had moved ap Sayed srapliae ae 

the southern Judean dana, Axe Caleb an ; 

2 had been penne # sari, wosed. ther siete 

ys. The land was distytevtect ap lar as pos- 

> the former peta £73 Hak! he descend- 

‘dolk, who had meyer oh iad, now: = 

ents. There *: a eo ane, 4 Sie Sy Aa ie 

yfasetine thing yeria ot arsine ake se 

«je crusalera Bax, 4 SER is Site ie ae Be 

| ec s there the hein? ERiat A eats 

had their seat, The eee Hao nee 
ik ate erection of am. had ae ae oe sehen et 

, fhe building oe ie Loved ae . | 


ia 


rater failing way Be : ee 
p gssessments going. is. eats hen) EH 

ambyses (530~ BP ele warts s nl si ~ 
Egypt (525) sae ie. ee a eaethien hts. 
ceof which the wey Fae let ey! area, 
ss en the chitvaie dite ses antie ae, acai ine els 


i 


‘% *= ie, | 


; erat te 
om 42 A to | ely ie AM ie’ Sas 

aA Pw, Wk: winida ages aos 

ghia op Se ee re ae ei PL 


dahnieaite we Lyed yes. SENS es re: wrought tz * 


; ee ss a Seed es 
Spies Ee ty SR OW ieee he was Cc 


izs , Rh KR AA exe 


cleo tie fwand the vane oF ORES 


wonted, oad BURL oe, Be hath fat] 
Grord PA tod iw One. 6 ae but He ae 
i the elect ed Sooo. Cm SRR sake e 
eGR avgé a Tantra pokity arising? | 
company ses: nie fcr is pi teas haste 
eather} ta the Pew. or is shy ieaelag 92") 
Phe i witw af ciety aitiad for t fads 


He ainity of Works eters Plow he $e 
al the weteo! Dxloon, ae he ee 
* \ 7 J 


some and oo, « cone Hepes perin 
pelioueg ¥H tie ch ~~ St the t. sehgaon for aly 
world eriiton. “The on is itw chosen 
Servant (f Ciod, whe ewes must 
ais tt Ce w (sea . ¥ hiingly subrnit to 
SFE > Prete PEE yg’ ae 47 wore fem the bi 
fast as warely cue from the grave; trivia 

: . 
leempae of; this “Ss ryuntship, ferael ig: 
lovite: covenant with (sraet will omthast 
mauttwins arereovel Lrorderthatter 
of menkirid, a twht date the nations, 
God's “Corah, the maton must be pede 
a ars ae the deatiny of rations, oflers t 
Egypt aN PAhiQpia a8 B price. God- a 
is) People réturn ecrosk 
prophet is ia neepiain take hearts} 
dadiaws to Zion, the coraforter of Rie 
callaout the sg ven vot God. op. pie: : 


Sint LER MOST 
THE RESTORATION 


(538-432) 


LTOGETHER the caravan which left Babylonia con- 
pid sisted of 42,360 persons, not counting 7,337 slaves of 
both sexes. The home comers were led by Shesh- 
bazzar, the youthful son of King Jehoiachin, who received the 
appointment as governor (nasi) of the new community and 
to whom the sacred vessels had been delivered by the royal 
treasurer. The territory assigned to them was very small 
indeed, comprising Jerusalem and the land about it, as far 
north as Mizpah and Jericho, and as far as Keilah, Beth-zur, 
and Tekoain thesouth. Edom had moved up beyond Hebron; 
the remnants of the southern Judean clans, like Caleb and 
Jerahmeel, which had been pushed out, joined themselves 
to the new settlers. The land was distributed as far as pos- 
sible according to the former holdings; only that the descend- 
ants of the poorer folk, who had never owned land, now 
received their allotments. There was ample labor in con- 
structing homesteads, in setting things generally to rights, in 
communal organization. Jerusalem had a scant population 
of some three thousand souls; there the heads of the fathers’ 
houses or ‘elders’ had their seat. The religious needs were 
cared for by the immediate erection of an altar, and prepara- 
tions were made for the building of the Temple. 

It was not possible to do more, what with all the vicis- 
situdes of a new settlement, failing crops and drought, and 
scarcity of food. Then there was the burden of taxes paid to 
the king and the assessments going to the maintenance of 
the governor. Cambyses (530-522) had succeeded Cyrus; 
his conquest of Egypt (525) and the war it entailed dis- 
turbed the peace of which the new community was most 
in need. Men asked when the divine displeasure, now resting 


119 


120 7 THE RESTORATION [522-519 


upon the land for close on seventy years, would end; the 
fast-days commemorating the national calamity of 586 were 
still observed. Then came momentous happenings. Cam- 
byses had rid himself of his brother Smerdis; but now there 
appeared a Magian claiming to be the real Smerdis (522), 
who received the homage of the empire. Darius I. (521- 
485) overcame the pretender, but had to deal with an upris- 
ing in the eastern provinces, above all with two successive 
revolutions in Babylon led by a new Nebuchadrezzar (521/ 
20, 520/19). ‘Heaven and earth’ seemed to be in commotion, — 
and the throne of the Persian king to be tottering. 

The commotion communicated itself to Jerusalem. Shesh- 
bazzar was dead. His nephew Zerubbabel stepped into his 
place. He was encouraged by the prophet Haggai to start the 
building of the Temple, and to hold himself in readiness for 
kingly station. Saner elements in the community, fearful of 
evil consequences, were satisfied to vest the headship in the 
high priest, Joshua. The prophet Zechariah counseled a dual 
headship, at the same time curbing the ambitions of Zerub- 
babel, who was admonished to trust not in power or might, 
but in the spirit. The lamp of God was to be fed from two 
spouts. A crown of gold had actually been sent as a gift by 
the Jews of Babylonia; it was to be fashioned into two crowns. 
On the twenty-fourth day of Chislev, 520, the foundation 
was laid for the Temple. But the dream of the royalists was 
not to be. The Persian empire was stronger than ever. 

In the spring of 519, Tattenai, satrap of the western prov- 
inces, was sent to Jerusalem to study the situation. The 
royalist agitation had subsided, but he had misgivings about 
the building of the Temple. There were not wanting denuncia- 
tions which cast suspicion upon the undertaking. The Jews 
pointed to the edict of Cyrus, and when the satrap reported 
back to the king, a copy of the document was found in the 
archives at Ecbatana. Darius was satisfied that the Jews 
were too feeble to attempt seriously the winning back of 
their independence, and that it was best to have them as 
friends. So he confirmed the charter of Cyrus and gave orders 
that the Temple should be completed, the cost to be de- 


4¢Ps OF THE SETTLERS $21 


‘royal vevenues from the Jewish com- 


funds were to be provided the daily 

ie Of the king wind the royal house. On 
jar, $15, the structure was finished. 

e jected to fresh hardships. There was 

i du § to poor crops or to devastation by 

Sire ~ peasants were constrained to 

. in otdér to buy food and to 

: Unabt le to meet their obligations 

| eof interest, they of ten saw no way 


“6 ne Pagtenwnity was also: mish on all 
rs who did vot take kindly to the 


Hiy of the north for the south was 
Mi colonists of Samaria—-the Samaxi- 
sconditions were quite different from 
in Jeruseiem and who made ready 
own unen Mount Gerizim. There 


~ Phas 


fins 


in | Xerxes §485--465). | 
anted soure sort of an adjustment, The 
pewell as of the priesthood pursued a 
towards the plotting neighbors. It was 
g@ve-them for friends. The better relations 
peg alliances. Altogether the prac- 
ad the interests of the community and 
hing of the maral fibre. The wealthier 
ly oppressive towards the poorer folk, 
d them to give up their land; injustice 
e rampant. The priests were derelict in 
al: guides and forfeited the respect of the 
asi in the observance of the sabbath; 
ht to the Temple were of an inferior 
5 ati a wmall: bees af those averse to 


on either “ide, The Samaritans peers 


we’ 


the tewett Pabylioniayit wae int be fa 


steps) thee. dace fig «ae ne sneer 
Hepach pkey cots CUNT Vite the national 
weels ¢ibgeeer is £ Yes Tia: iomextous 
lmuen het ae t aS a phe 


whe rere wee. the oy ape ®t the e empi 


> ‘ ea 
i< ho sus J 
ites VET aE cae SF Re et, Dae had hi 
Y 
. a a? 7 
Pa Led . f Sa... Ce RAN OS t 
i H ¥ 
PS MA + Ri ie ae ap Xe 
yi Se ae eee ie 
wt * hy ; BOs 
: S, e rye ' a 
gry Pe Are a TSS : 
Poe Leer ae sts acer ica, teat ‘oe 


GExOe, 02 Sis ENO ite a the ot 
netiGhog of che Tretigre, amal te hold 
wig «alin. Sune Cerin he ae 
heeython pees, Were ee 
, ar Cyeomaine Hinge ont 


eee MS IS METER Hes -s mss trust 


eects. % opertens of probed fae actually t 
Vee ti Pywserer eee diay of <. pereien 
wire $54) ter Pre te enipic But the ae mht 
rite +43 be The } PR LAT enpire wad. 

ty. the opring of 319, Tattenal eemiam 
eae, he ser’ to Terasalem 46 st 


chee bathing! iu Teheke if. Theres 
‘Seas. we Back Cot BPSpiCIoOn upon the LSS 
pobigd te the edict of Cyrus, and when. 
bane ty Che Kine, & copy of the deen 
cee at Pebatana. Darius wass 


‘ptenerkhce, and that itowas/ ii 
ei. So he confirmed the charterohCy 
thint the Temple isnt be completed, 


515-465] THE HARDSHIPS OF THE SETTLERS 121 


frayed out of the royal revenues from the Jewish com- 
munity; out of the same funds were to be provided the daily 
sacrifices for the welfare of the king and the royal house. On 
the twenty-third of Adar, 515, the structure was finished. 

The settlers were subjected to fresh hardships. There was 
a scarcity of food due to poor crops or to devastation by 
locusts. The poverty-stricken peasants were constrained to 
mortgage their small holdings in order to buy food and to 
pay the heavy royal taxes. Unable to meet their obligations 
by reason of the high rate of interest, they often saw no way 
out except to surrender to their creditors their sons and their 
daughters as slaves. The community was also beset on all 
sides by hostile neighbors who did not take kindly to the 
rise of the new settlement. The Edomites, it is true, had 
been hard hit by an invasion of Arabs; but that was small 
comfort to the Jews. The Ammonites were distinctly un- 
friendly. The old enmity of the north for the south was 
inherited by the hybrid colonists of Samaria—the Samari- 
tans—whose religious conditions were quite different from 
the new order of things in Jerusalem and who made ready 
to build a temple, of their own upon Mount Gerizim. There 
was no love lost on either side. The Samaritans presented 
their grievances to king Xerxes (485-465). 

The conditions demanded some sort of an adjustment. The 
heads of the laity as well as of the priesthood pursued a 
policy of conciliation towards the plotting neighbors. It was 
advantageous to have them for friends. The better relations 
were cemented by marriage alliances. Altogether the prac- 
tical tasks absorbed the interests of the community and 
there was a weakening of the moral fibre. The wealthier 
classes were harshly oppressive towards the poorer folk, 
whose plight obliged them to give up their land; injustice 
and unkindliness were rampant. The priests were derelict in 
their duty as moral guides and forfeited the respect of the 
people; there was laxity in the observance of the sabbath; 
the offerings brought to the Temple were of an inferior 
quality. There was still a small body of those averse to 
worldliness who were scrupulously given to fasting and self- 


122 THE RESTORATION [457 


abnegation; but in their quiet conventicles they brooded, 
questioning whether it was at all profitable to serve God. 
One of their number, the prophet Malachi, saw no solution 
save in a day of judgment, a purifying act which none but 
Elijah, come down from heaven, could inaugurate. 

The man that did come was Ezra. The Jews of Babylonia, 
who had sent off the first settlers with their best wishes and 
with substantial gifts, were dismayed by the reports of the 
unsatisfactory conditions in the new community. King 
Artaxerxes was upon the throne (465-425), and the Baby- 
lonian Jews obtained his sanction for sending a mission to 
look into the affairs of Judea and Jerusalem. The leader was 
Ezra, a priest well versed in the Torah of Moses, a ‘ready 
scribe’ (sopher), that is, a student of the Book (sepher). The 
decree issued by the king conferred upon him authority to 
appoint upon his arrival magistrates and judges, with plenary 
powers of jurisdiction in accordance with the Mosaic Torah. 
Moreover, he carried rich gifts from the king and his council 
for the Temple in Jerusalem; its priests and attendants were 
granted immunity from taxation. Ezra was also permitted to 
secure funds from the Jews of Babylonia and to lead back as 
many of them as wished to join. | 

About eighteen hundred men, not counting women and 
children, from priestly, Davidic, and other families, including 
a number of Levites and other subordinate Temple servitors, 
went up with Ezra. They arrived in Jerusalem in the month 
of Ab, 458. Four months were spent by Ezra in acquainting 
himself with the situation. He was horrified to learn of the 
extent to which intermarriage had gone. On the twentieth 
day of Chislev he convoked in Jerusalem an assembly of 
representatives of the entire community: by an overwhelm- 
ing majority the resolution was carried to have the unlawful 
marriages, dissolved. A commission was appointed, which 
busied itself during the whole of the winter with drawing up 
a list of the transgressors. On the first of Nisan, 457, the 
measure was Carried into execution. Naturally, the Samari- 
tans and other nationalities were angered by the affront to 
their womenfolk. Ezra realized that in order to defend Jeru- 


yore ao” Pee Oe Soe fe ae 2 os a ct PA ee ee 
d ae pe oe 
‘ 


. NEHEMIAH | . 123 


len attack the tiga ee be sate ane 


; of sue’ work aha far ahd raghnig of the 
sNews s of ftbe races was bro ae 


ak Bkaver v with the court. . He paibioed 8g in 
bi 6 go to Jerusalem and rebuild the . 
Moreover, he was appomted governor ef 
E alter hie arrival tin the summer of 445), 
ht, he rade out to euryey the walls. In the 
Mipon the heads of the people'to start the. 

) From all parts of the Jand, nobles and 
Phearted supporters and Jukewarm mag- - 
Byes to the task, laboving by day and 

ht. The zeal of Nehemiah communicated 
era. Being a wealthy man, he provided oul 
fot the expenses o/ his s position, waiving the 
— ordered the canceling of debts and 
digenit me band epee eh their cpecitors: The °. en | 


Be sted “A marriage wer Jewish nolile 
ims Geshem. the Arab, at first made mock of. 
heations; then they came forward with open 
ex fio he dark. They planned, with the aid of 
he mations and of their sympathizers within the 
ack the builders or to lure Nehemiah out of the 
| ton his person, Hired Jewish agents, proph- 
sad-the malicious rumor that Nehemiah 
na himself proclaimed king in Jerusalem, 
a foiled by the wisdom and courage of 
n fifty-two days the walls were finished, 

it > was come for Ezra to join forces with the 
ior, the Jewish lay head of the saessscananacek 


itt ee te Satta it Was at alt 


Cie Cay nue, the prophet 
A. UP ix es i ra <a segment, a pur 


eee ye oft wees? ae the fim + setttens 
ptt etstan dal gifte, were diatna 
Dart tie as te vend (ne oP the 
hubs het wii a ihe shirene ¢ 
dcnga ieeck ew sanction ; 


t Vayah 
, mp at * 
weeks uve Mine Bijaere OF Fae 
es i ‘ 
Saag ¢ oT 
eet L ere Whi: Very 
- 
y =" 
eee Isis nat + 


« ‘ 
pr tide oe = rhe kiyag 
1 ne ; % q CULT Ae He i» Wie 
: MD, eae : en ’ a ¥ ans 
Wor i abies Pi ci: &: Baa i 
Varciet noon hw arty wee 


wees xt GT LeCiIOn Te 


Yheroaver, he cancel neh gt 
REE. Ge CORON, Ny ot Py Soe 
for the Vermpin mm feria 


Qrties imi wiry Tron tae 


aa Sit? sihactis et an ot Jewaays a 
trees HF Them 28 Wit 
e t z . 4 
Ame See j pet 
Priya é aS: 
oA resi, Troe PrrSeswy ene: 


8, Pour mont 
RMitimee is Wi ~ the sit ua 

extert to which inte orénpk lal c 
a y sae nico he convoked te 
representatives of the entir | 


ing Majority the resoludion Waeee 


igre awibes, \PRacsuers te veict ‘eo Fe 
Se raha gees, (MASOIVEC. cL CONT MSIEORE 
tamied ital: during the whole of the | 


a list of the transgressors: On fie 
, 4 hee —_ Wine aa be. ; 

Teasiie wag carried into e RECUR 
ic ether nationalities we 


their wick gtk. E zea realizes 


7 
- 
é 
_ 
local 
oa 
wn 


446-445] NEHEMIAH .123 


salem from a sudden attack the city should be fortified and 
therefore he made preparations to rebuild the walls. That 
undertaking was in excess of the royal authority granted to 
him. And so his enemies seized the opportunity to denounce 
him to the king. 

A petition, signed by’Rehum, the governor of Samaria, 
was dispatched to Susa, and the king gave orders for the 
immediate cessation of the work and for the razing of the 
part already constructed. News of the calamity was brought 
near the end of 446 to Nehemiah, who as the king’s cup- 
bearer stood in high favor with the court. He succeeded in 
obtaining permission to go to Jerusalem and rebuild the 
walls of the city. Moreover, he was appointed governor of 
Judea. Three days after his arrival (in the summer of 445), 
in the dead of night, he rode out to survey the walls. In the 
morning he called upon the heads of the people to start the 
work of rebuilding. From all parts of the land, nobles and 
commoners, warm-hearted supporters and lukewarm mag- 
nates, all set themselves to the task, laboring by day and 
watching in the night. The zeal of Nehemiah communicated 
itself to the workers. Being a wealthy man, he provided out 
of his own purse for the expenses of his position, waiving the 
governor's salary. He ordered the canceling of debts and 
restored to the indigent the land held by their creditors. The 
Samaritans, led by Sanballat of Beth-horon and Tobiah the 
Ammonite—both related by marriage with Jewish noble 
families—as well as Geshem the Arab, at first made mock of 
the feeble fortifications; then they came forward with open 
threats or plotted in the dark. They planned, with the aid of 
the neighboring nations and of their sympathizers within the 
walls, to attack the builders or to lure Nehemiah out of the 
city and lay hold on his person. Hired Jewish agents, proph- 
ets so called, spread the malicious rumor that Nehemiah 
was thinking of having himself proclaimed king in Jerusalem. 
All these plots were foiled by the wisdom and courage of 
Nehemiah. Within fifty-two days the walls were finished. 

Now the time was come for Ezra to join forces with the 
resolute governor, the Jewish lay head of the community. 


124 . THE RESTORATION [445-432 


On the first of Tishri, 445, Ezra read sections of the Torah 
to the assembled people, the Levites making the rounds and 
elucidating the text. On the twenty-fourth day a fast was 
observed, and the people solemnly bound themselves to 
order their life in accordance with the Torah. A document of 
ratification was drawn up and subscribed by Nehemiah the 
governor, then by representatives of priests, Levites, and 
laity. Those prescriptions of the Torah which were par- 
ticularly timely were given specific mention. Thus it was 
stipulated that no marriages should be contracted with the 
surrounding nations; that the land should lie fallow and all 
debts be remitted every seventh year; that the prescribed 
dues for the upkeep of the Temple worship and the main- 
tenance of priests and Levites should be regularly paid. As 
the written word of the Torah was often too general and 
undefined, it was expressly made plain that the sabbath and 
holy days must’be so honored as to exclude any manner of 
business transaction even with non-Jewish traders. 

It was unfortunate that in 433 Nehemiah was recalled to 
the court of Artaxerxes. During his absence the opposition 
raised its head. Nehemiah therefore obtained from the king 
leave to return to Jerusalem. He found that Tobiah had 
been domiciled by the priest Eliashib in one of the Temple 
chambers; he immediately ordered his removal. He also 
learned that the Levites had not been paid their tithes and 
had therefore withdrawn from the Temple service; he rein- 
stated them in their positions and emoluments. As trading 
on the sabbath with the Tyrian fish-mongers had been 
resumed, Nehemiah ordered the gates of the city kept closed 
from the eve of the sabbath to its outgoing. The strict rules 
against intermarriage had again been broken, and Nehemiah 
saw the danger not only to religion, but also to the purity 
and the very life of the Hebrew speech among children of 
mothers from Philistine Ashdod or from Ammon and Moab. 
The evil was prevalent in the higher priestly families. 
Manasseh, a grandson of Eliashib the high priest, was mar- 
ried to a daughter of Sanballat, the governor of Samaria. 
Nehemiah had him expelled from Jerusalem. The refractory 


ver 544 A) ar! be et ie 
he Pd ales oe 
Iie shee esa tae aes 
Meh hag 
Bite oe i wee! 
oar Us — 
} ec ne; 
‘ . ; :: 
nS 
mei 
: 5 


ee 


‘T T BETW REN pees pe Wein 


; 


Tot 


emancipetax. ie ae . >: 
“tae On hove rs le oe 


B service re rt Coa BARA. “es hin 


ay ; 
sd : 
, 
a ) 
fe. 
= 
8 
i? 
1 F 
é 
4 
vies 
‘o% 
3 7 
yy oe 
4 a 
ea 
el 
: . 
& 
; ! 
i] 
t 
‘j 
, 
s 
a & 
J 
; 
‘ 
. 
" 
F 
{ 
i i 
, 
: 
, 
‘ 
A 
; * 
tas 
2 aa 
4 y . “ 
ae ¢ ee 


om 
— 


<5 


pe Bee = 5 . 4 Psi Me 
bea } "- + 


ibe 3 , 7 
| Gueviet oad the people x 
’ 5 
- . 
i ‘ ois ig “Sie 
j re § ee ae es 4 ve a ! Lae a) , 
. se 4 
; « ae! ‘age ya | phe 
a 
ean 
rory’t mune 
} xe ae 1 # “ 
¥ J Ms ts -, 
- ase 


Ea as Te ‘ Abe “ - ye eS a Sak 

of spanxta tect rh: 7 > Tae age a tae 
es ; 4 re, Si Bess 4 

ge? PEs Wath iis rg oth bones nigel 


ian bid ter the iploees ot We ‘tomo , 
oP tence of pricsta ae? Laces should 
_ the seritten wip: his Tar a 
wedetin eG, UE wae 4 * A i 
Rate ia, ruwst” ba’ 0  nsaeeannaad 
lnwsiness transaction ever sities 
‘ 


t 


t was unfortunats that in ae 
vie exnirt of Arta ere, Dertgat 
czised ite head. Neenah charade 
exve tO return {Oo fer usale Bie’ ay 
eon domiciled by the pried: & 
t suas ie immediately ae 

arned thar the Levites had aige® 

‘ad therefore withdrawn fron Re 
sated them in their i) atone and 
ay the sabbaih with che Tyran 
a  etayned, Nehemiah ordered the gahess 
a fein the eve of the peers h oo ite aut 
agiifiet intermarn: lage hud cgi ‘been & 
iw the Fumie not only © religion, & 
wad the very life of the Hebpaw apie 
aigthers from Philistine Ashdod ei 
The ev wes prevalent ip ‘the 
rent ee ey a granlson of Ietiashiby 
wav ie a daughter of Sanballat 
nepieniach hed him expelled front fe 


tnd 


THE SPLIT BETWEEN JEWS AND SAMARITANS 125 


priest organized the service in the rival temple on Mount 
Gerizim, in complete emancipation from the novel inter- . 
pretations which were put on the letter of the Torah in 
Jerusalem. The split between the two communities was thus 
made permanent. 


CHAPTER XXIV 
FROM PERSIAN RULE TO GREEK 
(424-187) 


EHEMIAH was succeeded in the governorship of 
| \ Judea by a Persian official Bagohi. The internal 
administration was in the hands of the high priest 
and a council of elders, among whom descendants of the 
Davidic family held a conspicuous place. During the reign 
of Darius II. (424-404) the high priest was Eliashib’s grand- 
son Johanan, the brother of the expelled Manasseh, while 
the latter’s brothers-in-law ruled Samaria after the death of 
their father Sanballat. Another brother, Jeshua, conspired 
with the governor for the high priestly office; the two 
brothers quarreled in the Temple, and Johnanan slew his 
brother. Bagohi imposed upon the Jews a fine of fifty shekels 
for every lamb offered in the daily sacrifice; he even entered 
the Temple, and when the Jews raised objection he bluntly 
answered that he considered himself purer than the fratricide 
priest. 

In the year 410, a calamity befell the Jewish military 
colony of Jeb (Elephantine), on an island of the Nile south 
of the first cataract. This and the other settlement right 
opposite on the western bank of the river, at Syene (Assuan), 
had been established before the Persian conquest of Egypt; 
long before the coming of Cambyses, there had been built a 
temple in which the Jews of the island made sacrifices to the 
Lord. As the result of a conspiracy on the part of the priests 
of the Egyptian god Khnub, in conjunction with a subordi- 
nate Persian official, this Jewish temple was laid in ruins. 
Petitions were sent to the governor of Judea, to Johanan the 
high priest, and to the rulers at Samaria. The Jerusalemite 
priesthood were unwilling toaccord to the Egyptian Jews the 
full rights appertaining to their own Temple; they might 
build a modest altar-house and offer meal-offerings and 


126 


CHAPTER & 

vecMm PERSIAN RULE TO 
Saas 

+ abo ae a Pp eran n ober 


aa Ley eae ets art Wak mA the t 


ate! A ted pz a) ; AY ip Te — 


the larter's brothersin-law rated 
thew father “unit ‘outa Another ee aty 
wilh the erreernor for the high? i 
‘other cunarreied in the Temple; = 
breather, Bagein mposed upom the a 
for ewery dan offered in the daily es 
the Teriok:, end when the Jews 


HoSwered frat he corel idered h imaelf y 


tn the vear. 440 : calamity befell: 
colony of Teh (Elephantine), om anise 
OF the hrst cataract; This aod theoth 
opposite ou the western bank of the avers 
had been established before the Persian 
tong bobore the co ming of C ambyses, 1 . 
temple in which the Jews of the island 

wa s the ce fa cor nspitacy On the part 
Khrnab, in conjunctied 

this Jewish temple van 
Petitions were sent to the ; governor Gt ) 
high priest, and to the r ‘ued at Samaria. 
priesthood were unwilling t6 accord: to the 
fall rights appertaining to. their owe fil 
build a modest gtar-house and offer 


6 
of the Lay pian gO xl 
1} 


hate Persian nfficia 


404-350] QUEEN ESTHER 427 


frankincense, but no animal sacrifices. The worship of these 
Jews was not free from an admixture of heathenish concep- 
tions such as their fathers had carried away from their rural 
Judean homes. But the times apparently were not propitious 
for a rebuilding of the sanctuary. Soon Egypt was in revolt, 
and Amyrtaeus regained independence for his country (404). 

Agreater calamity threatened the Jews of the eastern prov- 
inces during the reign of Artaxerxes II. (404-361), if we 
may identify him with the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther. 
The story is typical in its main outlines of the long chain of 
persecutions to which the Jews in the Dispersion have been 
subjected. Mordecai, a rich Jew, rises to power and influence 
with the court; his niece, the beautiful Esther, is taken into 
the harem and becomes the king’s favorite. Haman, the new 
minister at court, because of a grudge against Mordecai the 
Jew, vents his spleen on the Jewish people as a whole. He 
presents them to the king as a dangerous people, ‘scattered 
and dispersed throughout the empire, distinct in their laws 
from all other people, and refusing to obey the king’s laws.’ 
Haman obtains the king’s signature to an act ordering a 
massacre of the Jews; a lot (pur) is cast, and the day of the 
execution is set for the thirteenth of Adar. The Jews of 
Susa fast and pray; Mordecai conveys the information to 
Queen Esther, whose Jewish antecedents have remained un- 
known at court. She invites the king and his minister to a 
feast, and then pleads with her royal spouse for the life of her 
people. As the laws of the Persians and Medes cannot be 
altered, a new act is promulgated by the king, giving the 
Jews the right to organize themselves for self-defense (‘stand- 
ing for their lives’). Thus the calamity is averted. In com- 
memoration of the event the festival of Purim is instituted. 

How far Judea was drawn into the revolt of the Phoe- 
nician cities which started in 365 and led to the destruction 
of Sidon in 350 by Artaxerxes III. (361-337), it is impossible 
to tell. The punitive campaign against Egypt came nearer 
home, but it does not seem that the Jews were in any wise 
affected. They had all reason to keep faith with the Persian 
rulers, maintaining their loyalty to the very last, when 


128 _ FROM PERSIAN RULE TO GREEK [334-275 


Alexander the Great had crossed the Hellespont (334), con- 
quered Asia Minor, worsted Darius III. in the battle of Issus 
(333), and was proceeding to occupy the Phoenician coast. 
Tyre, and afterwards Gaza, which offered stubborn resist- 
ance, were overcome (332) ;in Egypt Alexander was received 
as a liberator from the hated Persian dominion. The Egyp- 
tian Jews rendered assistance to the Macedonian king in the 
foundation of Alexandria and were rewarded by a grant of 
extensive privileges which—so at least it was construed by 
the Jews—placed them on an equal footing with the Greeks. 
In the spring of 331, Alexander was ready to strike at the 
heart of the Persian empire. He passed through Palestine 
and Syria, which he had left in the care of Andromachus. 
The Jews accepted the change of masters, while the Samari- 
tans, who murdered Andromachus, were punished severely, 
and the city of Samaria was compelled to admit Macedonian 
settlers. ; 

After the death of Alexander the Great (323), the disrup- 
tion of the empire and the wars among his generals led to a 
renewal of the age-long dispute for the possession of Pales- 
tine between the north and the south. The general command- 
ing Egypt, Ptolemy, invaded the country in 320; Jerusalem 
was surprised on a sabbath and taken without resistance. 
Palestine was lost to the rival general Antigonus in 315; but 
the battle of Gaza (312) gave it back to Ptolemy. Another of 
Alexander’s generals, Seleucus, who coéperated with Ptolemy, 
made himself master of Babylon. That year was reckoned as 
the beginning of the Seleucid empire, and the newera, setting 
in with the autumn, was long in use among the Jews; it is. 
still employed by them in certain parts of the East. The bat- 
tle of Ipsus (301), which cost’ Antigonus his life, was the 
occasion for Ptolemy (I. Soter, 305-285) to seize Palestine. 
The victory, however, had been won chiefly by Seleucus (I., 
305-280), who now ruled Syria. from his residence at Antioch. 

The son and successor of Seléucus, Antiochus I. (280-261), 
accordingly, attempted to wrest the country from Ptolemy 
IT. (Philadelphus, 285-247) in 275. Antiochus II. (261-247): 
concluded an arrangement by which he agreed to receive in 


‘aie ae ee Te eee oe ek Oe 2. ae ~~ . a Ss a a og ed Pi 
a Sa ei Sava aa ets if 3h tag Cae lee ot ye Mee od 
: * “te ah ’ f ) paren of 

{ \ z ‘ 


ESTING WON BP HR ee oy’ 


en oe 
$8 Palestine Sabre *. a oe ny? he , pits a ' 
td Berenice: bist a sued Gera enatay es 
einen procured har: ed egies” if fede a8 j ii os 

swether with her > dei. a ee : ghete 
Ptolemy ho i wi oe 
Paxeatin and + ggths s Ny ie 5 nm jue 


Mar with Egypt sa aoe ee 


Tule esa Great th by ee: eee I at 
t ier 
> t 


toe @évacuate *Palnall re 
! vay es) at the age was (Hie m3 : mae ? 
e for Antic 1} shine t¢ i Ts \ nee iy ti ie Bo oe a 


Mac O mercenary if thie eed Pee 
Jewish nation and Pt Zee oa. Wo The 
PCity. sie hia in 708 ne aes ra aia ‘oa ipimaty 


/Palesti ine wae = dehial sited: i teansterred to 
Bow of Palestine, Ptolemy 1, had earried 

) ran ¥ jewi SF captives, and the soca grew —_ 
(qh the subsequent expeditions, Ag many 
farms were settled for garrison duty in the 
femaainder served as meniale of the king's 
iglaves regained their freedom by an order ol 
ho Was well disposed towards his Jewish sub- . 
population of Alexandria had grown apace; 
Pepmpact quarter of their oma, wt the north. 
ecity, close by the royal palaot, Theylereane 
eke Greek, casiing behind dieu (he Caxwvae 
e eeeatc which then hack began +) Seared 

ie, at nee in the rural eR te. bss ene 


HOE : of the lar Searre:a chan oH ad ge re na? Nea 
if Seriptur es (Transtation af the Severed)‘ 


a $e! 


- 


aan POM: Glee 
cpehek ee A 


ey ee ee 
vou? TA55 Pkg 
; . S 
Fea ak Oe bate eo BES do *, Sim 


+ ae 2 f h: ¢. oe 
arte JAR OR. EVE Vs ate Pai t HATE 


ee - . .. 
COCO EY 2 se ay 


The victory, how ever, had be 


305-2803, who now ruled Syria€ 3 


her sen ond anceessor of i Sele 
accordingty, aftetpt 
Ai: aheoseepagevmte 


ae 


198] PALESTINE WON BY THE SELEUCIDS 129 


marriage Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy(249), and with 
her the rights to Palestine. After the death of her father, 
Antiochus divorced Berenice; but the former queen, Laodice, 
whom he took back, procured his death by poison, and then 
had her rival together with her infant child murdered. In 
revenge, her brother Ptolemy III. (Euergetes, 247-222) 
invaded the Seleucid realm and carried home an immense 
quantity of spoil. War with Egypt was resumed on a large 
scale by Antiochus III. (the Great, 222-187); in the cam- 
paigns of 219 and 218 he carried his arms almost to the con- 
fines of Egypt. However, after the defeat in the battle of 
Raphia (217) at the hands of Ptolemy IV. (Philopator, 222- 
205), he was forced to evacuate Palestine. The accession of 
Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes) at the age of four years was an 
opportune moment for Antiochus to resume warfare; by 200 
he was in possession of Palestine. It was recovered shortly 
afterwards by Scopas, a mercenary in the service of Ptolemy, 
who subdued the Jewish nation and left a garrison in the 
citadel of the Holy City. But in 198 Scopas was crushingly 
defeated by Antiochus in the battle of Panium, near the 
sources of the Jordan. Palestine was definitely transferred to 
Seleucid rule. 

On his first invasion of Palestine, Ptolemy I. had carried 
away to Egypt many Jewish captives, and the number grew 
into the thousands in the subsequent expeditions. As many 
as could bear arms were settled for garrison duty in the 
fortresses; the remainder served as menials of the king’s 
soldiers. These slaves regained their freedom by an order of 
Ptolemy IJ., who was well disposed towards his Jewish sub- 
jects. The Jewish population of Alexandria had grown apace; 
they resided in a compact quarter of their own, in the north- 
eastern part of the city, close by the royal palace. The younger 
generation spoke Greek, casting behind them the Hebrew 
speech, or the Aramaic which then had begun to displace 
Hebrew at home, at least in the rural districts. To make the 
Word of God accessible to the Greek-speaking community 
was the purpose of the undertaking known as the Septuagint 
version of the Scriptures (Translation of the Seventy). Natu- 


130 _ FROM PERSIAN RULE TO GREEK 


rally, the Torah was the first and foremost part demanding 
to be set forth. It is probable enough, as the story goes, that 
the king, who was a patron of learning, from the very start 
evinced an interest in procuring a transcript of the transla- 
tion for his famous library and that he entered into negotia- 
tions with the high priest Eleazar to send on a copy of the 
Torah to Alexandria as well as the requisite number of trans- 
lators (seventy-two elders—for short, seventy). Or, if the 
initiative proceeded from the Jews of Alexandria themselves, 
royal sanction was obtained for the translation and a copy 
presented to the library. Certainly, another motive played 
‘nto the work—to convince the world that the Jews pos- 
sessed a literature rivaling the wisdom of the Greeks. The 
step was the first in the propagandist activity of the Dis- 
persion to set forth the true nature of the Jewish conception 
of God and of Jewish morality. 

At home, in Judea, the change of masters, from Persian to 
Greek, from Syrian to Egyptian and back again, produced 
no appreciable difference in the status of the community. It 
lacked political independence, sovereignty, statehood, such 
as (so it was hoped) would come back in God’s own time, 
when the dispersed would be gathered and the visions of the 
prophets realized in all their truth. Otherwise the com- 
munity possessed all the attributes that mark nationhood: a 
contiguous territory, a national speech, a constitution di- 
vinely ordained, an autonomous government. The head of 
the nation was the high priest; as such he was recognized 
by the foreign ruler, who held him responsible for the pre- 
servation of order and for the delivery of the taxes. The high 
priest was assisted by the Council or Senate, an aristocratic 
body of priestly and lay elders. The Temple was the visible 
embodiment of the national sanctities. There was pomp and 
ceremony, and the people loved it: the music and song of the 
Levitical singers, the ministrations of hundreds of priests, 
the gorgeous vestments of the high priest as he stood and 
blessed the prostrate people amid profound silence. The 
three festivals, Passover, Weeks (the season of the Giving of 
the Law), Tabernacles, brought throngs of pilgrims, and 


iBtructure of Judaism as developed in the 


vever, Was concerned not merely with the 
hut with the entire life of the Jew. By the 
first (eeribe’ or teacher, the Torah had been 
Keeping of the priests aid placed. into the 
eA body of devoted teachers made it 
etotcain the Jewish people in the ways 
“spagall and the youth in schools both 
ager, the adults ia their meeting houses 
apragogucs) . Nat anly did the Torah re- 
But the provisions had te be applied to — 
gvenditions. It was brought home to the 
its that im order to safeguard the scrupulous 
he expreasty Commanded in the Torah. 
ied -aleut by preventive inhibitions not , 
infed. ‘Make » fence about the Torah’ 
bof the new orientation. Assemblies, like 
i Bera, would sweet from time to time to 
ews or to enact new ordinances. The 
ed into the third century and was known 
ty (or Synagogue}.-One of its last repre- 
@ high priest - Simon 1, 3 surmamed the Tust, 
F piety, devoted alike to che Torah, to the 
and ‘to deeds of kindness. In the light of 
high places which subsequently set in, he 
‘shining exemplar of a period which had 
in his own day it was a matter deserving 
s high aristocratic dignitary allied himself 
tic tendencies operative among. the ranks 
reand teachers. 7 
extinct, for the simple seciadih » that it hast 
‘prepare for the triumph of Moasism. te | ee 
Torah. The prophetic writings stood collectet a fee 
‘ to the Torah, itself instinet with the re it Ae eae 


ie 


ia Bi paee et “Tt Et a AONE pe fi a th papa ae the 


; gos tei eas, *5 inte an well oe requis 


inn os FAKES ams wovkd game back 


BY 


a poe rs ees RO 


spon of leamnimg, 


. Be Part 
. cx wine a moreno 
irk Oto hrew. pe poet AOBRAL +: to sents 


a 
So 


”_ 
w 


ef 5 a. fet a 


winedikh wt ave Ee peta ante 
+ WO ERR “hue. pi . 


ef sok ie ai nature ft 
ie neortig Hi pee bes, $e chaieeak rma 
eek, Sveste st 3 rt bg prtian and 4 
cep geee eth ahvesiney » the stadia of 


wignka para Ape HK Lesa, sovereigt 


When che do permed would be gathered 
tit ae as Jaume 46 ar thea truth. | 
TMI N Paeeeaues oll the aterthutes that 

mtiguema territoty, & Reino 


nie #atr was fret high peers fori’ 
ny the foresee ruber whe betd hin : ; 
covvetion ot order and tore delivery E 
[test War ages bee} oy the < ‘ongaenth or » 
baxly of priestiy and lay aeheway The Tem 
wuhediment of the national sumeniien. 4 i 
ceramony, and the people jawed iy. 
Levitical singers, the roinisrea tions 
the gorgeotis vestments of7he high 
blesaed. the prostrate people amid 


the Law), Tabernacles, broughr-e 


. 


THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE 131 


each had its stated sacrifices and ceremonial; the Jerusalem- 
ites were happy to witness the awe-inspiring service on New 
Year’s Day and especially on the Day of Atonement, the 
keystone in the structure of Judaism as developed in the 
Torah. 

The Torah, however, was concerned not merely with the 
Temple service, but with the entire life of the Jew. By the 
act of Ezra, the first ‘scribe’ or teacher, the Torah had been 
taken out of the keeping of the priests and placed into the 
hands of the people. A body of devoted teachers made it 
their earnest business to train the Jewish people in the ways 
of the Torah, the children and the youth in schools both 
elementary and higher, the adults in their meeting houses 
(batte keneseth, synagogues). Not only did the Torah re- 
quire explanation, but the provisions had to be applied to 
constantly changing conditions. It was brought home to the 
spiritual leaders that in order to safeguard the scrupulous 
fulfilment of injunctions expressly commanded in the Torah 
they should be hedged about by preventive inhibitions not 
originally contemplated. ‘Make a fence about the Torah’ 
was the watchword of the new orientation. Assemblies, like 
the one convoked by Ezra, would meet from time to time to 
interpret existing laws or to enact new ordinances. The 
institution continued into the third century and was known 
as the Great Assembly (or Synagogue). One of its last repre- 
sentatives was the high priest Simon I., surnamed the Just, 
a man of singular piety, devoted alike to the Torah, to the 
Temple worship, and to deeds of kindness. In the light of 
the corruption in high places which subsequently set in, he 
stood out as the shining exemplar of a period which had 
closed. But also in his own day it was a matter deserving 
comment that this high aristocratic dignitary allied himself 
with the democratic tendencies operative among the ranks 
of humble scholars and teachers. 

Prophecy was extinct, for the simple reason that it had 
done its work, to prepare for the triumph of Mosaism, the 
reign of the Torah. The prophetic writings stood collected, a 
worthy second to the Torah, itself instinct with the proph- 


132 FROM PERSIAN RULE TO GREEK 


etic spirit. The words of the prophets were expounded 
alongside of the Torah. The subject-matter lent itself to 
sermonic amplification; the teacher turned preacher, deep- 
ening outward formalism by the call to inward piety. The 
written word, whether of Torah or Prophets, was not a dead 
letter, but, by reason of the interpretation to which it was 
constantly submitted, it was made to keep pace with the 
newer religious experiences, and these were read into the 
ancient texts. The trend of the times was in the direction of 
stressing the religious needs and questionings of the individ- 
ual. The old conception of national solidarity had not lost 
ground, and men found consolation in the immortality of the 
race. ‘The days of Israel are without number.’ The disciples 
of Wisdom, that third branch of spiritual guidance which 
had been in the nation from of old, probed the problem of 
undeserved suffering and of the fate of the individual. In the 
height of mystic exaltation they put forth tentatively, 
gropingly, the vision of divine vindication after death. Some 
of the wise, like Ben Sira, a younger contemporary of Simon 
the Just, evinced an unconcern with the things hidden, and 
still others were given to sceptical doubt as to the moral order 
of the universe and resigned themselves to everyday wis- 
dom: ‘Fear God, and keep His commandments; for this is all 
that man needs to know.’ l 

From this enlightened searching, which still left room for 
conformity, there was but a step to the worldly-mindedness 
rife among the wealthier classes. The merchants, whose 
business journeys took them abroad, and particularly the 
tax-farmers who were brought in contact with foreign courts 
and their ministers, held cosmopolitan notions which re- 
solved national differences, and religion sat lightly upon 
them. They looked superciliously upon Jewish exclusiveness 
by which they were hampered in taking their place in the 
larger world for which wealth and station fitted them. This 
hankering after foreign culture was nothing new; it had 
engaged all the fiery zeal of the prophetic opposition. Now, 
as before, the contemners of the national mind were con- 
fronted with a counter-movement which rose from below. 


Pe ee a ee ne ee 


‘TRE Pree 133 
g igh Sithewitian 


mn folk, it dwt 


5 eae Pray “omginiienti 
is $ preety we head i Sx seed? 
> Tenge: wise Fiek.., Ppa 
with dmitt whe Ba eae “tert 
trust and vee Aa eee eet hote ie FR: 
eed on bei ines oitibl 


r y etwhien set tie =" id swine 
0 << cluch wae apetigitdiedt jy che 
Palestine ancl tie eer ge iy the 
re Brive if ee Fenenets | Wat heats. 


. 
. 
x 
nay * 
‘ 
TOY eee ge 
"te 
“~ 
® j a 
2 ‘i . 
4 - 
‘ 3 . " 
r >. =i 
‘ # 
J r 
« 
Ar 
a 
; a. 
‘ 
hm 
} 4 
OL ee 
3 \ XY i 
g . 
> . ‘ e 
’ i i ay * . 
© F “~ 

i te 7 
ay 
» a — 
‘ 


thanks Bie bike Sginges Reduces dl 


rs 
enpagest all mie 
na. bedore, the co 
fanned with o counter- movement 


THE PIETISTS 133 


But there was this weighty difference: Mosaism had taken 
root among the common folk, it had stamped itself deep on 
the national character, thanks to the assiduous labors of 
generations of teachers. Groups were forming themselves in 
all stillness, countering insincerity with single-mindedness, 
pride with humility, worldliness with piety. Their opponents 
might regard them as Pietists (hasidim) ; they gloried in their 
saintliness. They were anchored to Temple and Torah, their 
inward devotion aquiver with doubt and depression, but 
ecstatic with childlike trust and new-born exaltation. In 
heaven they had none but God, and beside Him they desired 
none upon earth; to be near to God was the highest good. 
The rift kept ever widening between the men of the world 
and the lovers of God. The clash was precipitated by the 
Seleucid conquest of Palestine and the impetus it gave to the 
sympathizers with Greek culture in high Jewish quarters. 


CHAPTER XXV 


HELLENISTS AND PIETISTS. ANTIOCHUS 
EPIPHANES 
(187-165) 


HE religious division had, as its concomitant, politi- 

cal factionalism. The two sets of interests acted one 

upon the other and often blended, though the relig- 
ious probtem overshadowed all else. Scopas, on subduing the 
Jewish nation (p. 129), found in Jerusalem a strong party 
with leanings towards the Seleucids. Such was the influen- 
tial and well-connected house of the Tobiads. The founder 
Tobiah had married a sister of the high priest Onias II. (son 
of Simon the Just), and their son Joseph amassed a great 
fortune as farmer of the taxes during the Ptolemaic dominion. 
Of Joseph’s large family Hyrcanus alone, his father’s favor- 
ite, threw his wealth and influence on the side of Egypt. 
Ptolemy V. set up the claim that, when he married Cleopatra, 
the daughter of Antiochus the Great, Palestine had been 
promised her as a dowry. Seleucus IV. was now reigning in 
Antioch (187-176). Hyrcanus made overtures to Ptolemy 
and promised to advance his cause in Jerusalem. He was 
worsted in a clash of arms with his brothers and was expelled 
from the city by order of the high priest Simon II. Hyrcanus 
returned to his estates across the Jordan, where he built a 
castle—the ruins are still extant ae el-Emir)—and waged 
war with the Arabs. 

The Seleucid party had the upper hand in Jerusalem. One 
of their number, Simon, had been appointed administrator 
of the Temple treasury, which contained large private de- 
posits. The finances of the court at Antioch were at a low 
ebb; Simon let it be known in friendly quarters how they 
might help themselves to much money that lay idle in the 
Temple, especially to the sums left there by Hyrcanus. The 


134 


SECURES THRE $e PaistHooD 134 


ed by the high priest Chitiad tt, who 
ng the party fsiowily 40 Beypt. bleaine 

fer Heliodorus to Jeruewiem; but Ovias 
his plans, Ax Cheigatigaticon of Simon, 


thome, in order to secure the throne for 
pid rulers in general were admirers of 


y i Made Manifest}, wax an enthusiast, 
an citizenship, aid bent upon spreading 
. nin his domains through setthng-Greeks 
ie . He built temypes to Apollo and Jupt- 


ssize: he loved to celebratewith magni- - = 
ous festivities. He strove for seinen | 


of the extreme -Hellenizers in Jecusales, 
ochu who was in feed of money, @ higher 


Siiay' sisbensetliieeg! to. ieee ‘diveniiath eae a 
Smal m Jerusalem the perapbactns af ie 


174] JASON SECURES THE HIGH PRIESTHOOD 135 


scheme was opposed by the high priest Onias III., who 
sought support among the party friendly to Egypt. Seleucus 
sent down his treasurer Heliodorus to Jerusalem; but Onias 
succeeded in thwarting his plans. At the instigation of Simon, 
the governor of Southern Syria made ready to step in. The 
matter came before the king, and Onias departed for Antioch 
to present his case. 

Seleucus was murdered by Heliodorus in 176. His brother 
Antiochus IV. (175-164), who succeeded him, had been kept 
as a hostage in Rome since 189, one year after his father’s 
defeat by Rome in the battle of Magnesia and the resulting 
loss of Asia Minor north of the Taurus. Shortly before the 
death of Seleucus, the Romans had let him go in exchange 
for the eldest son of Seleucus, Demetrius, a boy of twelve 
years. At Athens, Antiochus received the news of his brother’s 
death and hastened home, in order to secure the throne for 
himself. The Seleucid rulers in general were admirers of 
Greek culture; but this Antiochus, who surnamed himself 
Epiphanes (the God Made Manifest), was an enthusiast, 
proud of his Athenian citizenship, and bent upon spreading 
Hellenic civilization in his domains through settling Greeks 
in the principal cities. He built temples to Apollo and Jupi- 
ter, the Olympian as well as the Capitoline, and erected 
statues of enormous size; he loved to celebrate with magni- 
ficence Greek religious festivities. He strove for popularity 
among his subjects, but was perfectly unscrupulous as to the 
means he employed to obtain the funds his lavishness re- 
quired. Energetic and ambitious, he was given to whims; 
serious and sober men judged him half-crazed (Epimanes). 

Immediately upon the accession of Antiochus, Hyrcanus 
perceived that he could not hold out in his fastness and took 
his own life; his property was confiscated by the king. Onias 
was still in Antioch. His brother Jeshua (or, in Grecised form, 
Jason), leader of the extreme Hellenizers in Jerusalem, 
promised Antiochus, who was in need of money, a higher 
tribute and was nominated to the high priestly office. He 
worked upon the king’s susceptibilities to Greek manners 
and offered to introduce in Jerusalem the paraphernalia of 


136 HELLENISTS AND PIETISTS 


Greek civilization. The price paid to the Jews was the priv- 
ilege to be registered as Antiochian citizens. Under the very 
Citadel of David, a place of exercise (gymnasium) was set 
up, where the youth from the best families, completely 
stripped, wearing only the broad-brimmed hat with figures 
of Mercury, wrestled and disported themselves as Greek 
athletes. Such was the extreme of Greek fashions that the 
young priests forsook the Temple service and ran down at 
the first signal to witness the games. Jason went in his lib- 
eralism still further. On the occasion of the games in honor of 
the Tyrian sun-god, which the king graced by his presence, 
the Jewish high priest was represented by a delegation with 
gifts for offerings. However, the envoys shrank from so gross 
an offense and turned over the money for the building of 
ships in the royal navy. 

While Rome was throttling Macaddta and laying the 
foundation for world dominion, Antiochus learned of war- 
like preparations in Egypt. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor, 181— 
146) renewed his claims upon Palestine. Jerusalem seemed to 
be loyal, and when Antiochus visited it, he was accorded a 
magnificent reception. But soon an Egyptian party raised 
its head in the city. Jason was no longer trusted by the 
king. He was replaced by Menelaus, brother of the Temple 
treasurer Simon (p. 134), who offered a still higher tribute. 
Jason took refuge in the Ammonite country. 

The new high priest belonged to another branch of the 
priesthood, the class of Miniamin. He was committed to his 
predecessor’s policies, both in repressing political opposition 
and in furthering Hellenizing measures. It was not so easy to 
raise the money he had promised. The king’s representative 
in Jerusalem pressed for payment, but the moneyed men 
resisted increased taxation. Menelaus was summoned to 
Antioch. Here he was charged by Onias with sacrilege. 
Menelaus had helped himself to Temple treasure and bribed 
Andronicus, who acted as regent during the absence of the 


king, to lure Onias from his refuge in asanctuary at Daphne, — 


near Antioch, and to slay him. In the meantime Lysimachus, 
the brother of Menelaus, suffered death in Jerusalem because 


ce 


ON: OF PRE PRA LS EL 1G ui ¥<) 


Mibidedations of the Femuk: =) myth Wert 
St Menelans, iney tiie vied when id eorh over 
he returns. tt Jee ik sornnimady over 
a his réturs: fretn his Great iy pias expedition. 
ge b fovamaters: witht ul sualte; Menelaus 
a 1 into Ratt Mary af tHeobhes niall beanies the 
7 ation of che Tusapie. 


RS. Far the senond 
(ato we weeete, Tet be was 


Obvictory ti; hw Seeley Gas of Rome. 
As ie iy the. chew wi Popilius 
a eee git rae seared ecby mets, Lae civig and 
b the: a Pigmcen were sicrulated that 
Rema Kaeaed w lerusalem with a 
| aan! Geos Senelaws unto the Cit- 
evar? mack stive> deeniy hurt by the 
ak Bits senate bk Was determined to 
i Fear Beta reves and ultimately 
“The ba 46% JO advance 
He ensere? faci. om «a wehttbath. The unre 
ats were biiptedsecn i> Je sopeisesy eit at 
, City iia. ee a eee gS ani “ © 
Hartitied. aie? ace chs Apoetese Jews, who 
ee Delt, viele re: awe oid bagether 


y : ts ‘ , ss ‘1 ’ a i ’ 7 3 a 
Rei! eee brie DOT ACTICE of 
h Oth $6) a9 HE shat ha he 2 A A ORME. RS guched. 


ap te t : ME LUGS 248 ‘gi, a) as ae ae 54% 1s 
. ts ae : ee Fe ae ee 
PRE RRA: Gd SG GRR Ne Pete 


Wa F 


4 tsatdl) < NRS 
Five, UK guar ee pies 73 
UL teasgis loneicd, a pian ob: . 

i gare Pe veaith Freer che best 
wteigeedl, tariay cai Lint: pier 3 rh 
if he reer’, wrens et arte 

giiietar. ye ‘eds 


Re Rive: Nae Mike % " 
erabeny wt tortie. + Che a pabeaices 4 
tie Tytien ain god, whiek the Be 


the Joweh bigh priest wasaeg 
ojits dar eRerings. Hewewets im 


ye eet Poa j ceay: 4 ae sf 
ne e? te Boe | erat} Oy wy 


wi, 
hear” § 
+ 
j , 5 4 okie gh 
143 |: pe eare BESSY 


« loval. avd wien Aretieiagin 


aa XK Pare ta Fax f id ae £5 ¥. 4 is hy 


‘Kivig bis pu! ret +4: “et” pd Sy 


> ed ‘ 
ite aie tee iy 43 
SPE a | ~ stTwer ‘Ly, } ak 


Hriesthoud, the class. anf "Medea 
preciecessors policies, botipam 
atid im furthering iene. 
raise Khe money he had promised. : 
im» ferusalern + pre: ind for. pay ment 
resisted increased taxation, Me 
Antioch, Here he was ch ae 
Menelaus had helped himselitad 
Andronicus, whe acted as regent ¢ : 
king, te ture Onias from his refuge in 
near Antioch, and to slay him, Tm 
the Brother of Menelaus, suffered 


168] SUSPENSION OF THE JEWISH RELIGION 137 


of his continued depredations of the Temple. Charges were 
preferred against Menelaus, but his gold won the court over 
to his side, and he returned to Jerusalem to tyrannize over 
his enemies. On his return from his first Egyptian expedition 
(169), the king entered Jerusalem with a largesuite; Menelaus 
conducted him into the Holy of Holies and permitted the 
thorough spoliation of the Temple. 

The next year Antiochus invaded Egypt for the second 
time. The success of his arms was complete, but he was 
robbed of the fruits of victory by the intervention of Rome. 
An ultimatum was presented by the envoy C. Popilius 
Laenas, who drew a circle in the sand about the king and 
bade him decide on the spot. Rumors were circulated that 
Antiochus was dead. Jason hastened to Jerusalem with a 
force of a thousand men and drove Menelaus into the Cit- 
adel. Antiochus was very much alive; deeply hurt by the 
humiliating outcome of his campaign he was determined to 
vent his spleen on the Jews. Jason fled betimes and ultimately 
‘reached Egypt. The king ordered Apollonius to advance 
upon Jerusalem. He entered the city on a sabbath. The unre- 
sisting inhabitants were butchered; the soldiers pillaged at 
will and carried off women and children to be sold as slaves. 
The walls of the city were razed; the citadel south ot the 
Temple hill was fortified, and there the apostate Jews, who 
were friendly to the king’s cause, were quartered together 
with non-Jewish residents. | 

A royal edict was proclaimed suspending the practice of 
the Jewish religion on pain of death. The rescript was couched 
in general terms commanding the fusion of all nationalities 
in the realm into one people and the acceptance of the Greek 
religion by all; but that was only a blind. The force of the 
proclamation was directed against the Jews and the Samari- 
tans. Accordingly the Temple in Jerusalem was converted 
into a sanctuary of Jupiter the Olympian, while that on 
Mount Gerizim was dedicated to Jupiter Xenius (the 
Defender of Visitors). On the fifteenth day of Chislev, 168, a 
statue of the god was set up on the altar, the image of the 
‘lord of heaven,’ which the pious Jews spoke of as ‘the 


138 ; HELLENISTS AND PIETISTS 


abominable thing causing horror’; on the twenty-fifth day of 
the month heathen sacrifices were offered on what had been 
the altar of God. The Temple was filled with riots and 
revelings; within the sacred precincts men dallied with 
harlots; swine’s blood was poured upon the altar 

Heathen altars were also erected in the country towns. 
Every month the king’s birthday was celebrated, and the 
Jews were constrained to eat of the sacrifices; on the feast of 
Bacchus they were made to go in procession wearing wreaths 
of ivy. It was unlawful for anyone to keep the sabbath and 
festivals ordained in the Torah, or to profess himself at all 
tobea Jew. The king’s appointed overseers saw to the strict 
carrying out of the new order of things. Torah scrolls were 
rent in pieces and burned; their owners were put to death. 
Women, who had their children circumcised, were led pub- 
licly round about the city and then cast headlong from the 
walls. Eleazar, an aged teacher, who refused to eat swine’s 
flesh, was tortured to death. A group of pious people who 
had fled to a cave near Jerusalem in order to keep the sab- 
bath secretly were surprised and cominitted to the flames; 
they chose to die rather than to desecrate the sabbath by 
offering resistance. 

The leaders of the Hellenist movement in Jerusalem had, 
of course, not expected that things would come to this pass. 
Their idea had been to liberalize Judaism and to meet Greek 
culture half way. The new course of things overwhelmed 
them; temporizing was impossible; they were too worldly- 
minded for martyrdom; conscience was stifled. There were 
naturally those who had no scruples at all and embraced 
heathenism to its utter limit. At the other end, the extreme 
Pietists were resigned to passive resistance. Their duty, as 
they saw it, was to live as their fathers had lived and to let 
God take care of the issue. It was a quietistic attitude, not 
different from that of Isaiah centuries before. The visionary 
who wrote the Book of Daniel—the last to enter the collec- 
tion of Holy Scriptures—reasoned that the present was the 
final onslaught on God’s people and the Holy City. Four 
world empires, one more ruthless than the other, had held 


: 
| 


"| FUVAR THE MACCABEE 139: 


adrezzar’s conquest of Judea: the Baby- 
‘the Persian, the Greek. This was now 

anic kingdom of the saints of the Most 
with the clouds of heaven at the appointed 
peers, at the end he = tts Ato 


1 the oh would rise to ae hasbiatlon 
| to shame and Sereored.. conternpt. 


Ba icdiverance « as the ats feichlak: 
sionary- A deliverer did come in the person 
iccabee ( ak Hammes ere oh who believed in 


af Reholerib, M avashiah the Hasmonean, 
‘(a small town northwest of Jerusalem, 
fa). The aged father had elain bath the 
rand the first Jew. who anpemaiched the 


if was lawful, when attacked, to defend 
psabbath day. Bur Mattathiah soon died, 
p fell to Judah, who collected a body ‘of 
“s from among the scattered Jews, The up- 
eel. The Syrian government, taking this dis- 
ly, gent detachments of regular troops first 
ander Apollonius, and then from Syria under 
“the rebellion. Judah, notwithstanding his 
yet unorganized forces, proved more than a 
em. He surprised the enemy in night attacks 
force routed the Syrian host in the 

. The spoil which fell into the hands of the 
emwith weapons. When jardah moved up 
th of Jerusalem), be commanded a consider- 
ih he organized in companies a thousand, a 
ed ten strong. By fasting and prayers they 
meives for the unequal combat. 


—_" 
— 


i ie.) wane 
oye awe Lae 


ink CELA SNISTS AND P 


Pubes ee Petty CRA horror’; On: 
tide winnsh Reathen sacciices Were ei 
she gitar at Od. The Temnplerwaaa 
ierelimge: sbithin the sacred ptecine 
linghwie: awrine e ded wae poured ui 

Hoatuen altars were alad erected 


ne 
Lwery TesITt Tae ks Leg '§ birthday” 
Ferre were COMELTRIA ext to eat of the 
avin ey they were ade fy gO int pe 
eh bee. a woe weilawtol for anyone 


beti ya Of petits in the Torah, ‘or 
ix Ft B lotr The kine 8 appointed TSCA 
i of the pew pais Ladi mes. 


neh ponad 2 nee ae eo? I 


waits, Sinsaan? an aged: teacher, 
Aly, was tortured to death: A. 


mi Hed m «a cave near Jere 
path secretly were satyenee 
tty chose to dhe 
ering reetnnne. 

The teacers 
Ca i BITSES, Foot PRPS 
Their idea had been toh veraline J 
ealture half way, The ® 
them: termpertzing was impe 
pimced lor marty wrdom; LB 
waturally thoy: who had mage 
heathens to its utter aes 


Pietiats were resigned to pasei¥ 
they saw it, was to liveas thei 
God take care of the issue. He 
different frora that of isatah cent 
who wrote the Book of Daniel 
tion of Holy Seriptures- : res 
Anal onslaught on God's peaple 
world empires, One more ruthless 


JUDAH THE MACCABEE 139 


sway since Nebuchadrezzar’s conquest of Judea: the Baby- 
lonian, the Median, the Persian, the Greek. This was now 
the end: the Messianic kingdom of the saints of the Most 
High was coming with the clouds of heaven at the appointed 
time. The seventy years, at the end of which the prophet 
Jeremiah had set the restoration of Israel, meant seven weeks 
of years. Now was the seventh and last week, ushering in the 
judgment, in which the righteous would rise to everlasting 
life and the wicked to shame and everlasting contempt. 
Why resort to arms, when Michael, the patron angel of 
Israel on high, was warring to overthrow the heathen power 
and to accomplish the deliverance of the Jewish people? 

So mused the visionary. A deliverer did come in the person 
of Judah the Maccabee (the Hammerer), who believed in 
active resistance. He was one of the five sons of a country 
priest of the class of Jehoiarib, Mattathiah the Hasmonean, 
residing in Modein (a small town northwest of Jerusalem, 
on the road to Jaffa). The aged father had slain both the 
king’s commissary and the first Jew who approached the 
heathen altar in the town. With his sons and other faithful 
Jews, the priest had fled into the mountains and convinced 
the Pietists that it was lawful, when attacked, to defend 
themselves on the sabbath day. But Mattathiah soon died, 
and the leadership fell to Judah, who collected a body of 
resolute warriors from among the scattered Jews. The up- 
rising was started. The Syrian government, taking this dis- 
turbance lightly, sent detachments of regular troops first 
from Samaria under Apollonius, and then from Syria under 
Seron, to quell the rebellion. Judah, notwithstanding his 
small and as yet unorganized forces, proved more than a 
match for them. He surprised the enemy in night attacks 
and with a small picked force routed the Syrian host in the 
pass of Beth-horon. The spoil which fell into the hands of the 
Jews supplied them with weapons. When Judah moved up 
to Mizpah (north of Jerusalem), he commanded a consider- 
able force, which he organized in companies a thousand, a 
hundred, fifty, and ten strong. By fasting and prayers they 
prepared themselves for the unequal combat. 


140 HELLENISTS AND PIETISTS 


The Jewish rising was in a measure part of a general revolt 
of the East against the West. The Parthian province (south- 
east of the Caspian Sea) had under its own kings been ex- 
panding at the cost of the Seleucid empire; now Mithradates 
I. (about 170-138) was on the way to founding an empire of 
his own. Antiochus departed for the east to set things to 
rights, leaving the government of Syria proper in the hands 
of Lysias with instructions to crush the Jewish rebellion in 
a war of extermination. An army of forty thousand foot and 
seven thousand horse, commanded by Ptolemy, Nicanor, and 
Gorgias, marched down the coast and was advancing towards 
Jerusalem. With a body of three thousand stout-hearted 
warriors Judah, dexterously dodging a night attack by 
Gorgiasin the mountains, flung himself upon Nicanor’s army 
encamped at Emmaus. The discomfited Syrian forces fled 
into the plain. There was no time to plunder the deserted 
camp; Gorgias was descending with his detachment of five 
thousand men. So the camp was set on fire. At the sight of 
the flames, the forces of Gorgias likewise took to flight, leav- 
ing rich spoil behind. : 

A fresh Syrian army, under the command of Timotheus 
and Bacchides, was ordered to march on Jerusalem by way 
of Idumea from the south. At Beth-zur, some four miles 
above Hebron, Judah met them and won another victory. 
He was now free to move up towards Jerusalem. It proved 
impossible to dislodge the Syrian garrison from the Citadel. 
But the Temple hill was forthwith occupied. It was a sorry 
sight that met the eye: the sanctuary desolate, the altar pro- 
faned, the gates burned up, shrubs growing in the courts as 
in a forest, the priests’ chambers pulled down. With the aid 
of faithful priests the sacred place was cleansed. The heathen 
altars and places of worship were demolished. The great 
Altar, which had been desecrated, was pulled down, and its 
stones removed to a chamber without the Temple courts, 
until there should come a prophet to tell what was to be 
done with them. A new altar was built of whole stones, and 
new holy vessels were made. On the twenty-fifth day of 
Chislev, 165, exactly three years after its desecration, the 


Wiss RUPEDICATED — a ae 
rediedicated; the macentny accion 


For eight days the Feast at Dedice- 
Of t with sactifices. and prayers af 
d song, with processians ia which 
BO a Pout with kindling af Hglsta. 1 
| feast should be keps aanualiy at this 
ition’ of the rekindling of the lamps jn 

distn was saved by the heroic zeal of 


1 
ps 1 


new paltur, and the larape apeon eee yoke 


* 
——— 
—~ 


ae ke 


Phyo. Sete ae pagige wd ee 
“at ohee ¥ laa ite nl byt we ™ ere a 


k rn f “4 : 4 ‘ od 
SF tee bg Pe eye wep Rigo rt ah ; 
Hrk, ia RPO a i neers, + aa Fake a 


omega’. ie toar of they chav 
1, tate 172-438) was on cme yay 
tink ove % Anvechius 6 Lepeyr bie ak hae 
rights, Me VINhe phe gov ernie a 

of Lalas with instructions cones 
4 Car *A f owtermination, Ag aneny of 
sere tows anu hor Be, CONTE nanded b 


a) 


TZU, ETT sed down acy coast ; 


BRhorm J , ‘je Ni dense 
Gorgiasin the mountams, Hung J 
a ct ni bE mimatis. The Gi 
inti the plain. There was ae § 
oem; Gorgias was descending 
thioieand men. So she ° 


inne vik Bf wil al iy 


A tresh Syrian army, ore 
and Bacchides, was s ordereet: Oe 
a liaumea from + © south, Ae 
above Hebron, Tudab met 4 
ie was new free te move Ro Ee 
impossible to distadge the Syvrbae 
But the Tersple hill was forthe 
night tbat met the eye: the aap 
faned, the gave > burned up) sin 
in a forest, the priceta’ chambe 
of faithful a iests the sacrallg 
aitars and places of worshig- 
Altar, which Sad been desochth 
stones reanoved te a cha sabe! i 
until there should come 3 pee chet. 
done with them. A new altar was yu 
new holy vessels. were made, si 
€ hiatew, 165, evectly three yerarae 


165] THE TEMPLE REDEDICATED 14] 


Temple was solemnly rededicated; the morning sacrifice 
was offered on the new altar, and the lamps upon the golden 
candlestick were lighted. For eight days the Feast of Dedica- 
tion (Hanukkah) was kept with sacrifices and prayers of 
thanksgiving, with musicand song, with processions in which 
palm branches were borne, and with kindling of lights. It 
was ordained that this feast should be kept annually at this 
season in commemoration of the rekindling of the lamps in 
the House of God. Judaism was saved by the heroic zeal of 
the priest’s son of Modein. 


CHAPTER XXVI 
JUDAH THE MACCABEE AND HIS BROTHERS 
(165-142) 


YSIAS was now convinced that the coercive measures 
against the religion of the Jews had proved a failure. 
The Hellenists in Jerusalem likewise desired the 
termination of the state of war. A hint from Rome sufficed 
to bring the two sides together. Without awaiting the pleas- 
ure of the monarch who was still in the east, Lysias obtained 
from the young prince Antiochus V. (Eupator), whose guar- 
dian the regent was, a rescript guaranteeing to the Jews 
freedom of worship and bidding them return to their peace- 
ful occupations. With Menelaus as go-between, it was hoped 
to detach the loyal subjects from the rebels and then to out- 
law the irreconcilables. 

These half-measures were not calculated to satisfy Judah 
on the one side or the enemies of the Jews on the other. The 
persecution initiated by the Seleucid monarch had revived 
the ancient animosities against the Jews among their neigh- 
bors to the south and to the east. The Greek cities, which 
had been growing in number since the times of Alexander the 
Great, had become fresh centers of virulent hatred of the 
Jews. Judah left the Temple mount strongly fortified so as 
to frustrate any attack from the Citadel. He likewise sur- 
rounded Beth-zur with walls; this fortress served him as a 
base of operations against the _Idumeans, who made raids 
upon the Jewish insurgents, at the same time offering a 
refuge to fugitive Hellenists. The Idumeans were driven into 
their strongholds, which were captured by Judah and set on 
fire. The chastisement of the Idumeans brought comfort to 
their inveterate enemies, the Arab Nand who made 
common cause with Judah. 

News reached Jerusalem from all sides of the sore plight 
of the scattered Jewish settlements outside the small, but 


142 


gjORDAniss MRE re ts ides 


of Judea Tile ty ah Sy Sy 28 
- , were parents. we a aaron 
om nc} naif] ‘themse? ig ‘ees Hs ; ve fe ah A 
HUD orth, near ihe weet os 

rae Seen massacred ead! et oe 
3 wi yy into slavery. Whee ges ne 
adah. and his bree ANS Fda Tye ie 
paney surpr ised the mpage.” Sree’ 3 
h E rescued Jews wege! td bs Se Me, 
_— me ewealipr Pe pi tek (se 


20, ‘fudah’s s elder brothes sar achieving 
Ar the head of three thy boawand mer, he 


esi Sty were again Ow Sit to hist 
. hand, an attack on Jabneh, led by 


ea during these expeditions, was re- 
the joss to the Jews in the aurniber of 
able. A second expedition by Judah 
ing resulted in thé capture ef Hebron. 
Was his campaign against ‘¢he Prilistine 
Gestroved and its sanctuaries with their 
shed. Two hundred Jews, among them 
en, had -been lured by the citizens of Jaffa 
5 to the high sea and then cast overboard ; 
on twe ports of Jafla and Jabneh by night 
“on fire, 
s were made possible by the preoccupa- 
{arising out of his str ained relations with 
Mannaand then by reason of the deatli of the 
3 When i in-163 Judah maide ready to assail the 
its Syrian garrison, Lysias determined to re- 
a ga inst the Jews. Menelans piud with his life 
orable turn events had raken; *e was replaced 
kim) from among the loyalist wriestly fant 
vast army marched ' into Judea. fram the seuth; 
£. as invested. Judah interrupted the siege of rhe 


Fand Azariah, whom Judah had left - 


a 


a: 


a re 


PCAN TRE wd c AMI A 


| “ ; 3 oo Wee 
CER Wieh Poe con eet 
; ve Saher eg ate of 


sui ’ The Bieleiots 


tedentvieiam of Yhe shal 


ne Dag ee Ut ae 


seen a FEZERT Pas, 
§ pen ditt 2 weet aed B 
teh geebueaceys, Wie Bit 
Oe Getach the bowel ehh} Re 


Tsrernt, 


72 Bas. 


its eas . j <i = ¥¥ ras 
as GENS ae ANY aAfiate 


Patience, <a ld tl di Oe oe et ee 
twine of swerations aga 
RC OS 4 tna 24 


1% r - a a + 
they Serres TOMES, wy hii 


hres. The G sesndenaseale 
ther ex VYOMTrat 
COMITON Chuse wii ‘a Jud 
News reached Jerusalem 
«yf the scattered le Wish set? 


164] JEWS OF TRANSJORDANIA AND GALILEE RESCUED 143 


compact territory of Judea. Thus the Ammonites, in league 
with Greeks and Arabs, were preparing to exterminate the 
Jews who had entrenched themselves in the Gileadite fortress 
Ramoth; further up north, near the sources of the Jordan, a 
thousand Jews had been massacred and their women and 
children carried away into slavery. With a force of eight 
thousand men, Judah and his brother Jonathan marched 
beyond the Jordan; they surprised the enemy in the rear and 
dispersed them. The rescued Jews were taken to Jerusalem 
by way of Beth-shan (Scythopolis), the only half-Greek city 
friendly to the Jews. 

Meanwhile Simon, Judah’s elder brother, was achieving 
success in Galilee. At the head of three thousand men, he 
forced the heathen to retreat to the coast, as far as Acco 
(Ptolemais); the delivered Jews were again taken to Jeru- 
salem. On the other hand, an attack on Jabneh, led by 
Joseph son of Zechariah and Azariah, whom Judah had left 
in command of Judea during these expeditions, was re- 
pulsed by Gorgias; the loss to the Jews in the number of 
slain was considerable. A second expedition by Judah 
against the Idumeans resulted in the capture of Hebron. 
Equally successful was his campaign against the Philistine 
coast; Ashdod was destroyed and its sanctuaries with their 
statues were demolished. Two hundred Jews, among them 
women and children, had been lured by the citizens of Jaffa 
(Joppe) on ships to the high sea and then cast overboard; 
Judah surprised the two ports of Jaffa and Jabneh by night 
and set their ships on fire. 

All these reprisals were made possible by the preoccupa- 
tions of the regent arising out of his strained relations with 
Antiochus Epiphanes and then by reason of the death of the 
monarch in 164. When in 163 Judah made ready to assail the 
Citadel with its Syrian garrison, Lysias determined to re- 
sume the war against the Jews. Menelaus paid with his life 
for the unfavorable turn events had taken; he was replaced 
by Alcimus (Jakim) from among the loyalist priestly fam- 
ilies. A vast army marched into Judea from the south; 
Beth-zur was invested. Judah interrupted the siege of the 


144 JUDAH THE MACCABEE AND HIS BROTHERS [162 


Citadel and met the enemy at Beth-zechariah, half-way 
between the Syrian camp and Jerusalem. Despite acts of 
bravery such as cost Eleazar, the fourth of the Hasmonean 
brothers, his life, the Jews were unable to break through the 
enemy lines with their high-towered elephants and squadrons 
of horsemen covering the foot soldiers. Judah was compelled 
to retreat to the Temple mount where he in turn was be- 
sieged. Beth-zur was starved into surrender; it was the 
seventh year, when the land lay fallow and food was scarce. 
Fortunately Philip, whom the dying monarch had set up as 
regent in the place of Lysias, had advanced from the east and 
occupied Antioch. Lysias, in order to meet his opponent at 
home, concluded peace; a new governor was appointed over 
Palestine, while the internal administration of the Jewish 
community was left in the hands of Alcimus. Though Judah 
was comprised among the beneficiaries of the royal amnesty, 
he was forced to leave the city. 

Philip was overcome, but Lysias and his royal ward were 
compelled to make way before Demetrius I., the son of 
Seleucus IV., who seized the throne in 162. Alcimus, whom 
the partisans of Judah kept from access to the Temple, 
implored the aid of the new king. Bacchides, the governor 
of Northern Syria, was sent to Jerusalem. He convened a 
body of teachers, among them several of the Pietists, who 
announced that they were satisfied with Alcimus, since he 
was descended from the legitimate high priestly families. 
The Pietists reasoned that the object, for which they had 
joined the uprising, had been achieved; it seemed to them 
that Judah was now engaged in a dynastic struggle with the 
lawful head of the nation. They were soon undeceived; to 
Alcimus they appeared as at one with the irreconcilables, 
and he had sixty of them seized and executed. Bacchides left 
a detachment of troops for his protection. But after his act 
of cruelty the new high priest was distrusted by the faithful; . 
the old antagonism broke out afresh; Judah and his brothers 
resumed their offensive and the hard-beset priest once more 
turned to the king for help. 

Demetrius sent Nicanor with the charge to capture Judah 


Ny | 


aves resubtted. (as eebeg? por 3 noes 
but 4 email €eyre efi sel are: 44.4 
g elsewhere——with WHE 2 Gory Soe see 
erated. Nicanor was earige! oud thee yt 
‘Temple unless the vehass ware: delimtste 
vi eenth of A dar, bot, iat Was joined 
whostood at Beth- ite _and Judah, whe 
shah, not far from Modein. Nicanor fell 
his host dispersed toward the coast. Judah 
Min triumph, bearing the vanquished com- 
bright arm; ee were agspended from the 
of the Citadel. The day of the victory over 
ined bas an annual festival, 
ree Mbimself a victcrious general. He was at 
areer, and in reality the head ot the mation. 
Hational mode of life, mere telerarion and 


political independence. Ae. step towards 
paottering Seleucid empire complete free- 
wan Judah entered into negetiations with 
6, whose word was beginning to be law in 
Hassy was sent to Rome, headed by the 
$on of Fohanan and Jason son df Eieazar, 
Meiendly veception. A treaty of amity was 
he Scnate; the Jews were recognized as a 
fe and confederates of the rege > Ng 
t alone by Demetrius. 

yever, knew Kome better. Romar emissaries 
it i te give countenance fo any disturber of 
beast who was just as speedily lefC in the 
failed. Before the Jewith embassy retumed 
etrius had quelled the rebellion of the 


ey 


ifiides with a formidable force, thus foresta!- 
vention. Judah met bim with a band of 
en, which was completely routed (at a place 
Beth-horon); the leedter himself fell in the 


aor yee: yi 
¥ 


‘<P 


autonomy did not suffice. What the - 


)Simarchus, and thea hurriedly dispatched . 


ee nS Sart, ra) ee ike ah ais With Jy ae see ie 


aS AG 


¥ 
—— 
— 


va a ev st spe fat ee 4 coast ¥ scr 
Westie, nga bie, phe Made 
. mens tines laaen tear 


te reevoak t m the Tenge 
| aed. Reth-auc was heey 
seventy year, wher Che tach 
Perrant rte dy 3b iho, whey 
peeent in ch ore nf i: re 


comunity was a tales ait ow 
Was ty seuss pater: levees 


Fhilip was 0 sie | 
compelled to make: aye 
Seleucus TV., who veiae 
the partisans of fudaia 
implored the aid of thewey 
@& Northeed Syria, Wks 
body of teachers, among 
announced that. they wage 
Was descended from the: . 
The Pitusts reasoned tiga 
joined the uprising, had aegm 
that Judah was now engage 
lawfal head of the nation, FT rey. 
Alecimus they ap peared as’ at one” 
and he had _ oH f chem ¢ —_ 


ve cid i httieeabtie tucked pa. 
resumed their offensive «id the hs 
farmed to the iin E = hewry 


160] JUDAH FALLS IN BATTLE 145 


and his brothers, dead or alive. Judah was wary; a skirmish 
near one of the coastal villages resulted in defeat for Nicanor, 
who commanded but a small force—the main army was 
needed by the king elsewhere—with which a levy from the 
loyalist Jews codperated. Nicanor was enraged and threat- 
ened to destroy the Temple unless the rebels were delivered 
to him. On the thirteenth of Adar, 161, battle was joined 
between Nicanor, who stood at Beth-horon, and Judah, who 
encamped at Hadashah, not far from Modein. Nicanor fell 
in the battle, and his host dispersed toward the coast. Judah 
entered Jerusalem in triumph, bearing the vanquished com- 
mander’s head and right arm; they were suspended from the 
wall in the sight of the Citadel. The day of the victory over 

Nicanor was ordained as an annual festival. 

Judah had proved himself a victorious general. He was at 
the height of his career, and in reality the head of the nation. 
To safeguard the national mode of life, mere toleration and 
the grant of internal autonomy did not suffice. What the 
nation needed was political independence. As a step towards 
wresting from the tottering Seleucid empire complete free- 
dom, the statesman Judah entered into negotiations with 
the Roman Senate, whose word was beginning to be law in 
Antioch. An embassy was sent to Rome, headed by the 
priest Eupolemus son of Johanan and Jason son of Eleazar, 
and it met with a friendly reception. A treaty of amity was 
concluded with the Senate; the Jews were recognized as a 
nation; as friends and confederates of the Roman republic 
they were to be let alone by Demetrius. 

Antioch, however, knew Rome better. Roman emissaries 
were doing their best to give countenance to any disturber of 
the peace in the east who was just as speedily left in the 
lurch when he failed. Before the Jewish embassy returned 
from Rome, Demetrius had quelled the rebellion of the 
satrap of Media, Timarchus, and then hurriedly dispatched 
Bacchides into Judea with a formidable force, thus forestal- 
ling Roman intervention. Judah met him with a band of 
eight hundred men, which was completely routed (at a place 
north of Upper Beth-horon); the leader himself fell in the 


\ 


146 JUDAH THE MACCABEE AND HIS BROTHERS [159 


battle (160). His faithful followers rescued his body and 
gave it burial in the family sepulcher at Modein. 

With the death of the hero, everything seemed to be lost 
for the nationalists. Alcimus held sway by the grace of the 
Syrian king and found support even among the moderates, 
who were satisfied that religious freedom had been restored. 
Resistance was put down with a high hand, and the rebels 
were delivered to Bacchides for execution. Nevertheless the 
nationalists rallied about Jonathan, the youngest of the 
Hasmonean brothers. There was no safety in Judea, where 
Bacchides had left heavy garrisons in various localities, com- 
pelling at the same time the leading citizens to surrender 
their sons as hostages. Jonathan withdrew across the Jordan. 
‘His brother Johanan departed with the baggage to the 
friendly Nabateans; but on his way he was intercepted by 
Arabs and slain. Jonathan surprised the Arabs and made 
them pay for the death.of his brother; but on his return he 
was met by a Syrian detachment near the Jordan. The small 
band saved themselves by swimming across the river; with 
their leader they maintained themselves under precarious 
conditions in the jungles of the western shore. | 

Alcimus proved his submissiveness to the Syrian masters 
by having the wall which separated the inner from the outer 
court of the Temple torn down. When soon thereafter he 
died of a stroke (159), it was interpreted as a punishment 
from God. The high priestly office was left vacant. Bacchides 
returned home, since the country seemed pacified. Two years 
later he was recalled by the Hellenists, who had hopes of 
trapping Jonathan. The attempt failed; Jonathan and his 
brother Simon had entrenched themselves in a fastness of 
the wilderness; moreover, they inflicted a heavy defeat upon 
their assailants. Bacchides, thoroughly disgusted with the 
Jews who summoned him, accepted Jonathan’s overtures for 
peace. The nationalist leader was not permitted to maintain 
an army, but he took up his residence at Michmas and 
gradually won over the moderate elements. 

The Seleucid dominion seemed to be well established. But 
soon Demetrius was embroiled in feuds within and without; 


P JONATHAN HONORED {47 


Balas, gave himeelf out as a son of 
oe ee found stipport among the king’s 
Tn 152 | be landed at Prolemais and was 


Pearticons re om ‘all Yeatbiined save the 
vand Beth-zur, and gave Jonathan leave 
fem and fortify it. When Alexander con- 
am the dignity of high priest, Demetrius 
Wileges upon the Jewish people and the 
owas to be placed under the high priest's 
Fitan districts and disloyal Ptolemais 
we. Jonathan, distrustful of Demetrius, 
with Alexander; on the Feast of Taber- 
an put on the high priest's rabe. Two 
§ fellin baitle, and Alexander mounted 
mais the nuptials of the new king with 


ited guest. Both kings honored him : the 
angen at a Gers aide honoree in royal 


| oonaane alone “held it ‘Bicsenics eid 
soppe prtunity by capturing Jaffa and several 
Stine coast; in * tydad he had the temple of 
fire . The grateful Alexander added as a gift the 

. EPeplemy Philometor was likewise gracious to 
hh aoa was quite friendly to the Jews in 

umber was now enlarged by fresh migrations 
meland. Onias, the son of Onias [11. {p, 135), 
fission from the king to build a teraple, atter 

. . ten in Jerusalem, in Leontopolis (near 
rf ater his descendants kept uy the service until 
i iP clowed by the Romans (p. 264). Hie cou or 


io si 


Tu 


tive } hero; ever 
ieimus = hele 


Pace chided poe 
: abe “at: Joua 
There a 
tea vy ae 
vrer timed of 
aes. Fleet 
hoanan cy 


moreover, 
thy Bacchides, 
Teaee. whe LSI noOnSe tT a ac 
fence, The nat Lon 


+ | x 
an atin, bat. t ate’ up hy 


er alaalby won over the moder 
The Seleucid dominion seer 


soon Demetrius was Li broiled: 


152-147] JONATHAN HONORED 147 


a pretender, Alexander Balas, gave himself out as a son of 
Antiochus Epiphanes and found support among the king’s 
powerful enemies. In 152 he landed at Ptolemais and was 
acknowledged by the garrison. Demetrius was in sore straits. 
Both parties madea bid for Jonathan’s friendship. Demetrius 
withdrew the Syrian garrisons from all fortresses save the 
Citadel in Jerusalem and Beth-zur, and gave Jonathan leave 
to return to Jerusalem and fortify it. When Alexander con- 
ferred upon Jonathan the dignity of high priest, Demetrius 
bestowed further privileges upon the Jewish people and the 
Temple; the Citadel was to be placed under the high priest’s 
control, three Samaritan districts and disloyal Ptolemais 
were ceded to the Jews. Jonathan, distrustful of Demetrius, 
madecommon cause with Alexander; on the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, 152, Jonathan put on the high priest’s robe. Two 
years later Demetrius fell in battle, and Alexander mounted 
the throne. In Ptolemais the nuptials of the new king with 
the daughter of Ptolemy Philometor were celebrated. Jona- 
than was an invited guest. Both kings honored him; the 
Jewish high priest sat at Alexander’s side clothed in royal 
purple and had the title of general and administrator of 
Judea conferred upon him. 

Alexander alienated the affections of his subjects by his 
self-indulgence and the ruthless acts of his minister against 
the friends of the late king. In 147 the son of Demetrius 
landed in Cilicia and assumed the title of king as Demetrius 
II. In Palestine, Jonathan alone held to Alexander and 
improved the opportunity by capturing Jaffa and several 
cities on the Philistine coast; in Ashdod he had the temple of 
Dagon set on fire. The grateful Alexander added as a gift the 
city of Ekron. Ptolemy Philometor was likewise gracious to 
Jonathan. This monarch was quite friendly to the Jews in 
Egypt, whose number was now enlarged by fresh migrations 
from the homeland. Onias, the son of Onias III. (p. 135), 
obtained permission from the king to build a temple, after 
the pattern of the Temple in Jerusalem, in Leontopolis (near 
Heliopolis), where his descendants kept up the service until 
the sanctuary was closed by the Romans (p. 204). His son or 


148 JUDAH THE MACCABEE AND HIS BROTHERS [146-142 


another Onias, together with Dositheus, rose to the high 
position of general in the king’s army; the Jewish philoso- 
pher Aristobulus dedicated a free reproduction of the Torah 
to the king. 

The Egyptian monarch cherished the hope of regaining 
Southern Syria for himself. Soon he broke with his son-in- 
law, who was overwhelmingly beaten in Cilicia (146). Jona- 
than was compelled to desist from his designs on the Citadel. 
However, he won over Demetrius II. by rich gifts and was 
confirmed in the honors and in the territorial expansion pre- 
viously conceded by the king’s father. An uprising in Antioch 
was put down by the aid of Jonathan, who in return received 
leave to invest the Citadel and to recapture Beth-zur. 

The disaffected Syrian subjects went over to the side of 
Tryphon, an officer of the former king, who produced Alex- 
ander’s young son and had him proclaimed king under the 
name of Antiochus VI. (145). Tryphon conferred high honors 
upon Jonathan and his brother Simon. Jonathan made good 
the opportunity by occupying Beth-zur, Jaffa, Ashkelon, and 
Gaza; he also fortified the Temple mount and blocked up the 
Citadel. An embassy to Rome brought back a renewal of the 
treaty formerly concluded with his brother Judah. 

Despite Jonathan’s valiant campaigns against Demetrius, 
Tryphon grew suspicious of his increasing power. Jonathan 
was lured to meet the minister at Ptolemais, where he was 
treacherously seized and his body-guard slain. An attempt 
to surprise two thousand picked men of Jonathan’s forces in 
the Plain of Esdraelon miscarried; nor were Tryphon’s 
troops successful in invading Judea, where Simon assumed 
control. At Tryphon’s demand, Simon sent a hundred talents 
and Jonathan’s two sons as hostages to secure their father’s 
release. But the Syrian broke his word. After a second 
attempt to succor the hard-pressed garrison in the Citadel 
had come to naught by reason of a heavy snowfall, he 
marched across the Jordan and there slew Jonathan. The 
body was recovered by Simon and buried at Modein by the 
side of his father and three brothers. A magnificent sepul- 
chral structure with seven pyramids, colonnades, and tro- 


. ae Way) OT eat ts 2p) gS eee ey 
Le. eee 44 i. 5 oa ‘fs wat 5 a 
4 ota ae ae ‘ ' Pe ; > . J oes he 
% Are 4 Oey ak Di “e 7 Hie 26 . Aa Se ey 
oe i Bede, j oe \ a p 


fy d+eennivne ey sai Pi Mts Hee 
ate wan cereal ie, Sy 88 e= 
i the thrane. Be egy wae fala be Suey 
fi, who aati et Mange Sins: fant Ais 
o) elie branch sigh panei WA? SNe: Lie ta. 
Diner ties fron: ait taxes due the 
m alt fnture trifmte. Thus abe cet | 
i the yoke of the heathen removeil 
| opal vear on the Jews began to date 
ar the years of Sina, cheds pigh eer 
j 
y 


a A le 
6 I. Trt ete 
7 pre bee? t , 


tre echerously seized and 


marched aeruss the Jordan and 


9 pana t th MAC CADRE J 


seipttinle: Chaban’ cogother with: D 
posisina on Penner al in the king 
peer aessivtadus dectic shee ic 
hey tte Ria ge 
The Epvetian monarch eh 
Southern Syria for himeclf 
iW, w Awe we aS OVErwW helmingly 
ran whe connoelled ee r 
ti. ta his ee he wos over . 
een far read In vhe honors aad ww 
souaty eoamaded by the kingt 
was jut down by’ the aid of, 
icaye ty vest the Citade 
Phe dinatlected Syrian 
Trephon, an officer of the 
antier's young son and ha 
ORO ob Risecieaie Viv (i485), 
upon Jonathan and his Bret 


‘ 


tiie ype “unity by SOC 


rr 
a 


Cieaa; be also fortified the 
Citar * An embassy ta Re 


treaty lormerly concluded: 

) Desraie Jonathan's yvalian 
Tryphon grew suspicious’ of 
was jured to meet the # , 


to surprise two thousand 
the Plain of Esdraelon 
troops successful in invading 
control, At’Fryphon’s demat 
and Jariathan’s two sons ae 


body was recovered by Sinton ¢ 
sie of his father and three brot 
cheat weuctute with seven pyra 


142] THE YOKE OF THE HEATHEN REMOVED 149 


phies of armor and ships carved upon the pillars, commem- 
orated the valorous deeds of the heroic family. The monu- 
ment was of such lofty dimensions that it was visible from 
the sea. 

The boy-king Antiochus was murdered by Tryphon, who 
then seated himself upon the throne. Simon entered into 
negotiations with Demetrius, who accepted from the Jewish 
leader a golden crown and palm branch and granted the Jews 
a general amnesty and immunities from all taxes due the 
Syrian monarch and from all future tribute. Thus practical 
independence was won and the yoke of the heathen removed 
from Israel (142). From that year on the Jews began to date 
their documents after the years of Simon, their high priest, 
captain, and leader. 


CHAPTER XXVII 
SIMON. JOHANAN HYRCANUS. 
ALEXANDER JANNAI 
(142-76) 


IMON (142-135) set great store by his acquisition of the 
S seaport Jaffa. In order to safeguard the road thereto, 

he captured Gezer, at the lower end of the valley of 
Aijalon. The heathen inhabitants were driven out and all 
traces of idolatry removed; the place was strongly fortified 
and a garrison of faithful Jews thrown into it, under the 
command of Simon’s son, Johanan. The Citadel, the bul- 
wark of heathenism in Jerusalem, passed at last into the 
hands of the nationalists. On the twenty-third of Ijar, 142, 
Simon entered in festal procession, and ever after this day 
was kept as a holiday. Subsequently the hill upon which the 
Citadel stood was cut down, so that the Temple mount rose 
high above it. 

An embassy was sent to Rome to renew the treaty of amity 
between the Senate and Judea. In Jerusalem a great con- 
vocation of priests and laity, high functionaries and elders 
met; a decree was passed, engraved on a bronze tablet, and 
publicly set up, which named Simon prince, commander, and 
high priest for ever (Elul 18, 141). These dignities were to be 
hereditary in his family, until such time as a true prophet 
should arise. The ambassadors to Rome, who took with them 
as a gift a golden shield of a thousand pounds, brought back 
a senatorial decree, signed in the year 139, which recognized 
the independence of the Jewish state and commended the 
Jewish people to the friendship of all kingdoms and prin- 
cipalities in the East within the Roman sphere of power. 

The new state was, however, soon involved in the political 
complications at Antioch. Demetrius II. was defeated by the 
Parthian Mithradates I. and captured (139). His brother, 
Antiochus VII (Sidetes, 138-129), took up the fight against 


150 


: : ‘7 re 
iA 2 
‘ ’ ‘ 5; 
; 5 , 
a) . 
* 
‘ - 


b was eager tes Gate nal ee 
iegiarn for whieks tea capitan : 

ig tharight of coinage. Buiraryle: cee, Ci. - 
eruberantial {oree 12 Sey wiht HIS $m. ae 
ecimed Simon’ anit pogh es AS Cage 


ie cities and: Wi Hae AE: 
Whea Traetefe: x 

se noel Cotitrati: - , 

etc ome wi enone i 


cis). : en 1 ai 
F » the people wees Aah a ay : ee . ’ 
acs life. Matecs® per aes ieee a y 3 ae 


to be had | thi rie: eiaedt ‘ty x83 tag a he a ; ee 

\ of ithe Jewse wdippi: be Se ee 
jut Simon’: piite was cut dort whee Ey SD 
bition son-iti-low, Prokem. Sees aa he 


this wife and « ail Tae Mie aoe err 

Dies in the tortacre % ate ret be 
paead then bod sive Hi ee Se 

Aare £ Se ihe | yes men8 


ese 


‘909, johs ie Beer soi a bee ‘ ; 
in-law's denigan ind PRE i 
z belore Poorer weap sein 
ws laid mege th te Rema ary te ae \ . ; mn 
fed, Yat as his seem rc tte ti a 
jhe had te proceed sha dy S i SaaS 
peated the opera vom se SE Crh as 
Fepether-in Law oud Foe Oo te Yas a 
bad by sigh caeae nels Sees hia See i, i a ‘eu 
et of the was meas ee fs 
em was th oreng hy. ‘ait ter ce Poe ; 
thin: those that Conk? Ge ee sagt: meng ray 
As ny coh Cheat yoelatitet? * get a Ay By) Pah : 


is 0) wee applies ciao oe 


a 


ad 


"Einar (142-155) set greats 
seaport Jafla, in onder, 
LF he copruved Ceger, at 
FA paaon. he heathen inhabit 
peice of idolatry removed : 
watt a garfison of faithful Jews 
aod ot Sic ons son, janie 
9: ones of heathenism in Jerusadam 
tiamds af the na tionalistes On te 
Simon entered in featal peti 
Ws bert a2 a hi iday. Saat a 
{ rhade! steed was cul dows, 


beep ® 
a at abi 2 rf 


Ae cinbassy was sent to Re 
hetween the Senate and juc ‘ 
VOCE OT f DY iests andl laity, 7 
met: & decree was passed, 
nalitichy #t QD, wi HCH named. » 
high priest torever (Elul 18534 
hereditary in his family, wate 
should arise. The ambassaders 
#8 4 gut a golden shield of at 
a senatorial decree; signed din the 
the i ; nGeperisenice of the Jewish ‘ 


Mpatities in the Gace within the Rog 
The new state was, however, soon Im 
complicationa at Antioch: Dexaanine 
Parthian Mithradates I. and sd: 
Antiochus Vil (Sidletes, | i 38-129), 1 


150 


135] SIMON MURDERED 151 


Tryphon. At first he was eager to gain Simon’s friendship 
and assistance, in return for which he confirmed him in his 
position, adding the right of coinage. But sosoon as Antiochus 
had gathered a substantial force of his own, he completely 
veered round. He declined Simon’s proffer of two thousand 
soldiers, subsidies of money, and siegeworks, and demanded 
a return of the occupied cities and an indemnity of five hun- 
dred talents in arrears. When Tryphon was overcome, 
Antiochus ordered his general Cendebaeus to invade Judea. 
Simon dispatched his sons Judah and Johanan to meet the 
enemy; a battle was fought near Jabneh which resulted ina 
rout of the Syrian forces. Judah was wounded, but Johanan 
completed the pursuit (137). 

During Simon’s reign the people were happy in the free- 
dom to live their own life. Material prosperity increased, 
strict justice was to be had in the courts, apostasy was sup- 
pressed, the laws of the Jewish religion were faithfully 
obeyed. But Simon’s life was cut short through the treachery 
of his ambitious son-in-law, Ptolemy, the governor of Jericho. 
When Simon with his wife and their two sons Mattathiah 
and Judah visited him in the fortress Dok (near Jericho), he 
gave them a banquet and then had the three men murdered 
(135). Thus the last of the Maccabean brothers also met 
with a violent death. 

Simon’s surviving son, Johanan Hyrcanus (135-104), 
thwarted his brother-in-law’s designs upon his own life and 
hastened to Jerusalem before Ptolemy could move against 
the city. Hyrcanus laid siege to the fortress in which Ptol- 
emy was entrenched, but as his mother was still held by 
the governor, he had to proceed slowly; moreover, the sab- 
batic year terminated the operations entirely. At length, 
Ptolemy slew his mother-in-law and fled the country. 

Antiochus VII. had by now established order in his realm 
and took the conduct of the war against the Jews into his 
own hands. Jerusalem was thoroughly invested; food began 
to be scarce within; those that could not bear arms were sent 
out of the city, and many of these perished of hunger{ As the 
Feast of Tabernacles (131) was approaching, Hyrcanus was 


152 SIMON. JOHANAN HYRCANUS. ALEXANDER JANNAI 


ready to capitulate. Counsel was divided in the camp of the 
enemy; but in the end Antiochus realized that the Greek 
party was extinct and that behind the high priest stood now 
the entire people. He granted a seven days’ armistice and 
besides sent in cattle and incense for offerings. Peace was 
concluded on condition that the Jews were to recognize the 
Syrian overlordship, pay an annual tribute over and above 
an indemnity of five hundred talents, and surrender Jaffa, 
Gezer, and the other occupied cities. Antiochus was minded 
to place a garrison in Jerusalem, but upon the representa- 
tions of the high priest he accepted instead hostages, among 
them the brother of Hyrcanus. 

A turn for the better came with the death of Antiochus in 
his campaign against the Parthians (129). Demetrius II., 
who had been released from his Parthian captivity, was in- 
volved in war with Ptolemy VII. (Physcon) and with the 
pretender Alexander Zabinas; when Demetrius was murdered 
(125), his descendants fought with those of Antiochus 
Sidetes for the possession of the throne (Antiochus VIII. 
Grypus 125-113 and again 111-96—Antiochus IX. Cyzicenus 
113-95). Practically Syria was powerless to act and therefore 
Judea was once more an independent state. Hyrcanus, tak- 
ing advantage of his opportunities, not only reoccupied the 
cities of the coast, but, reinforcing his army of Jews with 
mercenary troops, he prosecuted the policy of territorial 
expansion begun by his predecessors. The Idumeans, the old 
enemy on the south, were subdued and forced to accept 
Judaism. East of the Jordan, Medeba and the neighboring 
localities were conquered. The hated Samaritans were over- 
come, their temple on Mount Gerizim was razed to the 
ground; despite the repeated intervention of Cyzicenus, Sa- 
maria was taken by the sons of Hyrcanus, Antigonus and 
Aristobulus, and completely destroyed. A legend narrates 
that intelligence of the decisive victory of-his sons was con- 
veyed to the high priest, as he was officiating in the Temple, 
by a heavenly voice. Further northward, Scythopolis (Beth- 
shan) fell into the hands of the Jews through the treachery 
of the Syrian general. 


in 
Ge 


| be AoiaTH Or AYRCANUS i 


veh as Paces priest ee Sea ef the ss tio 


b, like'the Pictists, #ise enough to fight 
ise of their balighan, toate, now that the 


the ity. We mens “neasnn 4p. 144) how 

im to the high priestiy s#fee. The principle 
Prior claim was parame On the other 
np even <Sacleaiade — habituated 
bina For the Gan om g, the 
from’ participation 4a the govern- 


elves the Oppositiow. Hence they 
“i or apes me = those who 


aL his iti was apne pone the 


od. Aristobulas ¢ 104-193), how: 
y his mother and his brothers, 


dover part of the administrative 


: Thi dual dignity did wer commend itself. 


we ready to accept Alcinupaieepy because his 


Council of State were in the minor.’ 


tof his five sons, Judah Aristo- 


a the government. To his. 


provid: the undoing of the 
od him of designs. to seat bim- 


if) 
‘. 


‘eh Wes taken by the sons 


Lab einen, fea — 


cat iy ERIE Ame pprieore ul 
ae etapa pale, Me granted B 
Lats wert ih ¢ ats ic and icense 
a + tae € yaarct ‘+m that: me ae 
: "oe rs et. PAD see seekelyag ; ay ane ni 
ie af" dag hry Hoy “it ive hundred: 
iymak, aad thy other otcupled 
‘aa PAS a paren. in unaaee 

ant the hb ‘- er iest them 


A hea ve % ee better canna § 

* dl % i iy ie 

We CAGE agamer the i 
whe boul been released inate 


ERLE ; ake long a La ts 


* [es A 
ra & aa 4 
Seales tor. the peach: 


LE fess ie rs, co vast, bat Fat 
nuetnenary troops, he prom 
: 


expansion begun by his prev 
wey wn Sons, ich 


sae whines were connec vee 
‘San, their i — on Mow 2 
Gems; despite the repeated 


Aeeolaius, and completely < 
ia. aetelligence of the decist 
at pn ay the high priest, as he: 
Sa Cinshinint voice. Further ty 
deine’? ao vito the hands of the 
ae et, pti general. . 


104] f DEATH OF HYRCANUS 153 


The dynastic principle was now established and Johanan 
Hyrcanus had his own name stamped on coins. He desig- 
nated himself both as high priest and head of the Jewish 
commonwealth. This dual dignity did not commend itself 
to those Jews who, like the Pietists, willing enough to fight 
for the free exercise of their religion, recoiled, now that the 
struggle was over, from the more and more pronouncedly 
secular character of the dynasty. We have seen (p. 144) how 
the Pietists were ready to accept Alcimus simply because his 
descent entitled him to the high priestly office. The principle 
of legitimacy or prior claim was paramount. On the other 
hand, the old aristocratic, even priestly, families, habituated 
to political power, had made peace with the new dynasty 
and saw no objection to the sovereign uniting in himself the 
sacerdotal and secular functions. For the time being, the 
stricter elements in the Council of State were in the minor- 
ity, and so they withdrew from participation in the govern- 
ment constituting themselves the Opposition. Hence they 
became known as Pharisees or Separatists, while those who 
allied themselves with the government, being recruited 
chiefly from the priests belonging to the family of Zadok 
(p. 64), were called Sadducees. The rift, begun in the days 
of Hyrcanus, widened under his immediate successors. : 

When Hyrcanus died, the boundaries of Judea had been 
expanded to the compass of the Solomonic kingdom. Accord- 
ing to the terms of his will, his wife was charged with the 
government, and the eldest of his five sons, Judah Aristo- 
bulus, with the high priesthood. Aristobulus (104-103), how- 
ever, was ambitious; he threw his mother and his brothers, 
all but one, into prison and assumed the government. To his 
brother Antigonus he turned over part of the administrative 
duties. This preferred position proved the undoing of the 
prince. Jealous courtiers accused him of designs to seat him- 
self upon the throne; Aristobulus summoned his brother to 
come to the palace unarmed, and at the same time gave 
order to his body-guard to fall upon Antigonus if he bore 
arms. The enemies of Antigonus bribed the messengers to 


154 SIMON. JOHANAN HYRCANUS. ALEXANDER JANNAI [103-96 


tell him that the sovereign wished to see him in his new 
armor. Thus Antigonus lost his life. 

Aristobulus assumed the title of king, but forbore to place 
it on the coins struck by him. Though he affected friendship 
for Greek manners—he called himself Philhellen, a Lover 
of the Greeks—he followed in the footsteps of his father by 
conquering and Judaizing the northern districts of Palestine 
—not only Galilee, but also a part of the Lebanon country 
occupied by the Itureans. He died of a painful disease after 
a reign lasting but a year. 

His widow, Salome Alexandra, immediately gave orders to 
release from prison the king’s three brothers. Since no issue 
was left, Jewish law prescribed that she should take to hus- 
band the eldest brother, Alexander Jannai (Jonathan), who 
succeeded both to the throne and to the high priesthood. He 
reigned twenty-seven years (103-76), during which time he 
was constantly engaged in warfare. His first act was to invest 
Acco (Ptolemais) ; the inhabitants called in the aid of Ptolemy 
Lathurus, who had been driven from the throne of Egypt by 
his mother Cleopatra III. and was ruling over Cyprus. 
Alexander was forced to raise the siege and to conclude peace 
with Ptolemy; but secretly he entered into negotiations with 
Cleopatra, and possessed himself of the coast cities Straton’s 
‘ ‘Tower (renamed Caesarea by Herod) and Dor. Ptolemy, 
resentful of Alexander’s breach of faith, marched into Galilee, 
took the town of Shihin (Asochis, near Sepphoris) on a sab- 
bath, and signally defeated Alexander’s forces at Amathus 
(Zaphon) near the Jordan. Ptolemy was robbed of the fruits 
of his victory by the advance of Cleopatra’s army, com- 
manded by Hananiah and Hilkiah, sons of Onias IV. (p. 
147). The Egyptian queen was minded to reunite the Jew- 
ish territory with her own dominion; but she was persuaded 
by her Jewish generals to desist. Alexander was once more 
master in his land. 

Across the Jordan, in the northern part, Alexander con- 
quered Gadara and the fortress Amathus. He also possessed 
himself of the Philistine coast as far as the Egyptian border: 
Raphia, Anthedon, and, most important of all, Gaza were 


: diesen 


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ae “ae Pm eee ‘a it? 
. 7 re 
a” ‘ —" a € = 4 Hs } 
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; a} iv 7 ~ 
r toe et Sis ers 
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= ‘¥ 2 fea “5 e es 
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Z r ’ rs ~ ae J £ 
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= FS P J yet ¥ ad , if 

i wears CHW Re eee. eG 

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r ee ™ to ies Ng ey, baer 

calcd co Hane peepee: ih 
i tohcian Saree 


eg eins ated een 


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LSS AOS, PORAN AN WY ROARDE. 4 : 


i wort at he so wereupy y 
amet, Shak Antigorus lon, 

Sibreoindies oscaned the: 
tay the wae strech by hin 
7 ah 5 Maire he a 
ee Cores he follows 
ie ave ces Feb m 

AWE ep <ilec, hut hes 

Hest saad in ‘a itureta ‘ty 
ayign testing but a yay 

Mie w Liow, Selome ren Yi 
‘hehe fron: prison the ! 
wax leit, Jewish law gence; 


Buk ¢ tani ly Cnge SO ‘ 


scoot Pe pus LS}; < Wi 


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fewrnetal of oper sy 
tevdt the town of or 
Math, wad Sig trally ene 


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wm fi victory by the aoe 


beg? heey we ewish gene ienlta ta. th 
Prete it ip his Land, 
Atte the fordan, i 
quered Gsadare and the ti | 
hitnaoll-af the Philistine coast as 
Raptia Antthedon., and, mast | 


ALEXANDER AND THE PHARISEES 155 


annexed (96); Ashkelon alone remained a free city under an 
autonomous government. These warlike successes, carried 
out largely by means of mercenary troops, served only to 
widen the breach between the king and the Pharisee opposi- 
tion. On the king’s return from one of these campaigns, he 
gave a feast, to which both Sadducees and Pharisees were 
invited. One of the Sadducees advised the king to appear in 
his high priestly robes, with the diadem bearing the divine 
name on his forehead. Forthwith a man from among the 
Pharisees protested, bidding the king to be content with the 
royal crown and leave the crown of priesthood to the legiti- 
mateseed of Aaron. Thespecific charge made by the Pharisees 
was that the king’s mother had once been a captive, thus, 
according to Jewish law, disqualifying her son for the 
priesthood. Though the rumor could not be substantiated, 
the Pharisees persisted in their antagonism to Alexander. 
They had the people on their side, being nearer the common 
man who was taught by their teachers and imbued with dis- 
like for the aristocratic circles. On the Feast of Tabernacles, 
during the ceremony of water libation, it was observed that 
Alexander poured the water on the ground instead of against 
the altar as was the teaching of the Pharisees; the people 
pelted the king, in the rdle of high priest, with their citrons 
and reviled him as the son of a captive mother. The enraged 
king commanded his mercenaries to throw themselves upon 
the worshipers, and six thousand people lost their lives. The 
king went over completely to the Sadducee party; several of 
the most noted Pharisee teachers, like Afni son of Perahiah, 
exiled themselves to Alexandria. 

Alexander pursued his conquests beyond the Jordan. Cer- 
tain Arab tribes were brought under subjection; Amathus, 
which had revolted, was destroyed. These undertakings led 
to a conflict with the Arab chieftain Ubaid, and Alexander 
fell into an ambush from which he barely escaped with his 
life. Discredited, he returned to Jerusalem, to find the city in 
open rebellion. For six full years civil war raged in the land. 
Fifty thousand Jews are said to have perished at the hands 
of the king’s Pisidian and Cilician mercenaries. But the 


156 SIMON. JOHANAN HYRCANUS. ALEXANDER JANNAI [88 


royal forces were likewise exhausted, and the king sued for 
peace. The Pharisees answered by a curt demand for his 
death. At the same time they made overtures to Demetrius 
III. Eucaerus, son of Antiochus Grypus. Clearly the opposi- 
tion was prepared for extreme measures, involving perchance 
the surrender of national independence, in preference to the 
hated king. 

Demetrius came with an army (88). The Jewish popular 
party joined him at Shechem; Alexander was overwhelm- 
ingly beaten, losing all of his mercenaries and saving his 
own life only by flight into the mountains. Now the Jews 
became ashamed of the betrayal of their king, who was after 
all a Hasmonean. Six thousand went over to Alexander, and 
Demetrius retreated to his own dominions. The irreconcil- 
ables continued to push the war to the bitter end; but they 
were defeated in several battles and many of them slain. 
Their ringleaders were seized by Alexander and brought 
captive to Jerusalem; there, while feasting with the women 
of his harem, he had them, eight hundred in number, cru- 
cified, and, while they were still alive, the throats of their 
wives and children were cut before their eyes. Some eight 
thousand of the Opposition fled the country and remained 
away until the king’s death. 

Antiochus XII., the youngest of the sons of Grypus, 
undertook. an expedition against the Arabs and marched 
through Judea. Alexander sought to check his passage by 
raising a wall with wooden towers from Jaffa to Chephar- 
saba; but the Syrian king burned the whole of it down. Anti- 
ochus met his death in battle; the Arab king Aretas III. 
extended his dominion as far as Damascus and from now on 
became the most powerful and dangerous neighbor of the 
Jews. Alexander was unsuccessful in an attack upon this 
Arab king; he was forced to retreat to Hadid, east of Lod, 
and to conclude peace by offering concessions. Alexander 
was more fortunate in the regions beyond the Jordan; he 
conquered a number of cities—Pella, Dium, Gerasa in 
Gilead, Golan, Seleucia, and the strong fortress Gamala in 


- os 45 ny + etal irene Teagl— » ‘| La aa - , seCag id . Boe - 7 n 31. oe See oe 


(ae ae i , tT < , 
j ? i wit th] » f 7 i Ree j 
be’ A ais | 5 igi ‘ 4 aes ing 
: > Aree y ' be ‘ ( i \aet 
. . ‘ lee 

- 

‘ 
sie » 
7 Bug 
“ <5 


Mrmdrinking, which aM@uaw see StS uy see 
ce (75-16), Wolke anne odie. ce 


Bthe district of Cetus. ive sercingts was 
| mbed to the fever {7M The chee 
tant ot his antaputicm Je the Tharinwk 


* 


J ears f ts ‘ ; ‘ ge 
his Wile to mane tees wilt them, hat 


et the Pharisees nov -ibris apricots, hax! 
who, pretending fey $24 P actosese, cami <t< 
fpers 25, 6-14) and dormer ch oom? 

Me +h 4 : e ) 

os 2 

: ¥ ao 


extended his ; ewer: fa 
became the most powerfgh 1 
Jews, Alexander was. ung! xe 
Areh king; he was forced 


bane of conclude j ACE, by: 


‘tack, Bolen, Selend ia, and t 


76] DEATH OF ALEXANDER JANNAI 157 


Bashan (83-80). The whole stretch of the eastern country 
from Lake Huleh to the Dead Sea was Jewish territory. 

This time, when the king returned to Jerusalem, he was 
joyfully received. Shortly thereafter he fell into a disease, 
brought on by hard drinking, which afflicted him during the 
last three years of his life (79-76). While laying siege to the 
fortress of Ragab, in the district of Gerasa, his strength was 
exhausted and he succumbed to the fever (76). The dying 
king had grown repentant of his antagonism to the Pharisaic 
party; he counseled his wife to make peace with them, bid- 
ding her fear neither the Pharisees nor their opponents, but 
only the hypocrites who, pretending to be Pharisees, did the 
deeds of Zimri (Numbers 25, 6-14) and demanded the reward 
of Phinehas. 


CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS 
(76-37) 


oT all Pharisees were alike, as the worldly-minded 
\ Jannai shrewdly perceived. Some cloaked them- 
selves in the mantle of Pharisaism and overawed 
the people by an ostentatious display of piety, by their sanc- 
timonious mien, by boasting of having left nothing undone 
that dutv required, by making fear the highest motive for 
the service of God. But that was a perversion of an ideal for 
which the system was in no wise responsible, though no or- 
ganized piety can ever wholly escape it. The true Pharisee 
made love of God and love of the neighbor the chief com- 
mandments, the sum and substance of the Torah from which 
all else flowed. He recognized no other sovereignty but the 
Kingdom of God, no other rule but that prescribed by the 
divine commandments. | 
The collection of Holy Scriptures was now sealed, with 
nothing to add and nothing to subtract. It had grown with 
the ages, representing the clash of movements and counter- 
movements. Priests, prophets, and wise men had woven its 
multifarious web. The dominant position was accorded to the 
Torah, the five books of Moses. A second division (Proph- 
ets, Nebiim) was made up of the historical books, Joshua, 
Judges, Samuel, and Kings, continuing the history of the 
nation down to the Babylonian exile; then of the collected 
addresses of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel in 
three books and of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, 
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, 
and Malachi in one. In a third class (Writings, Ketubim) 
were comprised supplementary historical works which car- 
ried the narrative down to early Greek times (Ruth, Chron- 
icles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther), but principally poetic works, 
whether lyric, like the Psalter, the Song of Songs, and 


158 


actic, like Prevesti, «tits ions Wey 

i ow ‘ . As we had ET i ep Pa ae ; 4 
Z iat the bie book to estey Ahegathe, ate ek: 
: God as it had cometiens(otbe: ‘ts tzad'ned 
19 priestly instruct: cheats ae 
tes thing of singers and wt aces. 


#) who adhered closely to thi lecter. 
fH practice or doctrine, were tejected 
: ig outlook was bounded be comeeptions 
), Hut not the latest, in the Scriptures. 


y Writ. For the Pharisee, the Written 
¢ by the Oral, the tradition. of ‘the 
ie Rtribes, that is; the measures intro- 
fel ages and especially by the teachers 
crip eure was the truth, but authority was 
F sbi Bepotn ted iri — ers. atest camie 


hopes of eac e new generation. Thus the 
P yia of the belief in the Resurrection of 
Fees” of the soul after death, ideas 
walter and more full y developed in Daniel. 
t likewise with a developed belief in angels, 
tities ack individual names.. The Pharisees 
¢ _segvenam ordering of the affairs of man; 
Petting this doctrine be hardened into an abso- 
ic they held irrefragably to freedom of the 
1 accountabilicy. ‘Inthe preseat world there is 
: ied and evil; in the future order of the world 
OOK dy iniquity will vanish like smoke, and God 
. The Kingdom of God will be fully realized 


a era but even now the pious enter Upon it, 
eg 


= 


TAK on AND SADA iGiEw ie 


Be the Written Word was th: ai ay alt, He . 


; ts which the two parties went, were - 
Ase been in preparation and ante-. 


Ives as its citizena, by submitting’ to its rule, 


(| 


a ayes 
: 
sh Bas Ga 2NGeRy sae 
ede es 2 he eS Tak 
14 od 
te fa Take: ie earns wae Ie 
a Bote ae cyees arwneyt 
ee 4 , j { Xe} a 
i} 7 towed, Ele ree Beak re 
hs of bis ne ee 


o 


Pare? Nt Ga wal voting 


rie the ages, representing ie 


aoveEmnen ts, seh pe og 

enitifarious, web. Thedk 

: : Torah the five Sooke a aes 
Mee ee rin, Nebiim) was made Gian 

| Hilges, Sarguel, and Kung " 

bauer down to the Bab 


: | sku books a ‘of Hosea, § 
Mirai, Nahum, Habakkuk a 
Heh Neitach| iv one. In @ €f 
WHEB Aieusteeaiaia supplement 

rit a8 cee nas ‘ative as fo 


PHARISEES AND SADDUCEES 159 


Lamentations, or didactic, like Proverbs, Job, and (the 
partly poetic) Koheleth. As we had occasion to remark (p. 
138), Daniel was the last book to enter the collection en- 
shrining the Word of God as it had come through the channel 
of a triple inspiration—priestly instruction, prophetic ad- 
monition, and the teaching of singers and wise men. 

To the Sadducee the Written Word was the all in all. He 
was the conservative, who adhered closely to the letter. 
Innovations, whether in practice or doctrine, were rejected 
by him. His religious outlook was bounded by conceptions 
which were the normal, but not the latest, in the Scriptures. 
Though the names, by which the two parties went, were 
new, the division had long been in preparation and ante- 
dated the closing of Holy Writ. For the Pharisee, the Written 
Word was supplemented by the Oral, the tradition of the 
fathers, the Words of the Scribes, that is, the measures intro- 
duced in the course of ages and especially by the teachers 
g@rom Ezra on. Scripture was the truth, but authority was 
vested in the chain of its appointed interpreters. What came 
to be held as true, was read into the Scriptural word. The 
means by which this interpretation was effected might often 
be forced and apparently removed from the original intent. 
The point is that the Bible remained a living book, instinct 
with the beliefs and hopes of each new generation. Thus the 
Pharisees made a dogma of the belief in the Resurrection of 
the Body and of a judgment of the soul after death, ideas 
nascent in the Psalter and more fully developed in Daniel. 
In Daniel we meet likewise with a developed belief in angels, 
specialized entities with individual names. The Pharisees 
believed in the Providential ordering of the affairs of man; 
but instead of letting this doctrine be hardened into an abso- 
lute determinism, they held irrefragably to freedom of the 
will and human accountability. In the present world there is 
a mixture of good and evil; in the future order of the world 
all will be good, iniquity will vanish like smoke, and God 
alone will reign. The Kingdom of God will be fully realized 
in the Messianic era; but even now the pious enter upon it, 
register themselves as its citizens, by submitting to its rule. 


160 . THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS [76-67 


It therefore behooves the Jew so to order his life as to become 
worthy of the heavenly Kingdom, though the end itself is 
with God, who will bring it on in His own time. All that the 
Jew can do is to pray that it may come soon. ‘Magnified 
and hallowed be His Name in the world which He created 
according to His will, and may He cause His Kingdom to 
come speedily and in the near future’-—thus runs the ‘Kad- 
dish’ prayer, rooted in ideas and phraseology which mount 
up to earliest Pharisaism. 

These hopes were cherished by the nation in its darkest 
moments and by the individual struggling with life’s vicissi- 
tudes. God transcends the world. He is incomparably Holy. 
But He is not distant—He is quite near to those who call 
upon Him, near with all manner of nearness. God is a stern 
Judge, but also a loving Father, whose very chastisements 
are chastisements of love. The Pharisaic religion brought 
comfort to the lowly; the Pharisee teachers were beloved of 
the common people. In the meeting houses, or synagogues» 
they taught and preached, set forth the ordinances of the 
Torah touching the right conduct of man towards God and 
his fellow-man, and fired the imagination with the blessed- 
ness of the world to come. The synagogues vied with the 
Temple in ministering to the spiritual needs of the people, 
and in the synagogues the service was unsacrificial, unsacra- 
mental, a service of the heart, of prayer and benediction. Of 
a truth, under the guidance of the Pharisees, the synagogues 
came to be schools of every kind of virtue, and from Pales- 
tine they soon spread to all confines of the Dispersion. The 
new worship was decentralized, in quite a different manner 
from that of the days before Josiah when every city had its 
sanctuary and altar. ; 

Salome Alexandra (76-67) left the command of the army 
in the hands of her younger son Aristobulus, while her elder 
son Hyrcanus acted as high priest. She surrounded herself 
with advisers from among the Pharisees. Their chief leader 
was Simon son of Shetah, presumably the queen’s brother. 
The high Council of State, combining legislative and supreme 
judicial functions, was reorganized so as to admit a large 


5 Ae te le ee ee oe Sa th Pele Uae a ee 
‘ : | apes tcc bar a 


CIVIL Wak an 


ses. So powerful kas mow chee ler 
Bdéd summary punibark tet Uh 4, iat 
murder of members of thair jeer ed RE 
Rthey had to give woe tie im erent 
te with whom Aristobdthes yep: spent: 
" gm of the Queen War oe srs APA Sy: 
in expe: avainst. Dave wan erniere 
i fe » but led to no redeir, “Tine Syrian 
} ithe hands of the Arméatian king Migranes. 
Wade Palestine, but wee tata off by sch 
F the Romans, wider tarculius, were 
1 country. When tie qucéen, af the age of 
we, became ill, Aristelaulus forestalled -his 
Hig 2 rebellion. The Cj Vaart die d before she 
#o-qucll it (67). 
Mies, Aristobuius way by far the more 
Bacau, by reason of bis birthright, 


ewes fought at Jericho: many of the soldiers 
# over to his brother, who thereupon gained 
ame fied to Jerusalem, but was forced to 
be was concluded, and the. sluggish elder 
Photh the royal and the high priestly dignity 
Whger: All promised to go well, had not the 
ater, whose father had been appointed 
sown country by Alexander, worked upon the 
es of Hyrcanus. In order to further his own 
y p the gide of the weaker brother, the crafty 
m support fer him among the most prominent 
game time persuading the primar that his hie 


6, in the company of Antipater, fled te the 
etas, who marched against Aristobulus dad 
Sig battle. A great part of the troops of Aristo- 
ip to. Hyrcanus;only the fewest tem sained with 
ho retreated within the Teaxe fortiieations. 
dthe Arab king laid siege to the Temple. There 
us = man, Onias by name, who iad matte’ hirnself 


‘ 


, Aristobulus marched against him with. 


$6 long as Aristobulus was in power. Accord- 


1 
T 
; 
{ 
7 
E TES 24 
aie. LS Oe i | x gc: ne 
wm the Hands of her youre 
- - Sn Sy Gwe aur or ; Ta : 
wun Wyreanus acted ac i 


67] CIVIL WAR 161 


number of Pharisees. So powerful was now their influence 
that they demanded summary punishment of those who had 
instigated the murder of members of their party in the reign 
of Alexander. But they had to give way to the interposition 
of their opponents, with whom Aristobulus was in sympathy. 
Altogether the reign of the queen was one of peace within 
and without. An expedition against Damascus was under- 
taken by Aristobulus, but led to no result. The Syrian 
empire was now in the hands of the Armenian king Tigranes. 
He prepared to invade Palestine, but was bought off by rich 
presents; moreover, the Romans, under Lucullus, were 
menacing his own country. When the queen, at the age of 
seventy-three years, became ill, Aristobulus forestalled his 
brother by starting a rebellion. The queen died before she 
could take steps to quell it (67). 

Of the two brothers, Aristobulus was by far the more 
energetic. When Hyrcanus, by reason of his birthright, 
mounted the throne, Aristobulus marched against him with 
an army. A battle was fought at Jericho; many of the soldiers 
of Hyrcanus went over to his brother, who thereupon gained 
a victory. Hyrcanus fled to Jerusalem, but was forced to 
surrender. Peace was concluded, and the sluggish elder 

brother resigned both the royal and the high priestly dignity 
in favor of the younger. All promised to go well, had not the 
Idumean Antipater, whose father had been appointed 
governor of his own country by Alexander, worked upon the 
susceptibilities of Hyrcanus. In order to further his own 
ambitions by the side of the weaker brother, the crafty 
Idumean won support for him among the most prominent 
Jews, at the same time persuading the prince that his life 
was in danger so long as Aristobulus was in power. Accord- 
ingly, Hyrcanus, in the company of Antipater, fled to the 
Nabatean Aretas, who marched against Aristobulus and 
defeated him in battle. A great part of the troops of Aristo- 
bulus went over to Hyrcanus;only the fewest remained with 
Aristobulus, who retreated within the Temple fortifications. 
Hyrcanus and the Arab king laid siege to the Temple. There 
was a pious man, Onias by name, who had made himself 


162 THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS [63 


famous by his successful intercessions for rain during a period 
of drought. He was besought by the besiegers to pray for the 
frustration of theadversary’s plans. Thesaintly Oniasstepped 
forward and prayed thus: ‘O God, King of the universe, - 
since those that are within and without are both Thy people, 
accept Thou the prayers of neither faction!’ Thedisappointed 
soldiers stoned him to death. Passover was now approaching, 
and the besieged were short of cattle for offerings. The 
besiegers demanded a heavy price, and when the sum was 
passed to them through a chink in the wall they pocketed 
the money, but withheld the cattle. 

In the meantime Pompey, sent by Rome to Asia, had 
crushed Mithradates VI. of Pontus and his son-in-law 
Tigranes (66). His attention was drawn to the complications 
in Antioch and Jerusalem and he charged Scaurus with the 
regulation of these affairs. Pompey’s emissary made a quick 
decision in favor of the capable Aristobulus and ordered the 
Arabs to raise the siege (65). Aristobulus pursued the retreat- 
ing Arab king and inflicted upon him a telling defeat. He 
set out to ingratiate himself with Pompey and sent him a 
costly present, a vine wrought of gold and worth five hun- 
dred talents. When the Roman general arrived in Damascus 
(63), deputations waited upon him from the two brothers, 
and a third from the nation itself, begging the abolition of - 
royalty and a restoration of the old priestly constitution. 
Pompey reserved his decision, but suffered Aristobulus to 
accompany him on the expedition against the Nabateans. 
Suddenly Aristobulus separated from him and fled to the 
fortress of Alexandrium (63); he was compelled to surrender 
the stronghold, but managed to escape to Jerusalem. When 
Pompey appeared before the city, Aristobulus lost heart; he 
repaired to the Roman camp and offered to deliver the city. 

When Gabinius was sent to take over the city, the gates 
were shut in his face. Pompey, enraged, ordered an advance 
towards the walls, while Aristobulus was made prisoner. His 
following within the city were determined to defend them- 
selves to the bitter end. Hyrcanus had the majority behind 
him and gave up the city to the Romans. The war party had 


HYRCANUS 1. rr 


amselves behind the Temple forts. The wie 
r utha. At last a breach was made in the watts 
sentered, and a terrible massacre emai’. 
Biepatd not intérrupt the sacrificial servier 
Wat the altar. Fuily owelvre thousand pews 
s. The day was the sabbath or seoording 10 
i . s, the Day of Atonement. 

m1 ig general entered thes lioty of Holies. 
ures were left intact, aud the service was 
€ contin: The originators of the war were 
aband the country w ere sriancher cae Hla 
s. Al of the coast cities from Raphia to Dor, 
beyond the jordan, as well aa Scythopolis , 
we taken away from the Jows aad gunexed 
province of Syria. Hyreanus Li. was re- 
| priest without the title of king. Pompey 
Aristobalus, with his ewo daughters, his. sons 
( Eaasigonus, and a great number of fewtsh 
me; the proud scion of the Hasmoneans was 
bike triumphal chariot of the yencral (61). 


(63-40) was confronted, after a few years ot 

we, by his nephew Alexander, who had. 
way to Rome and gathered 2 cotrsidera ble 
the aroconsul of Syria, overcame Alexander 

forced him to surrender three of the strongest 
whic phad fallen into his ands. This led to a new 
. of Palestinian afiairs by which Hyrcanus was 
tical powers. ‘The land was divided into five 

i entiediately subject La the governor e of Sy ria 
Ne for the taxes; a retained the custody 
» (57). Aristohulus and his son Antigonus, who 
from Rome, were » ati lesa successful in regain- 
Ehime whan Alexander had been (56). W hile Gabinius 
Beyet, a fresh revolt broke out, which was led 
nder and failed just as signally ($5). Gabimios was 
by i Crassus, lwho had entered into a coalition, the 
$ «aap ate, with Pompey and Caesar. This 
nasil nia tered the Temple and carried away 


> 


r 


(| 


> ina +4 ¥, « 9 ‘: L pri: 
ai ers 4 eek y { 
, a ae ss 
3 | 
a ; ; ; ee 
ie Ly’ MAAROO ANE RULERS. 
ao al. 
4 na 
‘ st} ‘ i, tee ‘ee: 
1 Views (Ge). Fs artentign was rad 
3 weeh and Jerusa em ant ng: nes 
¥ ef they «3 
a Fh 
oes te i Re- singe (6 y, \ Arlicobalie : 
“ing end inflicted apenas 
niauate himself wath Pe 
cut, avine w = of 
When the 
: - ‘2 rh th , 
. es. v a 
: } thy eTh, f he Bi ey. 
. ch ration of ‘the old 
hi 2 bt . : is ie a ; 
er ; i on the 
fe a Ee <restarboeil ces 
ah 7 M < , & iJ +e Lay } t oe 


re BETO YM APM ree before the city; 
Pegmiind to the Roman camp anid oO 
WA e a As on - 


wave sirat an his face, Pompey; en 


a cs ey. ’ 7 
ments ipeowalls, while  Aristobult 
a y yg 
sath: wy L the city y Wee re —_ eypur 


4 7 
I 


he city te the Re 


63-55] HYRCANUS II. 163 


entrenched themselves behind the Temple forts. The siege 
lasted three months. At last a breach was made in the walls. 
The Roman soldiers entered, and a terrible massacre ensued. 
The priests who would not interrupt the sacrificial service 
were struck down at the altar. Fully twelve thousand Jews 
lost their lives. The day was the sabbath or, according to 
other accounts, the Day of Atonement. 

The victorious Roman general entered the Holy of Holies. 
The Temple treasures were left intact, and the service was 
ordered to be continued. The originators of the war were 
executed; the capital and the country were made tributary 
to the Romans. All of the coast cities from Raphia to Dor, 
the Greek cities beyond the Jordan, as well as Scythopolis 
and Samaria, were taken away from the Jews and annexed 
to the Roman province of Syria. Hyrcanus II. was re- 
instated as high priest without the title of king. Pompey 
carried away Aristobulus, with his two daughters, his sons 
Alexander and Antigonus, and a great number of Jewish 
captives, to Rome; the proud scion of the Hasmoneans was 
there led before the triumphal chariot of the general (61). 

Hyrcanus II. (63-40) was confronted, after a few years of 
undisturbed peace, by his nephew Alexander, who had 
escaped on the way to Rome and gathered a considerable 
force. Gabinius, the proconsul of Syria, overcame Alexander 
in battle and forced him to surrender three of the strongest 
fortresses which had fallen into his hands. This led to a new 
regulation of Palestinian affairs by which Hyrcanus was 
shorn of his political powers. The land was divided into five 
districts, each immediately subject to the governor of Syria 
and answerable for the taxes; Hyrcanus retained the custody 
of the Temple (57). Aristobulus and his son Antigonus, who 
had escaped from Rome, were still less successful in regain- 
ing power than Alexander had been (56). While Gabinius 
was away in Egypt, a fresh revolt broke out, which was led 
by Alexander and failed just as signally (55). Gabinius was 
succeeded by Crassus, who had entered into a‘coalition, the 
so-called First Triumvirate, with Pompey and Caesar. This 
rapacious proconsul plundered the Temple and carried away 


164 - THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS [54-44 


two thousand talents in coin and costly vessels worth eight 
thousand talents (54). It is not to be wondered at that after 
his departure the discontented elements broke loose; thirty 
thousand of them were sold into slavery and their leader 
Pitholaus was executed by Longinus, the new governor of 
Syria (53-51). 

Palestine, with the entire East, was affected by the break 
between Pompey and Caesar in 49 and the ensuing civil war. 
Caesar equipped Aristobulus with two legions, but the Jew- 
ish prince was poisoned by the partisans of Pompey before 
he set sail for Syria. His son Alexander was beheaded at 
Antioch by the express order of Pompey. After the battle of 
Pharsalus and the death of Pompey (48), Hyrcanus and his 
minister Antipater openly espoused the cause of Caesar. 
When hard pressed in Egypt, Caesar was aided by a Jewish 
auxiliary force of three thousand men, which, together with 
the contingents of neighboring rulers and the army of 
Mithradates of Pergamum, assisted in the taking of Pelusium. 
Moreover, the Jewish high priest used his influence with the 
Egyptian Jews to bring them over to the side of Caesar in his 
war with Ptolemy XIV. Caesar showed his gratitude by 
restoring the political position of Hyrcanus, who was named 
hereditary head of the Jewish nation (ethnarch) and received 
back the territory taken away by Pompey, especially the 
important port of Jaffa (47-44). Antipater was granted as a 
reward Roman citizenship and immunity from taxation. By 
the favor of Caesar, the Jews outside Palestine received, 
valuable privileges; the Jews of Alexandria were confirmed 
in their rights. 

Hyrcanus was but the nominal ruler; the government was 
really in the hands of the astute Antipater, who appointed 
his sons as prefects, Phezahel in Jerusalem and Herod in 
Galilee. Herod was then a young man of twenty-five years 
and gave proof of the energy which subsequently placed him 
upon the throne. In Galilee, a patriotic movement was form- 
ing, having for its aim the complete restoration of Jewish 
independence. Just then a small band was disturbing the 
peace of the district by the use of forcible means’against | 


2) er idee Ne i Oh ta Oe A OL a> = 
ik oa ok Mt ‘ oo toric My ‘} Sy, 


- ROD DISTINed We. eH 


fe Opposed tap aided Sytner EH, 

er Hes esis bea. 85, Se? ed 

. ' A. This HU He: ¥ : ie Hie eee : me y 

: ¢ Council of Siete. hte | 

- Pane, tar isi Aa Sec. 

| aire, i ral He appooms? 4: aes ee eee 

it rab ty- d, The Phat ise. * ne | ae a Thee, ‘ 
ved for on vation. Clow grates TR ae Pw As 

serve from Se Panel \ Sea egeih spies At Pf 

odd’ : S acquittal. 3 ¢ ae Sint “rat Rt 

- Herod ws Tees pantad? ype a aR 

i batt incanwhiie ticor Seed oy or! i Yidsiee 


e 


a ect of the wide of *<2 tegers i, ae a ed ; 
3 ‘. 7 with an a7 ijaa e NY 4 fs = ae nie, 4 i eo 


Bie plana for revenge: 
fiom of Cacsar ‘vst See SARA pe Ags 
\ formed with Leoiduw adh Vth vase 
OW! oéopeaele ee 
ators agaitin! < MOE , Kuk wae Peo , 
‘hula Fitestine Was com peland Gr Gane: Yow The 

: | the rebel army a cum at sae) APs, Neat 
hi ae $ras raise Q thret eh ye viraex a Asaes- 

mn Herod. Soon thercatier Aritipstes gm. Yow 


fof a persona: tend (4.33; Phered cmctae a 
the 's death. Wher Asjigonus; with the and al 
‘Chaicis, atternp: ed to regain the throne, be 

-¢ d by. Herod, who, however, was unable tp pre- 
° he from annexing certain parts of Galilean 
Of Philippi the combined forces of Octavian 

Bea the last hapes of the republican party 

W shew mastero! fthewholeof Asia: Repeatedly 
tations appeared before him with complaints 
1 ad his elder brovherr but Herod’s personal 
~ Antony's irexiship for the father, 

phe had previously enjoyed, and a good 

rca mas, turried the weatew in favor of the two 

» were appolnies iwtearchs (co-rulers) of tie 


jo @ i oy : bere 
=_ OF aes CP Ss OP Ee ee Oe aS, ie or * ata ort oe Paps, 


irae wes executed’ ni 


Attach & 4 the express order oa 


hereditary head of the Jewlelm 


Way > ee eee 


. 7 7 


said senna Tiss fae sh nan ‘and 

bvhigaindeet: 2 Hasty SW a ienot. to 
wh ecu tuiey tar Ane citented- 4 
“wwe of chem were sold inte 


Seppe P33-~$ 34 

Peieniine with | the entire Rae 
bree Po re and dC Aesar Sides : 
£ Geged <5 gt 7 Dpex : 
wh germce was ead ties de 
he met sail foc Syria. Hig eon 


Mbarsalus ae the death of Pox 
Veer eter Aanpa ter openly S 
When hard pressed in Egypt: 
auniliery force of three thous 
ihe omeviin ngents of acight 
Mithrada serie { Pergamunna 
Moreover, the Jewish hight 
a myvpiian jews to bring them: 
war with Prolemy XPV, Ee 


restoring the “ we? al positi¢ 


back the territery ‘abe awe 
important port of Jaffa (47 4 
reward Roman citizenship and | | 
the favor of bata ie pices. 


‘gi their ates 
Hyrcanus was but ie nowrite 
recat in the hands of. the astup 3 
he mere ag prefects, Phezabab. in 2 
fpaliler, Merod was then a you 
ane gave proof! of the energy 
upon the throne. in Galilées; a pu 
hig) having for its aim the came 


indepenmience. lust then a srs 
peame of the district by the nee ; 


42) HEROD DISTINGUISHED BY ANTONY 165 


those who were opposed to their extreme position. Herod 
seized the leader Hezekiah and a number of his followers and 
had them executed. This summary action met with the dis- 
approval of the Council of State in Jerusalem or, as it was 
now called by a Greek name, the Sanhedrin. Herod was sum- 
moned to stand trial. He appeared clothed in purple and 
with a body-guard. The Pharisee Shemaiah, a noted teacher, 
moved for condemnation. However, Hyrcanus had received 
a.peremptory order from Sextus Caesar, the governor of 
Syria, for Herod’s acquittal. He therefore adjourned the 
sitting and advised Herod to remove himself secretly from 
the city. Herod had meanwhile been named by the Roman 
governor prefect of the whole of Southern Syria; he came 
back to Jerusalem with an army, but was persuaded by his 
father to abandon his plans for revenge. 

After the assassination of Caesar (on the Ides of March, 
44), Mark Antony formed with Lepidus and young Octavian 
the coalition known as the Second Triumvirate (43). Cassius, 
one of the conspirators against Caesar, had made himself 
master of Syria; Palestine was compelled to deliver for the 
maintenance of the rebel army a sum of nearly seven thou- 
sand talents, which was raised through the efforts of Anti- 
pater and his son Herod. Soon thereafter Antipater died by 
poison as the victim of a personal feud (43); Herod quickly 
avenged his father’s death. When Antigonus, with the aid 
of the king of Chalcis, attempted to regain the throne, he 
was defeated by Herod, who, however, was unable to pre- 
vent Mari of Tyre from annexing certain parts of Galilean 
territory. | 

In the battle of Philippi the combined forces of Octavian 
and Antony destroyed the last hopes of the republican party 
(42). Antony was now master of thewholeof Asia. Repeatedly 
Jewish deputations appeared before him with complaints 
about Herod and his elder brother; but Herod’s personal 
charm, coupled with Antony’s friendship for the father, 
whose hospitality he had previously enjoyed, and a good 
- word from Hyrcanus, turned the scales in favor of the two 
brothers. These were appointed tetrarchs (co-rulers) of the 


166 THE LAST HASMONEAN RULERS [39 . 


Jewish territory, thus succeeding to the political functions 
held by Hyrcanus, albeit nominally. Antony granted free- 
dom to the Jews enslaved by Cassius for failure to con- 
tribute their share towards the maintenance of his army 
and ordered the Tyrian ruler to restore the annexed localities. 

While Antony was detained in Egypt by the charms of 
Cleopatra (VII.), the Parthians invaded Syria and Palestine. 
Antigonus realized the opportunity for regaining the throne. 
He allied himself with the Parthians, found supporters 
among his own people and entered Jerusalem, engaging in 
daily action with Phezahel and Herod. A Parthian detach- 
ment appeared before the city, and Hyrcanus together with 
Phezahel was inveigled into meeting the Parthian com- 
mander at his headquarters. Both were forthwith put in 
chains. Hyrcanus was mutilated to unfit him for the high 
priestly function, and was carried away into captivity. 
Phezahel committed suicide. Herod, however, fled from 
Jerusalem in good time; the women of his family and the 
children he sent on to the fortress of Masada (on the western 
shore of the Dead Sea) in charge of his brother Joseph, while 
he himself set out for Petra in Arabia. 

Mattathiah Antigonus (40-37), by the grace of the Par- 
thians king and high priest, marched against the Idumeans, 
who as Antipater’s kinsmen were unfriendly, and took the 
important town Mareshah. Even after the expulsion of the 
Parthians from Syria by Antony’s legate Ventidius (39), 
Antigonus remained unmolested, though a high tribute was 
exacted of him. Thus the Romans were bought off when 
they had come within sight of Jerusalem; but Masada 
remained in the hands of Joseph, who successfully repelled 
all attacks. In the meantime Herod had embarked from 
Alexandria for Rome. His lavish gifts and personal adroit- 
ness went a long way in winning the favor of those in power, 
notably of Antony and Octavian, who both recognized in 
him a devoted friend of Roman rule, ready to bear down all 
the opposition at home and to assist in warding off the 
Parthian peril. Accordingly he was named by the Senate in 
solemn session King of the Jews. He landed at Acco (39), 


7 
| 


RGD OAPTCRES JERUSALEM a 


“peomives! instructions co aid the new 
Sale entet assistance, but was 


th amen and mercenaries, Gali- 
oH agian, presented difficulties: 
os Seyi’ be way of Samaria to Jaffa, 
Ae Lig teach . “to jadea and raise the siege 
: G =f Hy charge of his brother Joseph, 
ay sitee tt fecueaiem; but the scant help 
gai mathe th « widertaking hopeless. in 

¢ wat mi no wise minded to panies 


re FE hptored © Sexpher i, the mast Piscean 
Me sgAAL Fictory over the forces of Antig- 
haunted down che patriots in their hiding- 
G @usistance was still half-hearted, and 
aplshed:. an a second invasion of Judea, 


mped at Sem wata on the | ca guna 


? tic rad to j etiod: Youeh had meanwhile 
fh Antigonus and Galilee had revolted. 
ad at. his disposal two Roman legions; 
ered: at Jericho the forces of Antigonus 
: Heros was wounded; but at Jeshanah in 
saria he annihilated-a part of the army of 

$. Now Biss was able to lay sp to 


~ 


a ora a short - period to saith at 
sptials with Miriam, daughter of Alexander 
Hus ff., and of Alexandra daughter of Hyr- 

Eidlience with the Hasmonean house was 
Gispel apposition to his revel status on the 
rs, and i in Jerusalem the Pharisee leaders, who 
he union of regal and sacerdotal power in the 
wus. actually counseled surrender. Jeru- 
tak s by atorm, the Reman soldiers slaying and 
| ely a — Herod had to call a halt by buying the 


4 


Ay ae 4 3 Oe [Prose rte” Ae. ENE 


in person to Antony, who had returned to- 


f * a 
c ; it7. tc ki 
CBA al tes of oe 
Ah - 
a 


THe LAR 


. 
‘ 


: dhesirsioadl thus ave 4 
or. sibaig, 


ise slic sere ee 
Minah epee the’ Bb bance) 


onhenahle : * bh) , ike « Parthians 
Aetigocias realaod the . 
He caties himecll with: che 


flatky actou with Phegahel Quad 
“Pant eppeared betore the eity 
Pheeahe} wens hae ¢ inn 
wader at “hi 

Griivie. Huyrian 

preatty fusctHas, 
Pherae! comit ated ) 


titikdren he seni an be the fi 
whore of the Dead Seapane 


- 


hurts “ki ne and bigh priest, 
chs as Antipater s iemen: 
IOS tant town ‘Sareshali: 
Parthians from Spa fy 
Amtigonus rained nemo 
exacted. of him. Thus the: 
they’ had come within sight 
hands af Josey 
ai attacks. In chs mua ehh 
Ptexaudnia for Rome. Hig Javis 
iaiweta long way in winning: 
meetly of Antony and Oetay 
‘Mew a dewited friend of Roma 
rie cui 1 jon at home tad: to. 
Partiaa peril. Accordingly he We 
sien semion King of the few 


a OC a 
TOTNES 1 Loe 


"—_ -”, 


37] HEROD CAPTURES JERUSALEM 167 


Though the legate received instructions to aid the new 
titular king, he met with lukewarm assistance, but was 
allowed, without hindrance, to gather an army consisting 
chiefly of Idumean fellow-tribesmen and mercenaries. Gali- 
lee, the center of anti-Roman agitation, presented difficulties; 
but he was able to descend by way of Samaria to Jaffa, 
which he took, then to march into Judea and raise the siege 
of Masada. With Idumea in charge of his brother Joseph, 
he attempted to lay siege to Jerusalem; but the scant help 
furnished by the Romans made the undertaking hopeless. In 
the city, Antigonus was in no wise minded to. abdicate, 
certainly not in favor of Herod, who was but a half-Jew. 
Herod, however, captured Sepphoris, the most important 
city in Galilee, won a signal victory over the forces of Antig- 
onus at Arbela, and hunted down the patriots in their hiding- 
places (38). Roman assistance was still half-hearted, and 
nothing was accomplished on a second invasion of Judea. 
So Herod appealed in person to Antony, who had returned to 
Asia and was encamped at Samosata on the Euphrates. 
Peremptory orders were given to Sosius, the new governor of 
Syria, to lend energetic aid to Herod. Joseph had meanwhile 
fallen in battle with Antigonus and Galilee had revolted. 
But now Herod had at his disposal two Roman legions; 
Galilee was reconquered; at Jericho the forces of Antigonus 
fought bravely and Herod was wounded; but at Jeshanah in 
the district of Samaria he annihilated a part of the army of 
Antigonus under Pappus. Now he was able to lay siege to 
Jerusalem (37). The inhabitants held out for full five months. 
Herod absented himself for a short period to celebrate at 
Samaria his nuptials with Miriam, daughter of Alexander 
son of Aristobulus II., and of Alexandra daughter of Hyr- 
canus II. The alliance with the Hasmonean house was 
counted upon to dispel opposition to his royal status on the 
part of the Jews, and in Jerusalem the Pharisee leaders, who 
were averse to the union of regal and sacerdotal power in the 
person of Antigonus, actually counseled surrender. Jeru- 
salem was taken by storm, the Roman soldiers slaying and 
pillaging freely, until Herod had to call a halt by buying the 


. 168 (+ pa LAST 
Romans off. Antigonus was 
Antony at the request of H 
Seas ag oie of the Bois eans 
é P ; , i \ Vas 
oe | 7% j e P Wey hie 
sg 


7 L pew rai Fi) ‘7 ti We 
ae mig "hit alae ac ¥ ar ' —— biteots q 

4a us bi eke 

hoya $e bah ee 


Pourmiix xx 


io 
eee em oy 


d the Great, Siaes Keges ERE ily, ble 
e} agent 4) a clemsems [piety 2b Sa 
| en master Qt Saws igs Ce a | 
g pare 7m which he omit. ily shown 
which he fem ae ey Mice tiprig'e: <u, Ge 
is ate chéive of eubae: eit 2h of his 
its order to break thee prvweer of the 
ane the selated schiligy, bis first-act 
vio forty-five meuilews of the aristocracy 
8 Of their propecty. Since he could not 


0 litte ins his own persue, he bestowed the- 


nel, a Babylonian few of low priestly rank. 
ANY , the beings’ 2 mother-ui-law, secured the 
onda and 3 throw eh her of Antony, in 
7 the young - Ay suf. Herod could not set 
ation ta the wil y € Piechaiaks who waa by no 
; wd tows ie bia: then his wife Miriam, 
passionately, picaded her brother's cause, So 
eposed sad Ariviobuius elevated in his place. 
a8 ‘of Tabernacles (35) the Hasmonean high 
ly acclaimed hy the peopie, Herod repented of 
ea isha tly cheveafter invited the high priest 
Jerieha, during which the king's birelings, who 
f (Aristobulus, held bis Head under water 


seived by lerod's simulated mourning, 


ad no sconer presented himself (naturally, 
nde @) than he was restored to favor. But con- 

sen far from satisfactory. The remnants of 
nily were plotting, though atitietast hc 


169 | : 


) E inspatcn, and he was called to account. 


tt 


A navies age? vila rijiaeng et 
| "pele ates ie 4 i<he yea 


eb | ER XOX UN 
HEROD THE GREAT 


(37-4) 


EROD, surnamed the Great, pursued during his en- 
H tire reign (37-4) a clear-cut policy of making 

himself absolute master at home and earning the 
good-will of the power to which he owed his elevation. It 
was a difficult position, to which he brought an indomitable 
will, unscrupulousness in the choice of means, and all of his 
native shrewdness. In order to break the power of the 
Hasmonean dynasty and the related nobility, his first act 
was the execution of forty-five members of the aristocracy 
and the confiscation of their property. Since he could not 
hold the high priesthood in his own person, he bestowed the 
office upon Hananel, a Babylonian Jew of low priestly rank. 
However, Alexandra, the king’s mother-in-law, secured the 
intervention of Cleopatra, and through her of Antony, in 
favor of her son, the young Aristobulus. Herod could not set 
himself in opposition to the wily Cleopatra, who was by no 
means well-disposed towards him; then his wife Miriam, 
whom he loved passionately, pleaded her brother’s cause. So 
Hananel was deposed and Aristobulus elevated in his place. 
When on the Feast of Tabernacles (35) the Hasmonean high 
priest was openly acclaimed by the people, Herod repented of 
his imprudence and shortly thereafter invited the high priest 
to a feast at Jericho, during which the king’s hirelings, who 
were bathing with Aristobulus, held his head under water 
until he drowned. 

Alexandra, undeceived by Herod’s simulated mourning, 
denounced him to Cleopatra, and he was called to account 
by Antony. Herod no sooner presented himself (naturally, 
not empty-handed) than he was restored to favor. But con- 
ditions at home were far from satisfactory. The remnants of 
the Hasmonean family were plotting, though not concertedly; 


169 


170 HEROD THE GREAT [31 


and Herod’s uncle Joseph (who at the same time was the 
husband of his sister Salome), because he had during the 
king’s absence failed to act with due energy, was executed. 
Both against his inner foes and against troublesome neigh- 
bors, Herod rebuilt the fortresses of Hyrcania and Alexan- 
drium and strengthened the fortifications of Masada. In 
Jerusalem, north of the Temple mount, the citadel Baris, 
now named Antonia in honor of Antony, was made stronger; 
without the city a full Roman legion might be counted upon 
to quell any disturbance. 

Cleopatra strove to recover the old Egyptian supremacy 
over Palestinian territory. Antony met her wishes to the 
extent that he compelled Herod to cede to her the rich dis- 
trict about Jericho with its palm and balsam forests and 
then to lease it at a high rental. The queen paid Herod 
a visit on her way from the Euphrates, whither she had 
accompanied Antony, and was received with due honors; but 
Herod kept wary of her coquetry. When in 32 war was 
declared by Octavian against Cleopatra and Antony, Herod 
offered military assistance; but in deference to the Egyptian 
princess, who was jealous of the Jewish king’s chances for 
glory, Antony ordered him to war on the king of the Arabs 
who had been remiss with the tribute due to Egypt. The 
shrewd Cleopatra expected that the two kings would wear 
each other out. Herod’s initial successes were checked by 
Cleopatra’s commander, and Herod suffered defeat at the 
hands of the Arabs. At the same time ‘a severe earthquake 
shook Palestine in 31, in which thirty thousand persons per- 
ished. Herod’s overtures of peace being spurned by the 
Arabs, he met them in battle and completely routed the 
Arab army which had invaded Jewish Transjordania. The 
manner in which Herod on this occasion extricated himself 
out of a perilous situation served subsequently as his best 
recommendation in the eyes of Rome. 

On learning of Octavian’s victory in the battle of Actium 
(September 2, 31), Herod was guided by the instinct of self- 
preservation to abandon Antony to his fate. A troop of 
Antony's gladiators was prevented by Herod from reaching 


MIMIAM AND HEX BOXDEEP tr 
+6 isa? a. 


# 


instruct) RT Eee ee st) oa eee 
eaeek Phe — ee Se, ae ay, ee ’ , 
urth i Seats 4 oe ass} ae Grae gece aie | 
ee. - ‘ a es eR” ae 3 ate, Fi 
bir Belo. ; he qcvraknt, rhea 


of Alexancvris: a thasghad stays. 


SLi alt ‘his come. hating oes | 
er bx mn, the more “gd witty. Pe TR oe aa 
him the pst iar fie «he greene OPighe i igtn | 
viaw ePiarch to mt ik Se eee RE Rattprc 
id. rendered vatual ea nie ae Mae wy, Wied ‘ 
ing ai the ariny; the: peered: eierighest, 
ina of the carepaign We ee is ws 
edect Jeriche apak | ae Me ‘ A 
afla anc Sorta ‘* Tiasant, fu ee ON SA. 
pun and Gedar (Laitigna) Same”. ffsir FRM 
rof Cleopatra's cine pu adaworgined Acwief 
# ta Herod. Be 
Senha 4 Meee 


; ) ove lost bet wert Phere re 
a and his fe vonite Heamenmae BD De At 
piered apenty her Dire « (onde tad Of tp 
her maternal grammiiacher. acd the kirtg’s family 
susyby trumped wp charges of conjugal infidelity 


e Paupposed lover wert punished with death (29) 
Peover the loos of his wile was uncontrollable aad 
; elf over to wild dissipaticar and drinking bers. 
it sick and took to bed ino Samaria, Alexandr 
ne Moment opportune co restore the Hasmonea® 

ght to win over the commandants of the Jers 
eis; but the king was speedily informed and the 


. 


\" 
¢ 


ae, fae ee 
: 


Rees. 0 
0 1 «as Qetavieuw i aa” lp ABA ti ag Aga ad 
pest himeel! in game, BHO ORT e tee eee 

ar “that hefire ties (ee gepieer -f 7 
no is’ 36 had beet RNR OO a 
ed. He sears bis Re ee OR, DL as 

the pe ypris ad ik ah iit ti hee x 4 


and of plotting to potwon ber husband. Both the | 


Pmother of Minam war executed (28): Simater 
was meted out to Salome's second husband, se > 


\\ 


E ts Suey x Sana 
OV Santer? | reas 
y eas, 


A eg @ Pel: Mie 
hy = oie : . y Ss ae eT aE an ® 
ra TM) Aah a od Ae Valter oe 
is ~ JA 4 10° ar ae ad at a Or 


“ 
* 


# 
| i< rod ws ul oy 
i ehahcdon Aston 
; jailetors was prevent 
{ 4 


29-28] MIRIAM AND HER MOTHER EXECUTED 171 


Egypt. As soon as Octavian set out for the East, Herod 
hastened to present himself in person. So uncertain was he 
of the outcome that before his departure he had the aged 
Hyrcanus, who in 36 had been released from Parthian cap- 
tivity, executed. He sent his children to Masada under the 
care of his mother Cyprus and his sister Salome, while his 
Hasmonean wife and her mother Alexandra were placed in 
the fortress of Alexandrium in charge of the commandant 
Soémus, with instructions to put the two women to death if 
he failed to return. The meeting between Herod and Octa- 
vian took place in Rhodes. The abject humility of the king 
of the Jews, who left off his crown, paved the way for a 
favorable reception, the more so since the sagacious Roman 
discerned in him the right man for the difficult border terri- 
tory. On Octavian’s march to Egypt (in the summer of the 
year 30), Herod rendered valuable assistance in facilitating 
the provisioning of the army; the grateful Roman, on the 
~ successful termination of the campaign in the autumn of the 
same year, conceded Jericho and Gaza to Herod, then the 
coastal cities Jaffa and Straton’s Tower, as well as the cities 
of Susitha (Hippus) and Gedar (Gadara) east of the Sea of 
Galilee. A portion of Cleopatra’s Celtic body-guard was like- 
wise turned over to Herod. 

There was no love lost between Herod’s mother and sister 
on the one hand and his favorite Hasmonean wife on the 
other. Miriam showed openly her bitter condemnation of the 
execution of her maternal grandfather, and the king’s family 
fed his jealousy by trumped up charges of conjugal infidelity 
with Soémus and of plotting to poison her husband. Both the 
queen and her supposed lover were punished with death (29). 
Herod’s grief over the loss of his wife was uncontrollable and 
he gave himself over to wild dissipation and drinking bouts, 
until he fell sick and took to bed in Samaria. Alexandra 
thought the moment opportune to restore the Hasmonean 
rule and sought to win over the commandants of the Jeru- 
salem citadels; but the king was speedily informed and the 
dangerous mother of Miriam was executed (28). Similar 
punishment was meted out to Salome’s second husband, the 


172 | HEROD THE GREAT [25 


Idumean Kosgobar, and his confederates, the sons of Baba, 
a family distantly related to the Hasmoneans (25). 

Herod was now at the height of his power. He cultivated 
assiduously the friendship of Augustus—as Octavian was 
now called after being invested with imperial powers—and 
paid him deferential visits in Rome or during the emperor’s 
presence in Syria; he maintained personal contact with 
Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus and his presumptive 
heir. It was a great honor for Herod to receive the second 
man of the empire in his own capital and then to accompany 
him on his expedition to Asia Minor. Herod’s position was 
that of a friend and ally of the Roman people, and, while 
naturally restricted in the exercise of sovereign powers in 
external affairs, he possessed unlimited freedom in his own 
domain, whether in the management of army and navy, in 
judicial affairs, in the administration of finances, or in mat- 
ters of internal government. Thanks to repeated grants from 
his high patrons, the borders of the Land of Israel were again 
extended to the limits of the Davidic kingdom; Perea, thatis, 
Transjordania, constituted a separate tetrarchy with Phe- 
roras, the king’s brother, as administrator. The direct con- 
tact with the sea and the construction of ports opened up 
maritime trade, which in addition to the inland commerce 
increased the wealth of the country. The soil was intensively 
cultivated; colonies were settled in the newly won territory 
to the northeast; barren land was rendered fruitful through 
large waterworks and aqueducts. The royal revenue, by 
direct taxation or by imposts, was considerable; in addition 
the king commanded resources of his own, from private 
domains, from interest on loans to neighboring rulers, from 
working the imperial copper mines in Cyprus. 

Herod spent money lavishly. Like Solomon he had a pas- 
sion for building. The old sites which he restored or enlarged 
and the new cities constructed by him served both strategic 
and economic purposes. Thus he rebuilt Samaria and called 
it in honor of Augustus (Sebastos in Greek) Sebaste; on the 
site of Straton’s Tower he built a new city and named it 
Caesarea; toward Arabia he erected two new fortresses, both 


Seinen bent" re me aye ob), 
himself bel raecg’, gy Shee eg Se wie 
f t eywesteri: Wai eye a aie aioe ie ee " Say i 
hug halls, ‘resplentlisa: EET OS ae Re 
¥ rhe Siaiwning a actos aapigare 4 ne pips, phere A 
| cpap Pies i es se 
eg besten sai LRAT : 

¢ beatiful eights iid Wade Mets Vey eee. 
¢ Be ileastc arrangement Patt ae Dae 3 
uple proper, or the nieve se MCT PaO 
Pbellt of tuce blocks af ete wome, and in 
eh thos parts maccunstia ny layisen, none 
ie @aptoved. In front ran a wrye Porch, from 
br aed niall descended tq the Court of the 
@ Altar and the great Laver . Then follewed 
2 te men-worshipers, amd, separated by a 
nen. Lower down, peieaton yt “i wae 


fews Snot to peiepaie within the ene idmare on. 
Hf that is left of this glory i she frrendation of 
4 Wall (Koihe! Maarabt, the mist sacred 
46 the Jew. Here to this dav he believes 


e rel ref: fsrael’ s Sanctuary. 
Sestine, from Antioch to the idles of the sea and 
s, Lacedaemon, and Mic opolt {on the site 
od was remembered fdr his fommdations of 
adles, and public edifices. He piayed the part 
ic adtinre and friend of Catear both abroad 
a Samaria he erected. a temple for the wor- 
emperor; in the Holy City itself he built a theater 
sdvome and introduced athletic games. He sur- 
imself with pomp; at bis court he entertained Greck 
10 n ‘the most notable was his eourt-bistorian 


rod ped to Greek phileseplry, rhetoric, and his- 
d Greek tutors for his sons, ; To complete Shel 


{ 


the Divine Presence hovering as of ni 


amastus. At.an age past bivy the monarch tet 


= 


‘e 
+8 
‘ 
~ 


a) 


are ag ba siledien g | 
cand #hé new cities cons tructed & 


vy 


9 HEROD Tae omar 


ait: oats el a Ati a i 
ae ut eee eee 


mae ies pee. the 
RAR IC I MISSY za 


i ne 9 
catiert a 


pastel beicy, cle! ere tl eh Rea 


& 
a: 

ae 
BAY 


ial: 4 
wei aes 


‘pormaerdas ie Seyt » be maintained. 
eer Sia, tite aon-in-d ets of ANE 
eect 

eT: 8 

Pere 


naturally restricted in the oxen 
exteryial sais rs, he possessed 1 
(hoacias nh, stoop art in the maa 


juteial aflairs, in the ale 


4 eake 
t j . 
zs . { < 
‘ we MITYon: 
eta teri gers £7 +b is 
Sash wack Pee} .¢3 Litt 


ifansjordania, coms titted & 


wot with the sealand the 


€; Bais hi a i 


te oti northeast; barren land was 1 
arge waterworks and aqued 
weet taxation or DV. Sapa 
base SPE commande resources. 


; Merod © apert 


and ecomanic purposes. Thre be 
 Mehowdr of Augustus (Sebast 
vip si maesmide so ats he ejiat 


HEROD’S TEMPLE AND OTHER BUILDINGS 173 


of which received the name of Herodium. He erected magnifi- 
cent residences for himself in various localities, and in 
Jerusalem, on the western hill (the Upper City), a vast 
palace, with huge halls, resplendent with gold, marble, and 
rare stones. The crowning achievement of Herod’s building 
operations was the reconstructed Temple, which was not 
really completed:till six years before its final destruction. It 
was said that no more beautiful sight was ever seen by man. 
The ground-plan and interior arrangement were left as they 
had been, but the Temple proper, or the House, was increased 
in height. It was built of huge blocks of white stone, and in 
the construction of those parts inaccessible to laymen, none 
but priests were employed. In front ran a large Porch, from 
which twelve broad steps descended to the Court of the 
Priests with the Altar and the great Laver. Then followed 
the Court of Israel for men-worshipers, and, separated by a 
wall, a gallery for women. Lower down, divided by a wall 
and fenced-off terrace from the Inner Sanctuary, lay the 
Court of the Gentiles, and a tablet with a Greek inscription 
warned non-Jews not to trespass within the enclosure on 
pain of death. All that is left of this glory is the foundation of 
the outer Western Wall (Kothel Maarabi), the most sacred 
spot in the world to the Jew. Here to this day he believes 
himself nearest to the Divine Presence hovering as of yore 
over the lone relic of Israel’s Sanctuary. | 

Outside Palestine, from Antioch to the isles of the sea and 
beyond to Athens, Lacedaemon, and Nicopolis (on the site 
of Actium), Herod was remembered for his foundations of 
temples, colonnades, and public edifices. He played the part 
of patron of Greek culture and friend of Caesar both abroad 
and at home. In Samaria he erected a temple for the wor- 
ship of the emperor; in the Holy City itself he built a theater 
and a hippodrome and introduced athletic games. He sur- 
rounded himself with pomp; at his court he entertained Greek 
savants, of whom the most notable was his court-historian 
Nicholas of Damascus. At an age past fifty the monarch let 
himself be introduced to Greek philosophy, rhetoric, and his- 
tory. He had Greek tutors for his sons. To complete their 


174 HEROD THE GREAT 


education, he sent them to Rome and had them lodged with 
prominent Roman families that they might improve their 
manners and establish connections at the source of political 
power. 

Herod was in reality king of the Jews rather than a Jewish 
king. It is true that he made concessions to Jewish suscepti- 
bilities; he likewise used his influence to better the condition 
of the Jews in the Dispersion. But just as often he wounded 
Jewish feeling, as when he had the Temple surmounted by 
an eagle. He remitted taxation in times of distress, mag- 
nanimously perhaps, but just the same with calculated fore- 
thought that upon recovery the people would be able to 
bear the burden so much the more readily afterwards. He 
named and deposed high priests in quick succession and, by 
keeping the sacred robes in his own custody, made it under- 
stood that the office was subject to kingly authority. His 
absolute power was felt in the communal administration 
which was supervised by a royal commissary. Matters of 
state and jurisdiction over life and death were committed to 
an inner council of courtiers. The Sanhedrin was shorn of all 
prerogatives as a participant in executive functions; it was 
useful as an instrument whereby the king might carry un- 
popular measures. Its prestige was still weighty, but its 
activity was more and more confined to the religious sphere. 

Herod was not loved by the Jewish people. There was a 
class of irreconcilables who twice refused the double oath 
which he demanded to himself and to Caesar. The majority 
of the Pharisees found satisfaction in the pursuit of the 
Torah, and Herod was content to have them thus occupied. 
The two most noted exponents of Pharisaism during the 
reign of Herod were Shammai and Hillel. The latter came to 
Palestine from Babylonia, and of the two his influence on 
the development of Judaism was by far the more lasting. To 
both piety meant the strict observance of the Torah, the 
written Word of God and the unwritten teachings of its 
authoritative interpreters. This body of law constituted the 
norm of religious obligation (Halakah). In its application 
Shammai stood for extreme rigorism. He demanded of his 


SHAMMAY AN SH &, 


3 


. nt, When fis fit tees Seti Si. Ae ie 

ACIE es, he hael figs - vis a Pgs et - ye we: mn 
semua in a booth-like Se nani Ce RO hate BS TR 
1a: peer lenient aval | ities bpcglah es Ey tHe ah 
Porah prescribes ciety) a Sa tee 
ve A COnsequene pve | aes bcd Ae. 
— approach. j iilhe na Ripe cy Ags 
mt by which the creekiet: - done cle tee 
tion of the debts and es pals Hts sive riok 
ey. Hillel made use of defiaits yes of inter- 
rtic principles) by mgite ot. which new - 
id from the Torah. {nstead of laying aside 
al for the coming sabbath, as Shammai was 
sl took thoughi of each day as it came along, 
sé Hiconings which came from Cod. Hillel was 
| ident and meek. Once a heathen approached 
De instctic ied in the Tewish religion in the 
€ time. ‘Do not unto others what i is hateful to 
fhe whole of the Torah, all the rest 1s com- 
the answer. ‘The cammentary, of course, must 
Leper person cannot be Leger mvery man 


yet in his teen, iS 7 roe ae: Sok 


x 


winth. Palace intrigues, fostered by Salome, 
| qa domestic differences which ended tragi- 
ie intended the sons of his favorite wife, the 
ean mn Miriam, to be his successors. Alexander was 
te the Capes docian princess Glaphyra, and Aristo- 


F ks 
A: er 


Salome's daughter Berenice: The king’s policy was 

to wel together the two families, the }dumean 

smonean. The princes of Hasmonean blood looked 

mntempt upow those of other strains, and the old * 
eBalome did her worst to disturb the peace by 4 : 


= At length the king had Alexander and Aristo- Psy 


os . i" » ae be. 
SMe ets re 2 Seat 


PA 
+ Le Pad At hi Bie 


a Cate ar 
Dt OR aren Pe tee os “o ae Si he fh Sasi ways 


i 
; f i Det § i 

Dea ie p aga sitebiinh ; connections at. 
+ cities 


ae omnes ha reality king of the 
ae eT Erde fans he made commer 
hie te; Skewine used his infige | 
Boece rwe ot the Diepergion, But 12 
ft ne hay, . cling, as when he had the 
| ytiabe. He reenitted taxation det 
| perhags, b rut just: sais: 


Y. ee 
- as > 
ahr ayy } 
‘ i Pret 
. 
‘ 
: ; 
“1 eae eal mee gid 
SUR # ; ® a bie 
at nA: | Tas 


| mr | Was ‘felt | int the « 
iach | Sig, Wes waxes vised * a) 


’ =e 
"4 
ie 
j 
be 
- 


we We “Av inst. noted exponents, 
| as | > age: wat igen? were Shasatal: 
rh haneeiie trom Babylomaz and 
4 Tucaiem we 

the sprintcol 
ety Wey God and the? 
cot ele whys interpreters, This b 
awl Dany yan oe obligs tian (He 
“ate eel for extreme rigor 


SHAMMAI AND HILLEL 175 


young boy, not yet in his teens, that he should fast on the 
Day of Atonement. When his grandson was born during the 
Feast of Tabernacles, he had the roof opened so that the 
infant might sleep in a booth-like dwelling. Hillel, on the 
other hand, was more lenient and had an eye to changing 
conditions. The Torah prescribes the remission of debts in 
the sabbatic year. As a consequence people refrained from 
making loans on its approach. Hillel therefore devised a 
formal document by which the creditor assigned to the 
courts the collection of the debts and thus avoided the risk 
of losing his money. Hillel made use of definite rules of inter- 
pretation (hermeneutic principles) by means of which new 
laws were deduced from the Torah. Instead of laying aside 
every good morsel for the coming sabbath, as Shammai was 
wont to do, Hillel took thought of each day as it came along, 
content with the blessings which came from God. Hillel was 
exceedingly patient and meek. Once a heathen approached 
him and begged to be instructed in the Jewish religion in the 
shortest possible time. ‘Do not unto others what is hateful to 
thyself; this is the whole of the Torah, all the rest is com- 
mentary,’ was the answer. The commentary, of course, must 
be mastered; an ignorant person cannot be pious. Every man 
should make himself a disciple of Aaron, be a lover of man- 
kind, and by gentle persuasion bring men nigh to the Torah. 

The last decade of Herod’s reign was overcast with gloom. 
Warfare with the Arabs led to an estrangement from Augus- 
tus; though a reconciliation followed, their relations lacked 
the original warmth. Palace intrigues, fostered by Salome, 
involved the king in domestic differences which ended tragi- 
cally. Herod had intended the sons of his favorite wife, the 
Hasmonean Miriam, to be his successors. Alexander was 
married to the Cappadocian princess Glaphyra, and Aristo- 
bulus to Salome’s daughter Berenice. The king’s policy was 
apparently to weld together the two families, the [dumean 
and the Hasmonean. The princes of Hasmonean blood looked 
down with contempt upon those of other strains, and the old 
mischief-maker Salome did her worst to disturb the peace by 
her calumnies. At length the king had Alexander and Aristo- 


176 . HEROD THE GREAT [4 


bulus put to trial; they were condemned and strangled to 
death (7). Antipater, the son of Herod’s first wife Doris, who 
had a hand in the intrigue, was likewise executed shortly 
before his father’s death (4). While the king lay sick, the 
people, led by two scholars, tore down the eagle from the 
Temple gate; but despite his illness, the king had enough 
strength to see to it that the revolt was put down and the 
chief ringleaders burned alive. Herod died of cancer of the 
intestine, unmourned by his own and hated by the entire 
people. 


" ~ will, Archelaus, the elder son of his 
a wife Malthace, was named king, her 
a Antipas tetrarch of Galilee and sshncend 


Ouirse, to. obtain for these appointments im- 
mn. Behoxe Archelave, as head of the family, 

Jepa ome, the people demanded satisfaction for 
vcons ‘their beloved teachers ‘p. 176). When this 
seed, @ revolt broke out which was suppressed after 
shed No sooner was Archelaus gone than there 


ic “h eh required the intervention - the Syrian 


_ Jerusalem; | 0 2 eomseduerce of the aciteda miscedtale the 

tempora \per i governor of Palestine, Sabinus, there 
g which led to heavy fighting, especially 
A “between the people and the Roman 
We offered stubbori resistance; but they were 
ad the Temple treasury was plundered, 
ping himself to four hundred talents, A 
a Herod now joined the insurgents, and 
bai Ache in Herod's palace. At the same time, 
of f that Hezekiah whom Herod had executed 
ga “a band of patriots, armed them with 
fr am royal arsenal at Sepphoris, and operated 
ut Galilee. Varus came down with two legions and 

elf of Arab auxiliaries dispersed the Galilean 
of Sepphoris was set'on fire and the popula- 
Eee then marched inte Judea, caught up 
ee ee a 


177 


tr arch ‘of the sinetheasters di jatrieta, it was - 


ye wy * eres 
rh ee ate 
4 ve *: 
Aig; 
7 

j pots 

‘ 


1% Sa: HON TB, 


bedine put to tial; they were e 
death (7), Antiparer, the-son oF 
had & hand in ihe iuingue, Was 
before his Exther’s death GD 
peapte, hed bey rw scholars, tore 
Permple gate: but deapite his 
stretigt h Pos ome oe. it that 
chiet ringleaders burned aliv 3 
intestine, unmourned by his own 


: 8 - 


Dk 


Setar LER XOX 
ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 


(4 BEFORE—41 AFTER THE CHRISTIAN ERA) 
B Herod’s last will, Archelaus, the elder son of his 


Samaritan wife Malthace, was named king, her 

younger son Antipas tetrarch of Galileeand Perea, 
and Philip, son of another of the king’s wives, Cleopatra of 
Jerusalem, tetrarch of the northeastern districts. It was 
necessary, of course, to obtain for these appointments im- 
perial confirmation. Before Archelaus, as head of the family, 
could depart for Rome, the people demanded satisfaction for 
the execution of their beloved teachers (p. 176). When this 
was refused, a revolt broke out which was suppressed after 
much bloodshed. No sooner was Archelaus gone than there 
were fresh riots which required the intervention of the Syrian 
legate Varus. He left behind a legion to maintain order in 
Jerusalem; but in consequence of the ruthless conduct of the 
temporary imperial governor of Palestine, Sabinus, there 
was a new uprising which led to heavy fighting, especially 
about the Temple, between the people and the Roman 
soldiers. The Jews offered stubborn resistance; but they were 
overwhelmed and the Temple treasury was plundered, 
Sabinus alone helping himself to four hundred talents. A 
part of the army of Herod now joined the insurgents, and 
-Sabinus was shut up in Herod’s palace. At the same time, 
Judah, the son of that Hezekiah whom Herod had executed 
(p. 165), gathered a band of patriots, armed them with 
weapons from the royal arsenal at Sepphoris, and operated 
throughout Galilee. Varus came down with two legions and 
with the help of Arab auxiliaries dispersed the Galilean 
rebels. The city of Sepphoris was set on fire and the popula- 
tionsold asslaves. Varus then marched into Judea, caught up 
the groups of patriots and had as many as two thousand of 
them nailed to the cross. 


177 


178 ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 


Meanwhile, in Rome, Antipas, who in a previous will of 
Herod’s had been designated as his successor, was disputing 
the claims of his brother Archelaus, while a delegation from 
the people argued in favor of an autonomous priestly govern- 
ment directly subject to Rome. Augustus, however, con- 
firmed Herod’s last will, except that Archelaus was shorn of 
royal dignity and received the title of ethnarch (ruler). 
Salome was granted, in accordance with her brother’s testa- 
ment, the palace at Ashkelon and the cities of Jabneh, 
Ashdod, and Phasaelis, which upon her death she bequeathed 
to the empress Livia. Of the three rulers, Philip was the only 
one who led a peaceful and honorable life and died at home 
(34 of the Christian era); his lands, at first annexed to the 
Syrian province, were turned over to Agrippa in 37. 

The reign of Archelaus lasted but ten years (4 before the 
Christian era until 6 after). He pursued the absolutistic 
policy of his father, whom he resembled in character but not 
in ability. At will he named, and just as quickly deposed, 
high priests. He avoided on the whole offending Jewish 
religious sentiment, save when it interfered with satisfying 
his passions. Thus he wedded his sister-in-law Glaphyra. 
Not only had she born children to her first husband, but she 
had since Alexander’s death been married to Juba, king of 
Mauretania. She died shortly after reaching Palestine; the 
people saw in her death divine retribution for the unlawful 
marriage. Archelaus must have had ambitious projects 
which made his loyalty to Rome suspicious; when both the 
Jews and the Samaritans joined in complaints about his 
régime, he was banished to Vienne in Gaul where he died: 
some twelve years later. His territory, that is, Judea, Sama- 
ria, and Idumea, was annexed and placed under imperial 
governors or procurators, who took up their residence in 
Caesarea. 

On occasion, especially during the high festivals when 
masses of pilgrims streamed into the Holy City from all 
parts of the Dispersion, these procurators repaired to Jeru- 
salem and had their residence in the Herodian palace. Under 
normal conditions the procurator was master in his own 


pone Pacing are vi “179 


‘. 


3 he subertinacod ferifie Syrian legate who 
. ind, anon Me s easier: had ee 


ie font POR 4 abil Yeathermore th 
st atex of the tage srt: oho taxes, how- 
{to private Ce ae & ees -(publicans). 
i aduiinistraieir sige rot interfered 
atic cor stitvinyy vine vestored. The 
pay vous tits pact wae acted asa 


er, i who was 5 gue Saal ty: om tele priest. 
ous affairs, ade. deg eiv ss: hief and 
L $S predominate The Si srovincial 
ler Sanhedrins a PF. «Seree mem- 
Gworship wae we ites i+? waperial 
Priests were appeastal es wep pracura- 
irs of the Herod mut: Barc «> Fae office 


y a ationed. thal big te ‘euhie was, 
é custody of the seme. otic and 
nthe year, on the ‘is sce: eatiade and 
e) nent. As far aa pene. preian Sus~ 


- standards ae iripewiar cen: tent at all 
2 personal rectitude gout ata ahetimne of 

these often were ke hine + 
é for friction was furnpukefty aa enerial 
Or 7 for purposes & Gaiat anicworment. 
ite aversion fo beiasy yume, a 3d), che 
> ta the people theaies Agere wie sitbagocy 


zar showed | enw fats dae: setesfion-axald 
submitted 49 Gectner Gad te: But oo) 
< peared bee Kee edger diastok, 


si ee 


3 of a vied sane ers ey wey bin ide 


* the trace Ha ee, Dilip ‘eresalem ‘ 


Wet with universsitentaece:. sowever, . 


ripen Fd s last sill, ecune agtel / 
“ dierity ceived the tide of 
; Rr We iat ET Wi her 
prent, the [NVacCe ¢ | 
lees! and Pha is whieh rentiee ea 
to The Lrapress Livia. © as or three n 
aid of the Ch h ican era) his ta 


bitin selees i Archelaus | ested bu 
nv ae = 


; VWeuretania. She 
people saw. in her deat 
Fate ‘ 
MATriAge. detente r must) 


a 
jews ang sa Sat nine pu 


révime, he was bas — to” 
aoene i iwe iy “3 ve aFS ater. His 


4 


4e. and Idumea, was annexed 
RO meres OF procaratorsy, web u 
ieee. | Ses 

nets 4 encasion, €s specially. d 
raisers of pilgrims streamed 
pasty of the Dispe sions ee ; 
| antqun ant te ach the gir reside 


* 


yestmpal conditions the 


Lo a 


. 


THE PROCURATORS 179 


domain; still he was subordinated to the Syrian legate who 
might intervene in exceptional cases. The procurator had his 
own troops; garrisons were stationed in the various districts; 
in Jerusalem there was just one cohort. Furthermore the 
procurator was administrator of the finances; the taxes, how- 
ever, were farmed out to private contractors (publicans). 
Otherwise, the internal administration was not interfered 
with. The old aristocratic constitution was restored. The 
high Sanhedrin in Jerusalem made the laws and acted as a 
court of appeal; it consisted of seventy members in addition 
to the presiding officer, who was generally the high priest. 
In the division of religious affairs, with its own chief and 
his deputy, the scholars predominated. In the provincial 
towns there were smaller Sanhedrins of twenty-three mem- 
bers each. The Temple worship was an object of imperial 
protection. The high priests were appointed by the procura- 
tor or by the members of the Herodian dynasty; the office 
remained in the hands of a few families, among which that 
of Boéthus, whose daughter was one of the wives of Herod, 
may be specifically mentioned. The high priest’s robe was, 
as a rule, kept in the custody of the appointive power and 
delivered four times in the year, on the three festivals and 
on the Day of Atonement. As far as possible, Jewish sus- 
ceptibilities were respected; the troops entering Jerusalem 
left behind their standards and imperial images. Still it all 
depended upon the personal rectitude and good intentions of 
the procurator, and these often were lacking. 

Immediate cause for friction was furnished by the imperial 
census of the year 6 or 7 for purposes of fiscal assessment. 
Apart from an innate aversion to being counted (p. 53), the 
order brought home to the people their ignominious subjec- 
tion to Rome and met with universal resistance. However, 
the high priest Joazar showed how futile open rebellion would 
be, and the majority submitted to the inevitable. But in 
Galilee, Judah (p. 177), together with the Pharisee Zadok, 
called for an uprising in the name of religion. Nothing came 
of it just then, except that a body of intransigent patriots 
branched off from the large mass of the Pharisees and organ- 


180 ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 


ized themselves as the party of Zealots. As in the days of the 
Syrian persecution, the old cleavage came into life. The rank 
and file of the Pharisees looked for the termination of foreign 
dominion in God’s own time, but the Zealots were deter- 
mined to accelerate the end by direct action. 

Another, and distinctly exaggerated, form of Pharisaism 
was Essenism, a new name for the old Pietism. The Essenes 
lived in villages of their own or dwelt together in large estab- 
lishments in the cities. After a double novitiate they passed 
to full membership; children were admitted to be trained 
early in the ways of the Order. Celibacy was an absolute 
rule, also community of goods. The members tilled the soil 
or pursued a craft; commerce was shunned. They performed 
frequent ablutions and wore white garments. Votive offer- 
ings were sent to the Temple, but no animal sacrifices; their 
own meals, eaten in common, partook of the nature of sacra- 
ments. They rejected all manner of oaths. The sabbath they 
observed strictly. They had a secret lore about angels and 
other mystic matters. They cultivated prophetic clairvoy- 
ancy and practised healing in accordance with their studies 
of the medicinal properties of roots. They conceived the soul 
as immortal and believed unconditionally in Providence. 

Still another variety of Pharisaism was that of the apoc- 
alyptists, the revealers of the end of things. With these 
visionaries the figure of Messiah tended to become more and 
more other-worldly: a celestial being, preéxistent and eter- 
nal, the judge of sin and even demons, and the bearer of 
salvation to the pious in a transformed world-order. From 
these or kindred circles came John (Johanan) the Baptist. 
He announced himself as the forerunner of the Messiah, of 
one mightier than himself. He summoned the people to 
repentance and led them to the Jordan for purification 
through immersion (baptism)—such as the Essenes and 
other Pietists practised and such as the Torah prescribed for 
certain cases of impurity. The tetrarch Antipas (4 before the 
Christian era to 39 after), whose subject the Baptist was, 
possessed neither the knowledge nor the interest to dis- 
tinguish between one kind of Messianism and another. He 


Sy PRSUS OF MARKER RY 181 


hs. father's energy: BGS mower; but he 
efor building the’ gare. % notable opera- 
ation od btipaser gh ape peers nature, | a 


his life. “Bambee tne oe ven motives, he 
lanic moveinent a dakgeri vhe good rela- 
: god go had the Bepiig & eset. The stern 
Lonstrated agdime:: 5 ali ita unlaw- 
Merodias, whom: he tock aad. elias fate living 
on d.-Antipas had contrachet 4 enti cal mar- 
ghter of the Nabateas ere poarm ie now: « 
to please the ambiticas ws hk whom 
ae pi Bee Be Set Was Fi 


had received bemeih Purge saa oe eee of 
an Jesus (Jeshua), som <P is gaspenter 
peomvietion came to hier fut de wee the 
actual Messiah; but te Sept sade Kone 
f. He returned to thaldew aed frweded 
tance; for ‘the tirw is (alin, she Mag. 
f.’ Heiwent about praacheie the goed 
F band to concourse of phe es we iy 
and by explication of tefling pavieagan in 
id more disengaging hinieedt Seon: she 
eschools avd speaking with audbindcy. 
hic consciousness, he expelled deters, 
fsaw the source of nerves diwnviers; 
‘gathered a group of aligeqales frorn 
folk, and some were attracted @ hin 
Hiotic Zealots. Bat, sm thea burving - 
inge with Rome, he gave the answer: ey 
the things that are Caesar's, and unto : 
are God's.’ The Kingdom of God of 
fot of the political sort. at wa 4 eae 
[contact with teachers before bitin an se ss ae 
put morals above ritual. inward piety — ee: 


pas tage 8 


GaTENING rs HO 


warty of 3 Zealots 

Fs it obi « 
jooked foe th 

arn time, Gah 


ine end by direct acti 
sothy ———r 


#) 


Nicrahy \'b 
oP ation | 


parc ge € of sit a and even 


meg “ ad 9 after 
# a the: knowle 


JESUS OF NAZARETH 181 


had not perhaps his father’s energetic will-power; but he 
inherited his passion for building—the most notable opera- 
tion being the foundation of Tiberias—a sensuous nature, a 
measure of shrewdness. Like his father, he made devotion to 
Rome the rule of his life. Indifferent to religious motives, he 
saw in the Messianic movement a danger to the good rela- 
tions with Rome and so had the Baptist seized. The stern 
preacher had also remonstrated against the tetrarch’s unlaw- 
ful marriage to Herodias, whom he took away from his living 
half-brother Herod. Antipas had contracted a political mar- 
riage with a daughter of the Nabatean king, whom he now 
repudiated in order to please the ambitious woman for whom 
he conceived an overmastering desire. The Baptist was 
imprisoned in the fortress of Machaerus and there executed 
(29 after the Christian era). 

Among those who had received baptism at the hands of 
John was the Galilean Jesus (Jeshua), son of a carpenter 
at Nazareth. The conviction came to him that he was the 
‘mightier one,’ the actual Messiah; but he kept this knowl- 
edge at first to himself. He returned to Galilee and repeated 
John’s call to repentance; for ‘the time is fulfilled, the King- 
dom of God is at hand.’ He went about preaching the good 
tidings in the synagogues and to concourses of the people, by 
means of parables and by explication of telling passages in 
Holy Writ, more and more disengaging himself from the 
accepted manner of the schools and speaking with authority. 
By virtue of his Messianic consciousness, heexpelled demons, 
in which popular belief saw the source of nervous disorders, 
and remitted sins. He gathered a group of disciples from 
among the common folk, and some were attracted to him 
even from the ultra-patriotic Zealots. But, to the burning 
question of one’s dealings with Rome, he gave the answer: 
‘Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto 
God the things that are God’s.’ The Kingdom of God of 
which he preached was not of the political sort. 

Jesus had points of contact with teachers before him and 
in his own day. He put morals above ritual, inward piety 
above ceremonial. To Hillel’s Rule he gave a positive turn: 


182 ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 


‘Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, even so 
do ye also unto them, for this is the Torah and the Proph- 
ets.’ Like the school of Shammai, he forbade divorce save 
for one cause; like the Essenes, he tolerated no manner of 
oath: with the Pharisees, he held to the belief in the resurrec- 
tion of the body. Yet, unlike the Pharisees, he associated 
with publicans; he made light of the washing of the hands 
and of fasting. He was averse to the overscrupulous severity 
with which the sabbath and the dietary laws were observed 
He said that he came to fulfil the Law, to bring out its essen- 
tials: but in distinguishing between the weightier matters 
and the lighter he set himself in opposition to the Pharisaic 
system. He likewise broke with the slow process of Pharisaic 
adjustments and thought it futile to put patches on an old 
garment. He taught a righteousness that should exceed the 
Pharisaic and overdrew, the duty of loving one’s enemy and 
of non-resistance to evil, just as he overemphasized the 
divine love as if the good and the evil deserved it alike. 
Whether or not Jesus would declare himself openly as the 
Messiah, the impressionable circles with which he came in 
contact began to regard him as such. Jesus grew wary of 
Antipas and fled into the territory of Philip. At Caesarea 
Philippi, near the sources of the Jordan, Jesus was acclaimed 
as the Messiah by his disciple Simon Peter, whom, neverthe- 
less, he charged to observe silence. Apart from the dangers 
which attended an open avowal, Galilee was not the place 
for such a declaration; if anywhere, it must be made at 
Jerusalem, where a large body of pilgrims was due on the 
approaching festival of Passover. Accordingly, Jesus made 
his entry into the Holy City, where he presented himself as 
the Messiah. He was immediately seized by the authorities 
and put on trial before the Sanhedrin. Witnesses reported 
him as saying that he would destroy the Temple made with 
(human) hands, and in three days build another, heavenly 
one, made without hands. The presiding high priest Joseph 
Caiaphas put the question to Jesus: ‘Art thou the Messiah?’ 
‘I am,’ was the answer, ‘and ye shall see the Son of Man | 
sitting at the right hand of God, and coming with the clouds 


PONTIUS PILATE 183 


assumption of power beside the Deicy by 
pegaie the things hallowed by religious 
asphemous in the eyes of the court. Jesus 
| a false prophet, anel wagdelivered to the 
| Pilate, then residing in ferusalem, as a 
rand therefore a rebel against Rome. As 


p 


a. enioutell iat beled an at- 
to wee the Temple funds for the construc- 
\ one t troops marching into Jerusalem 

The people offered resistance 


y depositing in his pitts lerusatem reai- 
which the emperor's name was inscribed. 


| 2c ted. The Svrian Tate v ee gave 
uplaints and ordered Pilate to Reme, Mar- 


a Palestine 


che Arabs. His march’ took: him through 


ely refrained from taking the army with 
tds to the Holy City, which he visited in 
e festival of Passover. For three days che 


te the cross. He died ax the eve of 


n of Pilate : 26- 58) waa eoarked by acts 


joined in a forceful dee : 


d@ during the procurator’s abseate with 
nwhile been capirtsk ia war with ra 


s of ie ice tetrarch tp. 181): i , 
oY fare stace Rome was at war with the 


wie iotee the « hook inf Shaanal 


dite At the becky, You) aeiiy the: 


he x ier ye sie et mens 
Gi seer ‘se ania then, for thei 


; tien ele fie 
Ot a yt ie is ize ae : 5, he seh wa 
gts: otth the Pharinees, he held to: 

inh martylix rns Ae 23h lense 7 of 


a7% 


which i pe ied 


“x % Neg 4 = a 
aciustmens and thought 


mat at srl te: e 

a, THR ie without harida, 
Gaiaphas put the questtwese 
‘fam,’ was the answer, ‘sad. 
sitting at the right hand of Ge 


26-36] PONTIUS PILATE 183 


of heaven.’ The assumption of power beside the Deity by 
one who had made light of the things hallowed by religious 
sentiment, was blasphemous in the eyes of the court. Jesus 
was condemned as a false prophet, and was delivered to the 
procurator Pontius Pilate, then residing in Jerusalem, as a 
Messianic pretender and therefore a rebel against Rome. As 
such Jesus was nailed to the cross. He died on the eve of 
Passover in the year 30. 

The administration of Pilate (26-36) was marked by acts 
of ruthlessness and utter disregard of Jewish susceptibilities. 
Thus Galilean patriots were executed without trial; an at- 
tempt was made to use the Temple funds for the construc- 
tion of an aqueduct; the troops marching into Jerusalem 
brought in imperial images. The people offered resistance 
and were roughly handled by the soldiery; Pilate continued 
to vex the Jews by depositing in his official Jerusalem resi- 
dence shields upon which the emperor’s name was inscribed. 
Antipas and the other Herodians joined in a forceful protest 
to the emperor Tiberius (14-37), and the shields were ordered 
removed to the temple of Augustus in Caesarea. Samaritans, 
assembled on Mount Gerizim to witness the discovery of the 
sacred vessels (supposedly hidden by Moses) which a pseudo- 
prophet was about to unearth, were dispersed by Pilate and 
many of them executed. The Syrian legate Vitellius gave 
heed to their complaints and ordered Pilate to Rome, Mar- 
cellus being charged during the procurator’s absence with 
the administration of Palestine. 

Antipas had meanwhile been involved in war with the 
Arabs who prepared to avenge the humiliation of their king’s 
daughter at the hands of the Jewish tetrarch (p. 181); the 
moment seemed opportune since Rome was at war with the 
Parthians and Antipas was taking part in the expedition. 
Though on this occasion friction developed between Vitellius 
and the tetrarch, the legate received orders on his return to 
proceed against the Arabs. His march took him through 
Judea, but he wisely refrained from taking the army with 
the imperial standards to the Holy City, which he visited in 
person during the festival of Passover. For three days the 


184 ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD [37 


legate tarried in Jerusalem, during which time he acted with 
circumspection and graciousness. On the fourth day news 
arrived of the death of Tiberius (March 16, 37); Vitellius 
recalled his army, and the blow which the Arabs had dealt 
Antipas remained unavenged. 

One of the first acts of the new emperor Caius Caligula 
(37-41) was to appoint his friend Agrippa, the son of Aristo- 
bulus (p. 175), king over the vacant tetrarchy of his uncle 
Philip (p. 178) enlarged by a district in the Lebanon. A year 
and half later Agrippa set out from Rome by way of Alexan- 
dria; the presence of the newly crowned Jewish king in that 
city (autumn 38) was the immediate occasion for an anti- 
Jewish manifestation which resulted in an outbreak. There 
were by that time a million Jews in Egypt. In Alexandria 
they occupied two compact quarters, while many of the 
wealthier classes had their residences in other parts of the 
city. They had numerous synagogues; the largest was a 
beautiful and magnificently equipped structure. The Jews of 
Alexandria had enjoyed extensive rights since the founda- 
tion of the city, and the Roman rulers since Caesar had 
confirmed them in these rights. Moreover, owing to their 
religious beliefs, they had a privileged position which ex- 
empted them from participation in the city cult. They spoke, 
as we have seen (p. 129), the Greek language and absorbed 
the higher culture of the Greeks. Beginning with the Greek 
version of the Torah, which in course of time was followed by 
the translation of the rest of Scripture, they developed an 
extensive literary activity in the Greek tongue. Their object 


was to commend to the attention of the Greek the products — 


of the Jewish mind, just as, conversely, they had entered 


into the spirit of Greek philosophy and convinced themselves — 


that its truth had been anticipated by their own sacred 


writers. Judaism was glorified by Jewish poets and histo- : 
rians who assumed fictitious names, as if the authors were ~ 
heathen Greeks convinced of the-excellency of the Jewish — 
religion. The majority of the Jews were observant and, 
because of the close proximity to the mother-country, in — 
touch with Jewish scholarship; but there were not wanting 


aoe - 


Ay ts > RIOT 2h Als KANDER ‘ 185 


 sloughed OE tee D wacttitwe Peat were to them 
asmall nurstie ixswore thelr eelivion entirely. 


1 to ike te their eigmalty as citizens, 
privileged «taux, entiwes of their eco- 
band their sa.ial pretensiown. The Jews cont- 
: e eks in the «ra!is and oiebuetries; one might 
mmon laborers, av lexsees of yaibtic and pri- 
“chanel as benkers, se merchants. A 
been goim on for some time, in which 

strued Jewish religious wparateness as 


wippa arrive! with hie retiiwe and was 
Jews of Alexandria, the Cirewks mocked 
m and produced a pantie in the 
half-witted Greek was dtéseed up like 
éd the homage of the actors whe shouted 

tic for ‘my lere!"). The excited populace 
ke wound the Tews in their most sensitive 


worship af Scull as a merci The Goiiks 
e all the other heathen provincials, readily 
vy demanded that the Jews likewise should 


A set on fire; Jews were clubbed ta death 


‘Placcos not only: epepeewed a petition 


vish | csmiat council radiant in chains 
n d there publicly seouitged. Jewish worcen 
| » the spectators to partake of swine’s fexh. 


eanls were the degievate enemies of 


sand the Jewish horror of ihvlairy as god- 


1 that the oe “ magi re insane 


the emperor in their spuagegass. The’ 


ene ate the Chien ne deans , 


Mitilated: ihe synagogues were demol-— 


—w 


38] RIOT IN ALEXANDRIA 185 


those who had sloughed off some practices that were to them 
irksome, while a small number forswore their religion entirely. 

The Greeks of Alexandria were the inveterate enemies of 
the Jews, determined to dispute their equality as citizens, 
resentful of their privileged status, envious of their eco- 
nomic prosperity and their social pretensions. The Jews com- 
peted with the Greeks in the crafts and industries; one might 
find them as common laborers, as lessees of public and pri- 
vate domains, as tax-farmers, as bankers, as merchants. A 
literary feud had been going on for some time, in which 
Greek writers misconstrued Jewish religious separateness as 
wilful exclusiveness and the Jewish horror of idolatry as god- 
lessness. When Agrippa arrived with his retinue and was 
acclaimed by the Jews of Alexandria, the Greeks mocked 
him in the gymnasium and produced a pantomime in the 
theater in which a half-witted Greek was dressed up like 
Agrippa and received the homage of the actors who shouted 
Mari, Mari (Aramaic for ‘my lord’). The excited populace 
then determined to wound the Jews in their most sensitive 
spot. It was known that the capricious and manifestly insane 
emperor took the imperial cult quite seriously, not as a form 
of homage but as a worship of himself as a deity. The Greeks 
of Alexandria, like all the other heathen provincials, readily 
complied ; now they demanded that the Jews likewise should 
put up statues of the emperor in their synagogues. The 
Roman prefect Flaccus, who was none too sure of the 
emperor’s favor, willingly fell in with the plot. In due course 
he sanctioned the installation of the statues in the syna- 
gogues, and when the Jews resisted he proclaimed in an edict 
that they were aliens and turned the mob loose upon them. 
The Jewish quarters were invaded; the shops and dwellings 
were looted and then set on fire; Jews were clubbed to death 
and their corpses mutilated; the synagogues were demol- 
ished or desecrated. Flaccus not only suppressed a petition 
of the Jewish community to Rome, but had thirty-eight 
members of the Jewish communal council dragged in chains 
to the theater and there publicly scourged. Jewish women 
were forced before the spectators to partake of swine’s flesh. 


186 ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD [40 


Agrippa’s intervention led to the removal of Flaccus, but the 
bitter animosities continued under his successor. In the year 
40, two embassies sailed for Rome, a Greek deputation led 
by the Jew-baiter Apion, and a Jewish embassy of which the 
spokesman was Philo. 

Philo belonged to a wealthy and cultured family. His 
brother Alexander was chief inspector of customs in the east- 
ern district of the Nile. Philo’s life was spent in the pursuit 
of the highest wisdom and in the writing of theological 
books.. He occupies a noteworthy place in the history of 
Greek philosophy; he greatly influenced the development of 
Christian dogma; his theories filtered through in course of 
time among Jewish circles, and the medieval Cabala was 
profoundly, though indirectly, influenced by them. Philo 
persuaded himself in all honesty that the teachings of the 
divine Plato were contained in the Torah. The method by 
which the harmony was brought about was that of allegorical 
interpretation. With Philo, God was the transcendent Being, 
outside and above the world, so far removed that in order to 
relate Him to the cosmos all sorts of go-betweens were 
required. These intermediary potencies were a reflex of the 
Platonic Ideas; they were conceived as personalities and 
identified with the angels in Scripture; chief among them 
was the ‘Word’ of the Palestinian teachers, the Reason 
(Logos) of Greek philosophers. Philo’s system was thor- 
oughly Greek in that it was dualistic: spirit and matter, 
God and the world stood as opposites, and the contrast was 
eternal. The approach to the supra-mundane Deity, unknow- 
able, unnamable, yet supremely real, was effected by means 
of faith, an act of the will. The essence of Philo’s ethics gave 
preponderance to the spiritual in man; piety meant an 
ecstatic immersion in the Deity, a divine intoxication, a — 
heavenly passion; the glory of Israel was to be recognized by ~ 
humanity as the regally philosophic people. The workings of 
God in history were a sealed book to Philo. The heroes of — 
the past were transformed into psychic forces operating ina 
philosophic present of everlasting rational sameness. Though — 
the ceremonial observances were largely spiritualized, Philo — 


ae PAE C 187 


a) enportware act he reproved the 
it him fiw thet Begs. At the bidding of 
tig the quint sf Sw study to present 
‘to the mage oie deny 

i Wak aw ab Tht of! Uivperial audience, 
reached italy (2 & # seve storm in Pales- 


heath revider ag = *tien the matter 


ie emnperes’> Bs rough ae: Temple. The 
eoebedeam was instealiec te take effec- 
: tO ‘Catry out Tee seer. He sum- 
ietables and reasoners ask a but to 
s deputation ‘of the pees? besieged the 
ers at Ptolemais aes jiepeced him to 
a@bing. Petroniia tpegeyived and a 
‘emperor to rescitee G4: awise arid 
a, who had gone to {tat Age Syure learned 
himself the cause i At Serv. had sue- 
mperial order coummegites Ged. Caligula 
his prospective jowleet: fy Alexandria, 
j the tacaleitrant jew) jerusalem. 
Jews, ‘as well as for tet eectniting gover- 
‘murdered (January MW &i:> ibe news of 
lestine nearly a mnnth tov: ore the mes- 
favorable weather, meted with sealed 
> take his own life iy eer siwnent for his 
‘the life of the wistgert: wot was saved 
rved from desecrated): 
Claudius (41-54); we. tect than his pre- 
y disposed ty Agrivans. ‘In addition to 


a the territeiy “ tis brother-in-law 
s, the wife a Avvgpas, was Agrippa’s 
ner ar was deep te dedt, she had secured 
position of mepector of markets in 
ppa's recebvitig the royal. title, the 
Her: a her jolie 1 neck sisi ilar pre- 


ly granted (ye P84). he had received - 


Tae VA Aa ie 
; ; 


~ 


ROME TIG AUTENTNG rs 


asses ¥ latervention led 40, the re re “n 
3 € ay sa ies asieS cuted for Rome, a 
‘ fig bee. bow ai ter Apion, antes 
- | eet was Philos, ¥ 

Pho belon weil io a wealehy. 
Vewtiue Alexander waschiett nit ie 


of the Nie. Philo’s li 


Seta ht Strict 


€ gine et philoso ark 4 hue see a iw 
é byiat tian dogmas BS theoties fi 


nemieniecdly. Thou wh fadiaacien b, 
Seraaded hited? wf ak hene: t 
tyre Plata were pasha in 


. 
: 
* 
i 5 pe 
5 Weta it tally oe hg Abate Bes Pie lw oti 
mies. Vast eee. VRS 2 
“Nie 4 ¢ tok ag ~% . 
a : Foe \ J Shs eth eve eee : 
oe) : ; nay 2 te. Ee. Gh Eee ee 
O. \ 


MWpieiiwetanecs to fie RE 


Seems LHRSS RE Ss he giory af 
yaety ak the revally philes 

cenrtne omy wert < Sealed 
pee et ai 


41] PHILO 187 


recognized their practical importance and he reproved the 
upper classes about him for their laxity. At the bidding of 
the community he forsook the quiet of the study to present 
the cause of his brethren to the mad emperor. 

While the deputation was awaiting an imperial audience, 
the stupefying news reached Italy of a worse storm in Pales- 
tine. The Jews of Jabneh had torn down an altar erected to 
the emperor by the heathen residents, and when the matter 
had been reported to Caligula a peremptory command was 
issued to set up the emperor’s image in the Temple. The 
governor of Syria, Petronius, was instructed to take effec- 
tive military measures to carry out the order. He sum- 
moned the Jewish notables and reasoned with them, but to 
no purpose. A mass deputation of the people besieged the 
governor’s headquarters at Ptolemais and implored him to 
abandon the undertaking. Petronius temporized and at 
length begged the emperor to rescind the unwise order. 
Meanwhile Agrippa, who had gone to Italy and there learned 
from the emperor himself the cause of his fury, had suc- 
ceeded in having the imperial order countermanded. Caligula 
still contemplated, on his prospective journey to Alexandria, 
forcing his will on the racalcitrant Jews of Jerusalem. 
Fortunately for the Jews, as well as for the hesitating gover- 
nor, Caligula was murdered (January 24, 41); the news of 
his death reached Palestine nearly a month before the mes- 
sengers, delayed by unfavorable weather, arrived with sealed 
orders to Petronius to take his own life in punishment for his 
disobedience. Thus the life of the wise governor was saved 
and the Temple preserved from desecration. 

The new emperor Claudius (41-54), no less than his pre- 
decessor, was favorably disposed to Agrippa. In addition to 
the tetrarchies originally granted (p. 184), he had received 
at the hands of Caligula the territory of his brother-in-law 
Antipas (39). Herodias, the wife of Antipas, was Agrippa’s 
sister. When her brother was deep in debt, she had secured 
for him the lucrative position of inspector of markets in 
Tiberias. Upon Agrippa’s receiving the royal title, the 
ambitious woman impelled her husband to seek similar pre- 


188 . ROME TIGHTENING ITS HOLD 


ferment. Both Vitellius and Agrippa denounced him to the 
emperor for massing war material, and as the explanation he 
offered was not considered satisfactory he was condemned to 
banishment in Gaul. Claudius not only confirmed Agrippa in 
all these possessions, but added Judea and Samaria. Thus 
the whole of Palestine, as held by Herod the Great, was 
reunited in the hands of his grandson, in whose veins flowed 
Hasmonean blood. 


: pg a a aR sa it oily rr . ; 128 
wv 


pat had a nn per nthatidien of the 
ni atever his lite haul heen kp fhe past amid ; 
fh es, however even now he wislied to be re- : 
tae send of Greek culture--ai home he 
étly to Jewish ordinances, The guielen chain, 
presented to him in Hew of the irom chains 
us had cast hii, iy made owt ae a votive 
e. He offered « uh ential imy sacrifice and 
hincident: ta the fulfilment et wows by a 
Wazirites. No day went by thet ax offering 
his expense. Like any ovdeaary few, the 
“fruits to the ‘Twmpic. When hie daughter 
> thed to ason of the kate of Lapaanagene, 
“toned tor ou bout tethe tte af-initia- 
abs aquently trai was refused, tte sourriage 
i ee hasienes 2 mete Tighly (ene! with the 
“king, and yeni shewedl here Cheir 
Al, during the Feast of Tabernactes, in 
tom, he read before the asadnhiid wor- 
} gre Book of Deuteronomy. Aa he came 
Ou mavext not pur a foreigner as king 
not thy brother,” he wept; but the people 
i ote brother, thas art our brother.’ 
ehkrensie! svricade t religious ‘seiacleh 
policy, te order fofertify Jerusalem on : 
Agciopa beyan the construction of the | a 
: bi fiasco would pave tiuide the city ae 
‘Aarts inviced ie tatecas, ail vadenls 
at Tiserigs, The Syrian goversor 


L 


5 : ‘ Zz And q ¢ ; 
4 **{ ‘ - . i we Zé 9 i bt Cea 
“ . . wi aha D we ee 
y, Ve i a a it Tih ae ees BS iar tae eS) Se 


Ga C au e 


Me 9 Piles stink, as 
cs wt cmb Maren» of his. 


CHAPTER XXXI 
THE WAR WITH ROME 
(41-67) 


GRIPPA I. (41-44) was in many respects his grand- 
A father’s double, but somewhat more genial and pru- 
dent, and he had a deeper understanding of the 
Jewish spirit. Whatever his life had been in the past amid 
diverse vicissitudes, however even now he wished to be re- 
garded abroad as a friend of Greek culture—at home he 
conformed strictly to Jewish ordinances. The golden chain, 
which Caligula presented to him in lieu of the iron chains 
into which Tiberius had cast him, he made over as a votive 
gift to the Temple. He offered a thanksgiving sacrifice and 
defrayed the costs incident to the fulfilment of vows by a 
great number of Nazirites. No day went by that an offering 
was not made at his expense. Like any ordinary Jew, the 
king took his first-fruits to the Temple. When his daughter 
Drusilla was betrothed to a son of the king of Commagene, 
he exacted of him a promise to submit to the rite of initia- 
tion; and when subsequently that was refused, the marriage 
was broken off. The Pharisees were highly pleased with the 
conduct of their king, and the people showed him their 
affection. In the year 41, during the Feast of Tabernacles, in 
accordance with custom, he read before the assembled wor- 
shipers in the Temple the Book of Deuteronomy. As he came 
to the passage: ‘Thou mayest not put a foreigner as king 
over thee, who is not thy brother,’ he wept; but the people 
cried out: “Thou art our brother, thou art our brother.’ 

In line with his deferential attitude to religious scruples 
was his nationalistic policy. In order to fortify Jerusalem on 
the weak north side, Agrippa began the construction of the 
Third Wall, which, if finished, would have made the city | 
impregnable. But the emperor ordered the work stopped. 
Shortly thereafter Agrippa invited five princes, all vassals 
of Rome, -to a conference at Tiberias. The Syrian governor 


189 


190 THE WAR WITH ROME [44-52 


Marsus suspected disloyal intentions; he came as an unbid- 
den guest and dispersed the meeting. It was certainly unfor- 
tunate that sudden death overtook Agrippa at Caesarea 
(44). The emperor Claudius was dissuaded from awarding 
the succession to Agrippa’s young son, who bore his father’s 
name. The whole of Palestine was annexed as Roman terri- 
tory and placed under the rule of procurators, subject to the 
oversight of the governor of Syria. 

For twenty-two years (44-66) these procurators held sway. 
The best of them had no understanding of Jewish peculiar- 
ities, and the worst, by their rapacity and inexorable severity, 
drove the people to rebellion. The very first, Fadus, made a 
demand for the custody of the high priest’s robes; fortu- 
nately Claudius gave ear to the representations of a Jewish 
deputation, thanks to the intervention of the younger 
Agrippa. A commotion, started by a would-be prophet 
Theudas, was cruelly suppressed. This prophet had led the 
people to the Jordan, which he promised to dry up by his 
mere word as a proof of his divine mission. Fadus had the 
assembly surrounded; many were slain and others taken 
prisoners; the head of the leader was cut off and exhibited at 
Jerusalem. The successor of Fadus was Tiberius Alexander 
(until 48), the renegade nephew of Philo; he had the sons of 
Judah the Galilean (p. 177), Jacob and Simon, crucified. 
Subsequently he took part in an expedition against the 
Parthians, became governor of Egypt, and acted as chief 
adviser of Titus at the siege of Jerusalem. 

The disturbances increased under Cumanus (48-52). Dur- 
ing the Feast of Passover, a Roman soldier provoked the 
worshipers in the Temple by an indecent gesture. Cumanus 
was besought to punish the offender; instead he attempted 
to minimize the offense. The infuriated mob heaped re- 
proaches upon the procurator, and he ordered the troops to 
disperse the crowd; in the narrow passages the fleeing Jews 


were trampled under foot and thousands perished. A second ~ 


act was brought on by the Jews themselves. An imperial 


servant was seized on the public road near the city and © 


robbed of all his possessions. In retaliation the procurator 


THE PROCURATON PRLAY 191 


| dvillages nea: tire acene of ee pebhery looted. On 
asion, & Roman widier ture @ sero! of the Torah 
se perenne tine iidulging in wairlous remarks. 
ation demainie:! satisiactige, and Cumanus 
p i ‘ Hheoffende: t to death. A vhird occurrence 
rt A epsepi Galilean Jews, @e Heir journey to 
re. slain by Samaritans thranty whose country 
th Fiance, who had bie bribed by the 
B donbthing vo punish the theelefactors, an 
we, led’by two Zealots, Hleaear and Alex- 
into Samaria, slew old neem women, and 
. sada the villages. Cusiaitwe appeared 


veit ‘own hands. Both Samaritwear and Jews 
fats, the governor of Syria, who had a 


e and there answer tor them conduct. 
antion of young wif tish ‘oad haba 


Gah | ee righ he expats ‘Two years 
dius had bestowed upon bint the vacant 
: i Gipend i in Chalcis (in the Lebanon): but 
Rome, the small territory wagexchanged 
. ea aster districts, promrseranp yaamchendih 


nent te oni ‘Cloudius momen as 


ee Belix (52-00), san his brother a 


He was thrice matted. His second wife | 


ri ) Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa I. avd 
, She awas a very young git, married fo 
; but she left her busband aut beca re 


sand fell upon the Jewa why had taken 


ne af his fawex}iea; Felix, brother of © 


Day aa oe 


‘dea ee he xd en fen overt 


y a ee, the peor ie to rebellion, The ; 


i 
Pet (t 


aes 


. if Gch pope ror Claudius ‘was 


endl years (4 ster | 
np Sant ee tl rein had no- unde 
best the worst, by their 


svcd for the custody of the ft : 
oo el Yaurdius gave gar to the 
Hesietion, thankay ta “he” int y 
ree. A com motion, “started 
A aa 3) WHS cruelly: sup re . 
sscaalh mp the Be rdan, Boba: 


a ae 
"A ee ES, 
; ORS 7 


a * ¥ Satur 
her) 


a ANCES increased 


oe age in » the « Temple ae 


52-60] THE PROCURATOR FELIX 191 


had several villages near the scene of the robbery looted. On 
this occasion, a Roman soldier tore a scroll of the Torah 
into shreds, at the same time indulging in scurrilous remarks. 
A mass deputation demanded satisfaction, and Cumanus 
yielded by putting the offender to death. A third occurrence 
cost Cumanus his office. Galilean Jews, on their journey to 
Jerusalem, were slain by Samaritans through whose country 
they passed. As the procurator, who had been bribed by the 
Samaritans, would do nothing to punish the malefactors, an 
armed body of Jews, led by two Zealots, Eleazar and Alex- 
ander, marched into Samaria, slew old men, women, and 
children, and devastated the villages. Cumanus appeared 
with several regiments and fell upon the Jews who had taken 
the law into their own hands. Both Samaritans and Jews 
complained to Quadratus, the governor of Syria, who had a 
number of Jews crucified or beheaded, at the same time 
ordering Jewish and Samaritan notables as well as Cumanus 
to proceed to Rome and there answer for their conduct. 
Thanks to the intervention of young Agrippa, the Jews were 
vindicated: the Samaritan representatives were executed 
and Cumanus was sent into banishment. 

Agrippa was in high favor with the emperor. Two years 
before (50) Ciaudius had bestowed upon him the vacant 
kingdom of his uncle Herod in Chalcis (in the Lebanon); but 
before he had left Rome, the small territory was exchanged 
for the larger northeastern districts, principally constituting 
the dominion once held by Philip (p. 177). At the same time 
Agrippa II., as we must now call him, was charged with the 
oversight of the Temple and with the appointment of the 


high priests. At the instance of the high priest Jonathan, who 


was among the notables sent to Rome, Claudius named as 
procurator of Palestine one of his favorites, Felix, brother of 
the all-powerful Pallas. Felix (52-060), like his brother a 
freedman, betrayed his slave origin by his cruelty and intem- 
perate wantonness. He was thrice married. His second wife 
was the Jewish princess Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa I. and 
sister of Agrippa II. She was a very young girl, married to 
Aziz king of Emesa; but she left her husband and became 


192 THE WAR WITH ROME 


the wife of the Roman, in violation of Jewish law. As brother 
of the rich Pallas, he considered himself free to perpetrate 
any crime with impunity. As a consequence the party of the 
Zealots won more and more adherents. They were animated 
by a deep hatred of Rome and of the wealthy Jews who were 
friendly to Roman rule, absentee landlords by whom the 
lowly Galilean peasant was exploited. Accordingly they 
would attack their political opponents and plunder their 
possessions. Felix had a great number of these ‘robbers’ 
seized and crucified; their chief, Eleazar, fell into his hands 
by treachery and was sent off to Rome. 

These harsh measures only served to aggravate the evil. 
Into the place of the ‘robbers’ stepped the patriotic faction 
of the assassins, who, armed with poniards, mixed among 
the crowds and stealthily struck down the sympathizers 
with Rome. Among their victims was the high priest 
Jonathan, who as a timid man of compromise was hated 
alike by the patriots and by Felix. The crime was indeed 
perpetrated with the connivance of the procurator, whom 
the priest often reprimanded for his misconduct, seeing that 
he was held to account by the people for having lent his 
influence to the procurator’s appointment. 

To the political fanatics were joined religious enthusiasts. 
Felix made short shrift of both groups, with the result that 
the small faction grew into a large party, traversing the 
country in small bands and instituting a reign of terror. 
They would loot the mansions of the rich, murder the occu- 
pants, and set whole villages on fire. As if to add to the 
demoralization, the high priests were unworthy men, who 
set members of their own family in lucrative positions at the 
Temple and whose servants clubbed the people. All the 
revenue went to the highly stationed priests, and those of the 
lower ranks were robbed of their share to the point of 
starvation. ; 

Felix was recalled by the emperor Nero (54-68), who also 
graciously added to the possessions of Agrippa II. important 
districts of Galilee and Perea, especially the cities Tiberias 
and Taricheae, both centers of industry and commerce. The 


eg a 4! * J oy “ ti ay ' ss 
TA en aie RCo Ce 
ek | . 
) PESTUS; ALEINUS, AND-FLORUS | 193 


fatos Festus (60-62), thowaga a just man, was 
; remedy the evils promoted ty bis predecessor. 
between the hcires and pages inhabitants of 


( “yor aoarstly two yeaa da dis affice. Befare 
: « this SUCCEMAK:y , Jertusa besa wie (eat state of com- 
ny » The nigh , Hanah deported the ee 


Mm stoned to “ th, He wae ee, oN 
isiopa: 7 fe iw DOC tee Agacsus (§2- ~64}" 
of wicked: oie Aire all he was 
ndering pubii axi oriyete beesere, taking 
tever source fron: the & Yeap Rome and 
s sas well, ings went inant bent ty worse. In 
Bp the war vo! a ageing A, Myer yssausins’ 
Rand if one <f their meg Sut scien, they 
ise by dawing theis ham’ fai eue of their 
arranging fer ai oxchaee Fw Magh priest 
annai LeLsgoes i ico Sans weber’ 4 ‘Ge Lae 2 to his 
sree Loh Gaviahel, amt thes seaied actual 


tor Pion ys he are ex fn is tes ee Com- 


ast ‘open s of fbi iz apse ie ead 
§ many Cerra rearvitheeg scart seni? sp 


asury. ake: call 7 Wathiooh § Wee ih an send, 
ond baskets were: pacneaet aries, that the. 
ht drow te come for partee Weed whe ‘wees, 
ded “sei In revenge for this insult, Cie 
‘i Sapo tevelty. a dewichment af s.i- 
te the pic: hitides af che high priest and worabier, 
i “ y em aves over to looting, A puma: of 
e@ & eho of che rank of Rasicas Wuights, 
ser patted tp ‘the cron Even Bercnice, 
: ‘ty be te: gus cussdeel, 


LTD Nap eA oka Ney 
ae ae me bee 


: tee ; aSete 
J 
) 
ei i note 


60-66] FESTUS, ALBINUS, AND FLORUS 193 


new procurator Festus (60-62), though a just man, was 
powerless to remedy the evils promoted by his predecessor. 
A brawl between the Syrian and Jewish inhabitants of 
Caesarea, which had begun before the recall of Felix, led to 
a decision by the emperor denying to the Jews the rights of 
citizenship in the city founded by Herod. 

Festus died when scarcely two years in his office. Before 
the arrival of his successor, Jerusalem was in a state of com- 
plete anarchy. The high priest Hanan improved the oppor- 
tunity by instituting judicial procedure against his enemies 
and having them stoned to death. He was speedily removed 
from office by Agrippa. The new procurator Albinus (62-64) 
left no manner of wickedness untried. Above all he was 
rapacious, plundering public and private treasure, taking 
money from whatever source, from the friends of Rome and 
from the patriots as well. Things went from bad to worse. In 
Jerusalem it was the war of all against all. The ‘assassins’ 
plied their trade, and if one of their men was seized, they 
secured his release by laying their hands on one of their 
opponents and arranging for an exchange. The high priest 
Jeshua son of Dannai refused to surrender the office to his 
successor Jeshua son of Gamaliel, and there ensued actual 
fighting in the streets. 

The last procurator Florus (64-66) was the worst. Com- 
pared with him, Albinus was looked upon as just and bene- 
ficent. Florus boasted openly of his misdeeds. He plundered 
whole cities, and many communities were totally ruined. 
When Florus dared to appropriate seventeen talents from 
the Temple treasury, the people’s patience was at an end. 
_A riot broke out, and baskets were passed around, that the 
charitable might drop in coins for poor Florus who was 
so much in need of funds. In revenge for this insult, the 
procurator turned loose upon the city a detachment of sol- 
diers. Despite the pleadings of the high priest and notables, 
a part of the city was given over to looting. A number of 
citizens, some among them of the rank of Roman knights, 
were scourged and then nailed to the cross. Even Berenice, 
the sister of Agrippa, who happened to be in Jerusalem, 


194 | THE WAR WITH ROME [66 


was powerless to check the fury of the procurator and his 
soldiers. Florus demanded that the people should show their 
penitence by according a solemn reception to two cohorts 
due from Caesarea. After much persuasion by the high 
priest, the citizens agreed to this humiliating proposal. But 
when the soldiers forbore to return the friendly greetings of 
the Jews, the people gave vent to their hatred of Florus. The 
soldiers set upon them and drove them into the city. Here a 
battle was fought in the streets, and the Jews succeeded in 
obtaining possession of the Temple hill and cutting the con- 
nection with the citadel Antonia (66). 

Agrippa was then in Alexandria. He set out in all haste for 
Jerusalem and from his palace addressed an assembly of the 
people, bidding them earnestly to abandon their futile and 
unwise opposition. The people declared themselves ready 
to resume their obedience to the emperor, but refused to 
have anything to do with Florus. In the meantime the in- 
surgents took over the fortress of Masada. It was now 
decreed to suspend the customary sacrifices for the emperor. 
That was tantamount to a declaration of war. The party of 
peace, consisting of all those who had not lost their heads, 
the high priestly families, the representative Pharisees, and 
members of the Herodian house, invited Agrippa to come to 
their rescue. With the aid of three thousand cavalry sent by 
Agrippa, they took possession of the upper city, while the 
insurgents occupied the Temple mount and the lower city. 
The two sides fought bitterly, but the war element forced 
the troops of Agrippa to vacate the upper city, whereupon 
the insurgents set fire to the palaces of the high priest, of 
Agrippa, and of Berenice. 

A few days later (in the month of Ab) the citadel Antonia 
fell likewise into their hands. The troops of Agrippa were 
permitted to leave the city, while the Roman cohort sought 
refuge in the strong towers of the Herodian palace. The 
remainder of this structure was burned down. The former 
high priest Hananiah was taken out of his hiding-place and 
murdered. The Roman cohort, unable to hold out any 
longer, agreed to lay down their arms; but no sooner had 


JOSuPaUS IN GALILEE 195 


sd ‘Outithan they were set upon by shat instrgents 
| 9 the last ivan (in the month of Elul). Thus Jeru- 
<a 8 Lae 

3 completely in the hands of the war party. 

: Gallus, the gevernor of Syria, moved into Judea 
Bowelfth legion, two thousand picked men from other 
okorts, tour wiegs of cavalry, and numerous 

mong them the uno of Agtippa), The Roman 
Vat’‘Gibeoi, sed then after repelling a sortie 
| 8 pitched tii ‘Hove to Jertatem on Mount 
sie i suburl Bezetha was occupied without 
@ turned dowe (month of Tiskri), However, 
2 that with the forces at hia diepoeal he could 
to, reduce the strongly fortifes! and bravely 
Ac ingly he gave ordera*te setreat. In a 
-horon the Roman army waa surrounded by 
be was the attack chat the enemy's retreat 
a wild flight. The best part of the Roman- 
atin only after leaving behind a good por- 

ig es ‘steal weaved ‘the fin in ay stead. 


Bescery wae that the peace party: ceased 
gible frienia of Rome left the city. Every 
n Over by forse or bry suasion. lt is significant 
lage of the war the men in power were of the 
poseph son of Gorion and the former high 
ok over hie defense w{ the capital; Jeshua 
@and Eleazar con of Mananiah were sent to- 
y, the command of Galitee sas bonferred upon 
tah (the historian Jonephvus), : 
3a Srivety family. Hereveived a cated : 
t the age ot ninetecs allied himself to the 
Ae bhad been ix Rome and there had con- 
the power of the empire. He was twenty- 
| aos he accepted the important post of 
of Galilee, whert it was expected: that the 
strike ‘first. He forthwith organized a pre- 
nent, ; collected. an fra which he capeninas 


v4 


el a 


4 


wast wctifiows for. 


JOSEPHUS IN GALILEE 195 


they walked out than they were set upon by the insurgents 
and killed to the last man (in the month of Elul). Thus Jeru- 
salem was completely in the hands of the war party. 

At last Gallus, the governor of Syria, moved into Judea 
with the twelfth legion, two thousand picked men from other 
legions, six cohorts, four wings of cavalry, and numerous 
auxiliaries (among them the troops of Agrippa). The Roman 
army encamped at Gibeon, and then after repelling a sortie 
of the insurgents pitched still closer to Jerusalem on Mount 
Scopus. The northern suburb Bezetha was occupied without 
resistance and burned down (month of Tishri). However, 
Gallus realized that with the forces at his disposal he could 
not possibly hope to reduce the strongly fortified and bravely 
defended city. Accordingly he gave orders to retreat. In a 
gorge near Beth-horon the Roman army was surrounded by 
the Jews; so fierce was the attack that the enemy’s retreat 
was turned into a wild flight. The best part of the Roman 
force extricated itself only after leaving behind a good por- 
tion of the baggage, which served the Jews in good stead. 
With great jubilation the victors entered Jerusalem (month 
of Marheshvan). 

The effect of the victory was that the peace party ceased 
to exist. The incorrigible friends of Rome left the city. Every 
one else was won over by force or by suasion. It is significant 
that in the first stage of the war the men in power were of the 
higher classes. Joseph son of Gorion and the former high 
priest Hanan took over the defense of the capital; Jeshua 
son of Sappha and Eleazar son of Hananiah were sent to 
Idumea; lastly, the command of Galilee was conferred upon 
Joseph son of Mattathiah (the historian Josephus). 

Josephus came of a priestly family. He received a thorough 
education and at the age of nineteen allied himself to the 
Pharisaic party. He had been in Rome and there had con- 
vinced himself of the power of the empire. He was twenty- 
seven years old when he accepted the important post of 
commander of Galilee, where it was expected that the 
Romans would strike first. He forthwith organized a pro- 
vincial government, collected an army which he proceeded 


196 | THE WAR WITH ROME 


to train, and took measures to put into a more or less satis- 
factory state of defense the most important cities of his 
district. The extreme patriots, however, were not satisfied 
with the tame manner in which Josephus conducted his 
preparations; they had grounds to suspect that the aristo- 
crat, who had formerly belonged to the peace party, had not 
his heart in the undertaking. The soul of the opposition was 
Johanan of Gish-halab, a resolute character, committed to 
the war cost what it might. It happened that a number of 
youths fell upon a steward of king Agrippa’s and robbed 
him of all he carried, gold, silver, and costly garments. 
Josephus took charge of the spoil and was preparing to send 
it back to the king. At Taricheae, where Josephus was at the 
moment, the angered people behaved menacingly, and he 
escaped their fury only by resorting to a stratagem. Some 
time later he saved himself from death, at the hands of 
assassins sent by Johanan, by flight to Tiberias. At length 
Johanan preferred charges against Josephus at Jerusalem. It 
was decided to recall the untrustworthy Galilean com- 
mander, and four men with twenty-five hundred soldiers 
were dispatched to carry out his deposition. But Josephus 
manoeuvered to have the decree revoked and when the 
ambassadors refused to return he seized their persons and 
sent them home by force. 

The emperor Nero was determined to quell the Palestinian 
rebellion at all hazards, and he gave the chief command to 
Vespasian, who had served with distinction in Germany and 
Britain. In the winter of 67 Vespasian tarried in Antioch 
and made steady preparations for the campaign, while his 
son Titus was dispatched to Alexandria to bring up a legion. 
In the spring of the year, Vespasian advanced to Ptolemais. 
There he received the submission of Sepphoris, the strongest 
point in the heart of Galilee, where the peace party out- 
numbered the patriots. Soon Titus arrived, and Vespasian 
had at his disposal three complete legions, twenty-three 
cohorts, six wings of cavalry, beside the auxiliary troops of 
king Agrippa and other friendly monarchs, all told some 
sixty thousand men. 


THE PALI, OF JODKPHATR 197 


Rivets h troops titer Jose palawae reas heart. The gr greater 
ibe an panic’ joe ephus,. we eh} Oke remnant “of his 
hin mee 1o T theriag. Yh teens cat the -_ aes 


thei insusge iis. <3 see i tai over in person 
ime OF the strongly fortified [asierherh, situated on a 
s hill hidden from view by bl apne «rounding moun- 


Dauiiaton, set at Papi '%e superior skill 


e of the besieners. Ones, Mite & sortie, Ves- 
ounded. At jength a Givers brought the 


fine S, and carl ite preg Gay 4 he legions 
‘when the garrison became gthaee <4 ‘their pres- 


ithlessly killed or carried aetey “coln ulavery; 
the: fortifications were tare® #4 “he ground 
nmuz), ‘ 
forty companions, hat aks meee i imell | im a 
LO a cave. His associkiee y aernred their 
M surrendering; they meer o¥ Ale wmeether, 
of his fellow, and the last by te now frands. 
Mt Josephus was the last eevives: uit in- 


* 


"Ye 


led before Vespasian, he predicted the gen- 
DH 40 the waperial dignity. Nevertheless, 
in Chaise; but he was creattd with con- 
an ¢cletrated the capture of the impor- 
Ler ‘ip pa’s capital for wwenty days, curing 
7 rarniy wae sent back, © ong coast for a 


1 “ite yates. By a bold jake, Thrichine: 
e bands of the Romana fgionth of Elul), 
Gish-fxiab und Mount Tabor were held by 


sit Hiasly, the strongly fortified Gemela in- id ohs 
. ated } ecaslte and heavy. eciaad due ta... 


t the a ghardy eu? et able to keep . 
ui it ‘4 Beene one we er Tithaw eee small 


longer. possibile to push: thanee tee. Men and ~ 


hands on bimeel!, he gave ese sit ta the 


‘ean pyete al ad ag 


196 igs tM i WAR wit ROME 


ter tra i 9 pte: ae fieaaures tO put into 
ny ey ae giefense the most im 
distr: Ne Re omereme patriots, béweeles 
itl | A Seen manner i), awhich | a 
prone wae ae they bed grounds to § 
ap former ly fbavease ce tere 


eis 1 


Hated lg? a obese ji the pare: | By ‘ 
ow tthe king. At'Ta richcas, W 


ee. the an geM esos 


pe 


dhiehled to recall. the: wn 
im and to ue men ae 


oh 4 


ey hen Sasa’ by bite pe 
The aaperor New was determin 
cat eine at all hazards, and he ¢ : 
agi GR eet Phy who had served witha ¢ & 
Pie ee, dn the winter of 67 We 
wah evel ‘apa laronriic™ | 


Tien 


a 


67] THE FALL OF JODEPHATH 197 


The Jewish troops under Josephus lost heart. The greater 
number fled in panic; Josephus, with the remnant of his 
army, retreated in haste to Tiberias. Thus all the flat regions 
of Galilee lay open to the Romans; only the fortresses were 
in the hands of the insurgents. Josephus took over in person 
the defense of the strongly fortified Jodephath, situated on a 
precipitous hill hidden from view by the surrounding moun- 
tains. For over two months the small Jewish garrison, with 
courage born of desperation, set at naught the superior skill 
and experience of the besiegers. Once, during a sortie, Ves- 
pasian was wounded. At length a deserter brought the 
knowledge that the exhausted guards were not able to keep 
awake of a morning. So early one morning Titus with a small 
body of soldiers stealthily scaled the wall, struck down the 
sleeping sentinels, and penetrated into the city. The legions 
followed, and when the garrison became aware of their pres- 
ence it was no longer possible to push them back. Men and 
women were ruthlessly killed or carried away into slavery; 
the city and the fortifications were razed to the ground 
(month of Tammuz). 

Josephus, with forty companions, had hidden himself in a 
cistern which led to a cave. His associates prevented their 
commander from surrendering; they must all die together, 
each by the hand of his fellow, and the last by his own hands. 
By some deception Josephus was the last survivor; but in- 
stead of laying hands on himself, he gave himself up to the 
Romans. When led before Vespasian, he predicted the gen- 
eral’s future elevation to the imperial dignity. Nevertheless, 
Josephus was put in chains; but he was treated with con- 
sideration. Vespasian celebrated the capture of the impor- 
tant fortress at Agrippa’s capital for twenty days, during 
which time the weary army was sent back to the coast for a 
rest. Titus led the legions from the coast to Tiberias, which 
voluntarily opened its gates. By a bold stroke, Taricheae 
likewise fell into the hands of the Romans (month of Elul). 

In Galilee only Gish-halab and Mount Tabor were held by 
the insurgents; similarly, the strongly fortified Gamala in 
Golan. After repeated assaults and heavy reverses due to 


198 THE WAR WITH ROME [67 


the stubborn resistance of the Jews, the city was taken in 
the month of Tishri; at the same time Tabor was captured. 
Gish-halab opened its gates to Titus, after Johanan and his 
zealot body had escaped in the dead of night towards Jeru- 
salem. Thus, by the end of the year 67, the whole of the 
north of Palestine had been brought under subjection by the 
Romans. 


5, quite ry sadtstiia the ifl-success in 
alilee itTteieias and thy of the com- 
vali lee tothe Stat apathy 

rhalab, en (aimed the upper hand in 
hose suspect leanings towards peace 
re Mnprisone? Avsistain. As the high. priests 
ge been memivws of the aristocracy, it was 
efor that persion, by the casting of lots, 


ng the lower vanks, who were to serve each” 


y. The first porn (sas elevated was astone- 
e of Phinghee, << brother priests supplied 
aot mMabtse: Gy his station, The men i) 


ss P terrafise. “wich were joseph son of 


“talh Stray son of (sarnaliel, adescendant 
ast leades if eve Pharisees, The braw!s of 
ed inte: the peaceful halls of rhe school; 
i argumin: we: replaned by the clang of 
S measirs were passed acreninating: the 
f Jews asl non-jews, - 
ere stilt ta che minority and rétreated to the 
rt. So they summoned the martial Tdu- 
fed Im entering the city ar mght during a 
0 pain. They fordowith. ‘began murdering 
twee former high joie were aniong the 
te Rewhed what dw fdumeans had begun. 


) ye who accepted Jesus of Nazareth 
th, faditievent to the mamensh cause, OR 


199 


ne party o! tigetawiors, under the leadership | 


be of the Antes by exhorting the people . 


lab was at last pateter in the city. The — 


a 


WE eee WAR WITH ROME 
eae atabbarn resistanc e of the Jews, 
tie: gacmbhoot Tishri; at. the: same time | 
teas pila opened. its gates to Titus, 
a smears tenly had escaped in the deat 
gem. Thus, by theead of the year 


ers iff Palestine had been-br aghe 


e | 
* 
5 
dae 
; P 
i 
- i 
% 
i 
- 
‘ 
t 
’ 
hide 4 


CHAPTER XXXII 
THE NATIONAL DISASTER 
(68-73) 


HE patriots, quite rightly, ascribed the ill-success in 
Galilee to the irresolution and apathy of the com- 
mand. Theparty of the Zealots, under the leadership 
of Johanan of Gish-halab, soon obtained the upper hand in 
Jerusalem. All those suspected of leanings towards peace 
with Rome were imprisoned and slain. As the high priests 
had up to that time been members of the aristocracy, it was 
decided to choose for that position, by the casting of lots, 
priests from among the lower ranks, who were to serve each 
for one year only. The first priest thus elevated was astone- 
cutter by the name of Phinehas; his brother priests supplied 
him with the means of maintaining his station. The men of 
order met the violence of the Zealots by exhorting the people 
to curb the rampant terrorism. Such were Joseph son of 
Gorion, the former high priests Hanan and Jeshua son of 
Gamaliel, and especially Simon son of Gamaliel, a descendant 
of Hillel, the foremost leader of the Pharisees. The brawls of 
the street penetrated into the peaceful halls of the school; 
the force of calm argument was replaced by the clang of 
arms, and strict measures were passed accentuating the 
separation between Jews and non-Jews. ‘ 
The Zealots were still in the minority and retreated to the 
inner Temple court. So they summoned the martial Idu- 
means, who succeeded in entering the city at night during a 
heavy downpour of rain. They forthwith began murdering 
and looting. The two former high priests were among the 
victims. The Zealots finished what the Idumeans had begun. 
Johanan of Gish-halab was at last master in the city. The 
Nazarenes, that is, those who accepted Jesus of Nazareth 
as the Messiah, indifferent to the national cause, sought 


199 


200 THE NATIONAL DISASTER [69 


safety in flight from Jerusalem; the small community settled 
in Pella beyond the Jordan. 

Vespasian decided to let the Jews in the capital wear them- 
selves out by internecine conflicts. Meanwhile he subdued 
towards the end of the winter of 68 practically the whole of 
Transjordania; in the spring he captured the Judean Low- 
lands and Idumea; by the beginning of the summer he was 
able to occupy Jericho. While preparing plans for the siege 
of the capital, he received in Caesarea the news of the death 
of Nero (June 9, 68). It was advisable to await developments 
at home. The murder of the emperor Galba (January 15, 
69) acted as a further cause of delay in warlike activity 
against the Jews. 

Johanan, the dictator in Jerusalem, was not idle. He 
pushed forward the strengthening of the city’s fortifications 
and assembled provisions of food and water. He also entered 
into correspondence with the Jews of Babylonia, hoping that 
they would use their influence to set the Parthian rulers 
against Rome. The methods of Johanan were still con- 
sidered too moderate by the group of superpatriots who 
rallied around Simon Bar Giora (son of a proselyte). This 
Simon took Hebron by surprise and carried away rich spoil. 

Vespasian cut short his inactivity (June, 69) in order to 
reduce Judea still more completely. Hebron, which resisted, 
was stormed and sacked. With the exception of Jerusalem 
and the fortresses of Herodium, Machaerus, and Masada, all 
Palestine was in the hands of the Romans. Simon, prevented 
from pursuing his raids into Idumea, had meanwhile been 
admitted into Jerusalem through the treachery of the 
aristocrats, who hoped thus to rid themselves of Johanan. 
The result was that instead of one dictator there were two, 
who fought against each other but were at one in terrorizing 
the propertied classes. It was an upheaval from below, a 
reign of the commune, inaugurated by liberating all slaves. 

Before the end of July, 69, Vespasian had been proclaimed 
emperor by the legions stationed in the Orient. He hastened 


to Rome by way of Alexandria, where the news reached him — 


that Vitellius, elevated to the imperial station by the army 


ir SMBGE OF jCRUSALEM 3 201 


4 been murdered (December 20, 69), Ves- 
pesmendsis until the beginning of next 
paduct of the war against the)Jews was 


rd Etloaatex, E Sisazer son of Simon, was 
er. He was in posgtesen of the inner 
Johanan, held tite xemainder of’ the 
d Si mon the upper city as well asa large 
They fough: with each other incessantly, 
a ned of provanent: meeinten by 


a . af as year 7G, Titus with the 
, reached the immediate vicinity of 
1, elit six hundred cavaley, had gone 
aa when he advanced ta close to the 


8 ppmect kid pies sae vai bravery. 


we eo, comp sie y aaa Within the 
is weit om unabated, and Eleazar was 


Weemy's battering rams began to operate 
Minished Third Wall (p. 129}, did Johanan 
the hatche+. ‘ On one of their sorties they 
ly that the battering machines came near 
After paseetent labor fox fifteen ses $3; a 


the - enemy's ty Gates’ tis, on da teingt 
es was 4 at ares  repued by dongs scat but 


3 a raichd. the uippes iy aod Antonis, All 
istroyed by the Jews. persicae against 
lermining. in thtee days the Romans. had 
rrounded with a stune wall so as to shut it 


sortie, and Titus was in extreme peril © 


bite 2: VOR me 
let the Jews] in ‘thee 
geht aes <ae  Biternecine comficts, | Mes 


| teeewith! ait of the winter of 68 pe 
Ste ; Lei: in the spring he capag 
bau r eee re the beginning € 
ot cho. While pe apa 
| aceived in Cagsarea! 
: 9. 6%), lt-was ady isable | 


murder of the emperor’ 
» 1G rther cause of del y 


Sot, the dnitator. fy tina 
ie eward the stren gthening 
see herd ve FOVISIONS of fowl @ 
6 eeoncdence with the fem 
. pot: aaa Loe hein infuers ence ot 
| he The m nie 


70] THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM 201 


of the Rhine, had been murdered (December 20, 69). Ves- 
pasian tarried in Alexandria until the beginning of next 
year’s summer. The conduct of the war against theJews was 
left to his son Titus. 

In Jerusalem a third dictator, Eleazar son of Simon, was 
contending for power. He was in possession of the inner 
Temple court, while Johanan held the remainder of the 
Temple mount and Simon the upper city as well as a large 
part of the lower. They fought with each other incessantly, 
each burning up the supply of provisions accumulated by 
the other. Thus they robbed the city of the very power of 
resistance and cut into their own flesh. 

A few days before Passover of the year 70, Titus with the 
main part of his army reached the immediate vicinity of 
Jerusalem. The general, with six hundred cavalry, had gone 
on ahead to reconnoiter; when he advanced too close to the 
city, the Jews made a sortie, and Titus was in extreme peril 
from which he extricated himself by sheer personal bravery. 
While the Romans were busy fortifying their camp on the 
Mount of Olives, the Jews threw themselves upon them with 
such vehemence that, had it not been for the interposition of 
Titus, they would have been completely routed. Within the 
city the bloody feuds went on unabated, and Eleazar was 
practically eliminated. 

Only when the enemy’s battering rams began to operate 
against Agrippa’s unfinished Third Wall (p. 189), did Johanan 
and Simon bury the hatchet. On one of their sorties they 
fought so desperately that the battering machines came near 
being destroyed. After persistent labor for fifteen days, a 
breach was made in the wall. Five days later, the Second 
Wall yielded to the enemy’s battering. Titus, on entering 
with a picked force, was at first repulsed by the Jews, but 
soon regained his position, which he now held definitively. 

A fortnight or so later, four great embankments, labori- 
ously constructed, menaced the upper city and Antonia. All 
of these were destroyed by the Jews, those directed against 
Antonia by undermining. In three days the Romans had 
the whole city surrounded with a stone wall so as to shut it 


202 THE NATIONAL DISASTER 


in from all sides. Provisions had begun to be scarce, and now 
famine was killing off the people. Johanan turned over for 
common use the stores of consecrated oil and wine. His 
soldiers fought now with lessened energy, and when they 
sallied forth in July they were powerless to destroy the new 
embankments threatening Antonia. When the wall, weak- 
ened by the constant battering, collapsed in one spot, the 
Romans found an inner wall which had been hastily erected 
by Johanan. A Syrian soldier and several of his companions 
who tried to scale the walls were killed by the defenders. 
But soon the attempt was renewed at night; the outposts 
were slain, and Titus followed quickly and drove the Jews 
to the Temple square. The Romanswere repulsed, but they 
held Antonia, and soon the citadel was razed to the ground. 

Despite war and famine, the daily morning and evening 


sacrifice had up to this moment been regularly offered. On — 


the seventeenth of Tammuz, it had to be discontinued, not 
so much on account of the famine as for want of men to per- 
form the sacred office. Titus proceeeded to a regular assault 
upon the strongly fortified Temple area. While the erection 
of embankments was in progress, a number of Roman 
soldiers essayed to scale the outer wall; they had been mis- 
led by a feint on the part of the Jews stationed above the 
western colonnade. As soon as the Romans had risen to the 
top, the Jews set fire to the inflammable material below and 
the Romans perished in the flames. 

In Ab (August) the embankments were completed, and 
the battering began. But the stout walls proved too strong. 
Titus ordered the gates to be set on fire so as to effect an 
entrance to the outer Temple area. On the ninth of Ab the 
gates were consumed by fire. The conflagration spread with- 
in. Titus hastened to inspect the Temple. But soon the 
sacred edifice was the prey of the flames which the Romans 
kept alive. Furiously, ruthlessly, they killed old men and 
children, priests and laymen, until the place resembled a 
shambles. ) 

Johanan and his intrepid patriots had escaped to the upper 
city. Neither he nor Simon would surrender. So Titus had 


> ty “ ‘ 
WME DESTRUCTION Gt Tae At Ciay My 


9 Hed by his serbchgent tacmed do ani the 
e, the hall of archiven) tte Wooie of the lower 
the Pool pf Sikosrmy tas ae aherh of Elul the 
Pstormed. The Kaniss ith again applic) 
ig and knfling as ibure argue Ae Such as 
chy Yatuine or by the wees “ewe executed o: 
er others were deatppt a: oye creir death 
ial most Pete Morte: Sed vigotous 
t triterpene’ ree om WY Among 
Beuos escape we itt he aig’ ey Liseare ways 
enended was |ohanse:  w: May sexcowe into 
Hino; Who was likewign Welw. send reserved 
L i ph. The c uty war sais. af : grownd ; 
towers of the Herodiag sates » iN ‘ gart-of 
left Standing, as a monies se: pac: eeccwhile 
C eeity €nd-to afford pratense her oh Shxcnan 
stalled arid the ruins : 
st of gay festivities, Tite deal Ae Cee Ahex- 
2 Cs With seven hundred ex ie Seeors of 
beauty. There, oe eb Ade jader and 
a n), he led the tritium pars hiiewann ,. i:31- 
| Mawahed Jewish leader Slusay WH4 sen was 
| ‘the prison ext ed the Forum, Ampieiy the spoil 
nph were the two preciavs goview Dieres af the 
«I ae the table of showhreak x a the seven. 
sti¢ ek. The arch of trim. « nos which these 
iC symbols were represedted, was erected 
t of Titus and stands to thy day. 
s were B still in possession of thie fevtresses Pate 
haérus, and Masada. The fitet wit rectum by 
ermor of dicen Wi LENT ret, Maas yy, ON 
: duration wax tive winged Mawh: 22 Ue, 
d by the uitea-patreie ner Eleazas, a 


‘on ald fell to ciree allied ears of Syria. 
th a breach was ¢ Necteerd i the veal, there was 
bulwark ‘of tiater wel eneth orected by-the 


: Romans set. fire Ge thie Basins ie. When. they | 


leds 
Off wap pe nee ee 
atores: of co nsecrated 
ow With lessened enn 
by hey we} 
aatening Aneoadis 
dant battering, & 


2 taner wall which ha 


_ + stpuare, The ies 5) 
“,. aie soon: the citadel 
as ty ond famine, ruil 


reen fi of 4 Tanja tt HK 
atOAnt oO f the farmin 
od office: Tita 


vely fortified Te 


of OT: 


ba ara 


aia os : sid pal 
iy wh ioe y Simon we 


70] THE DESTRUCTION OF THE HOLY CITY 203 


the quarter occupied by his soldiers burned down: the 
council house, the hall of archives, the whole of the lower 
city down to the Pool of Siloam. In the month of Elul the 
upper city was stormed. The Roman soldiers again applied 
the torch, looting and killing as they went along. Such as 
had not died by famine or by the sword were executed or 
sent into the mines; others were destined to meet their death 
in gladiatorial combats. The most handsome and vigorous 
men were picked out for the triumphal procession. Among 
those who had sought escape in subterranean passage-ways 
and were apprehended was Johanan; he was thrown into 
prison for life. Simon, who was likewise seized, was reserved 
to die at the triumph. The city was razed to the ground; 
only the three towers of the Herodian palace and a part of 
the wall were left standing, as a monument of the erstwhile 
strength of the city and to afford protection for the Roman 
garrison now installed amid the ruins. 

After a turn of gay festivities, Titus embarked from Alex- 
andria for Rome with seven hundred Jewish captives of 
extraordinary beauty. There, together with his father and 
brother (Domitian), he led the triumphal procession, fol- 
lowed by the vanquished Jewish leader Simon, who then was 
executed in the prison next to the Forum. Among the spoil 
carried in triumph were the two precious golden pieces of the 
Temple furniture: the table of showbread and the seven- 
armed candlestick. The arch of triumph, upon which these 
and other sacred symbols were represented, was erected 
after the death of Titus and stands to this day. 

The Jews were still in possession of the fortresses Hero- 
dium, Machaerus, and Masada. The first was reduced by 
Bassus, the governor of Syria, without much difficulty. Of 
somewhat longer duration was the siege of Machaerus. 
Masada was held by the ultra-patriots under Eleazar, a 
descendant of Judah the Galilean. The task of reducing this 
formidable stronghold fell to Silva, the new governor of Syria. 
When at length a breach was effected in the wall, there was 
found within a bulwark of timber and earth erected by the 
besieged. The Romans set fire to this obstacle. When they 


204 - THE NATIONAL DISASTER [73 


entered, they were confronted by the stillness of death: 
Eleazar and his noble band had killed off their dear ones and 
then laid hands on each other (April, 73). There was a sequel 
of Jewish uprisings in Alexandria and the northern coast of 
Africa; as a consequence the Temple of Onias in Leontopolis 
was closed. 

Thus was ended the seven years’ war against the power 
and brutality of Rome. Once more the daughter of Zion sat 
and wept for the sanctuary that lay in ashes, for her sons 
that had fallen by the sword, and for her daughters carried 
away into slavery and given over to dishonor. The nation 
had been vanquished, the Land of Israel was a province of 
the mighty empire; yet there remained one thing that the 
fury of legions was powerless to destroy, the invincible 
Torah of the Jew. 


Pie vo rhe Me tt weed Lees 
: ne Se A ip heey ene Ms paid | ek t 
4 hia i cp ais Sa 
om; rs ¥, é ; ; 


(70: 38) 


a ny were Carried away tele Misia. there 
B thought on the part of the conqueror, had it 
béen possible, io uproot the Jewish people 
soil. The band, 5 sa beasts in part WAS reserv- 


E forced ve take it on hese The fitful 
ence under Pierod lt. and Agrippa !. had 
a, bestowed upon persons rather than 
iii more the comnrtry was administered. 

samt gevornots, this time divectly 


formerly fwd to ‘a Pejapiaee wae now col- 
it Of the C apitoline Jupiter. The destruc- 
band the abrupt ending of ihe Sanhedrin 
eel felt moet pss yer aN ae on Seat 


eas: On ‘ee war asia that cettenie 
Ves up to excessive mourniag. All 


of spirit tual enceiipeitiattits, and tm hae 
Fapplied themavivey,.. 

| Johanan son of Zaceai, a sel at Hillel, 
“a the inal Gataatropiie. The story 
. death and had himself carried cu 
aid to lta asked of the Roman genera! oa 
here be vyight assemble the achoiars of the 
at | Power was at one with Herod. in the idex 
in the people's mental concentration upor 


205 


oat ae we ronacqcne the 


“at wage i ch yanctwary that 


it 


ail. 
ees: wey wonhed the seven year 
wud ee v of Reine: Once more, 


shat hast fh parte sword, jum 
od ky joie slaw oy 
adh: ote ver ata 
“eapiney yet there 7 


A 
Loren sae at z 


CHAPTER XXXIII 


SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION. 
SPASMS UNDER TRAJAN AND HADRIAN 


(70-135) 


HOUGH many were carried away into slavery, there 

was no thought on the part of the conqueror, had it 

at all been possible, to uproot the Jewish people 
from their ancient soil. The land, at least in part, was reserv- 
ed by the emperor as his personal domain; that meant that 
the occupants were forced to take it on lease. The fitful 
political independence under Herod I. and Agrippa I. had 
been a gift from Rome, bestowed upon persons rather than 
upon the people; once more the country was administered 
from Caesarea by Roman governors, this time directly 
answerable to the emperor. It was painful in the extreme 
that the poll-tax formerly paid to the Temple was now col- 
lected for the benefit of the Capitoline Jupiter. The destruc- 
tion of the Temple and the abrupt ending of the Sanhedrin 
left a void which was felt most bitterly; yet with them 
passed away also the aristocratic dominion of the priestly 
families and the preponderance of Sadduceeism in national 
affairs. The Zealots had brought on the war and the extreme 
Pietists gave themselves up to excessive mourning. All 
parties, save one, stood now discredited. The Pharisees, the 
men of the Center, alone had a programme ready-made for a 
constructive policy of spiritual recuperation, and to that 
task they resolutely applied themselves. 

Their leader was Johanan son of Zaccai, a pupil of Hillel. 
He had left Jerusalem before the final catastrophe. The story 
is told that he simulated death and had himself carried out 
in a coffin. He is said to have asked of the Roman general the 
gift of Jabneh, where he might assemble the scholars of the 
nation. The foreign power was at one with Herod in the idea 
that safety lay in the people’s mental concentration upon 


205 


206 SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION 


@ 

scholastic pursuits. At Jabneh the appalling news reached 
Johanan that the Sanctuary lay in ashes. The aged teacher 
rent his garments, but consoled the weeping disciples with 
the thought that the Jews possessed a substitute for the 
sacrificial cult in acts of benevolence, as it is written, “For I 
desire mercy and not sacrifice’ (Hosea 6, 6). Not that the 
memory of the past glory was allowed to fade away, or the 
hope of restoration to be dimmed. But the exigencies of the 
moment made imperative an interim adjustment. Jabneh 
was invested with the prerogatives formerly belonging to 
Jerusalem. A supreme court was organized for the whole 
range of religious law, which included the civil jurisprudence 
and, as far as could be managed without conflict with the 
Roman authorities, the criminal as well. To this court the 
old name of Sanhedrin was attached. Johanan, being him- 
self a duly ordained judge competent to impose fines, took 
pains to have the chain of succession continued without 
break by ordaining his disciples, so that they might exercise 
penal jurisdiction and transmit their authority, in turn, by 
the same process of ordination. 

Johanan retired as president of the Sanhedrin in favor of 
Gamaliel II., son of Simon and grandson of Gamaliel I. (p. 
199), of the family of Hillel. His father appears to have died 
during the war. At the time of the reorganization in Jabneh 
the son was too young to be elevated to so great a station. 
There were other scholars worthier of the dignity, but 
Gamaliel possessed the prestige of descent from Hillel. His 
accession does not seem to have met with obstacles on the 
part of Rome’s representative in Caesarea. Gamaliel recog- 
nized the importance of ending the strife of the schools (the 
followers of Shammai and those of Hillel) and thus estab- 
lishing an authority unquestioned, ‘not for his own honor, 
nor for the honor of his house, but solely for the honor of 
God, that divisions should not multiply in Israel.’ Thus a 
beginning was made toward presenting a unified version of 
the traditional law, but in such a manner that opinions on 
which the schools were divided were cited in the name of 
their proponents. 


aN hs Be lage) ae nee 
7 « 


Ww ac ‘alt ia Saisie in he} know viedo of 
Sonar te. ‘a plastered cistern, which 

iPS nevertheless Garnatiel eeerraled him: At 
a} liel. hed set the caleseise in accordance 
ive as heat of phe Sanhedrin: cecordingty, 
shua sor ot Hananiah (likewied a disciple of 
. ar before. lam, with staff and. wallet, on 
of Atosemen? according te that scholar’s 
Btubborsivy deiied che majority of the 


mds: to gies This submission pleased 
d the sthelsy as his head and addressed 
fin wisders ami his supil by virtue of 
’ _— the seneration in which the great 3 


nazar son 0 b Anaciake, Thie-se SESSION Saleoss 
: mesos one. OF the treasures. then 
dortant was the one delimiting and defin- nal 
in writings. ike the Wisdom of Ben Sira, 
eriptural, were pronounced as outside 
tion, which had ceamed in the Persian, 
eived as the wark of Be eaytare, Gamatliel 
By whose trade was thas 09-4. dundle-maker, 
his house blackened nh sume. Tore that 
’ @aid Gamaliel. “Woese tte: generation, 
Satine learier thou ere, Beetag shou know- 
ions of scholars, sex hee *hey maintain 
ation followed, ami (aamaliel was 
: headed adeiegationg@einperor Domitian 
trate against an edict furbidding Jewish 
i to be in preparation bellowing. the con- 
eror’s cousin, Flavius Clemens, ) 

ed divine worship and gave it a stated 


id 2 TO AL REC CN NSTRUCTH 


&; Sy 
gerry MLAS, ee er 5, At fabneb the ai 
sicitimat, Hhe Sanctuary lay in ashy 


i : a ig but Sones) ee we We 


* el fe 
Se a inat 
es 
< ~ . Nf 
i qt eran im: . ass 
‘ 


ahd imperath ve Gs iasietie 
inh Maewested ails the prerogatives for 
et supreme court was org 
wus law, which inet 
could be’ managed 
therities, the criminal as> 
of Sar bails in Wal: attae Oh 

v ordained judge competent: 
have che chain cof suc 
¥ oe nS diver 


Tenth cred as ese t 
aeealiel Hs cou of Simor and 
(ee aire af the f mily of Hillel Hi. 

stgrmig the war, At ae time et 


~ 

v 

% 

t- 
a 
~n 
2 

en 
~ 


. ie ae ik ‘ ‘ ni Br 
. ihe wete other schistal re 


Wot Rerne’s re presentative i 
sta! Limon riance of ending th 


ied an sham wnat. and those, of 


pee hawor of hig house 
aa afenisio 7s 8 non es 


a) 


90-95] GAMALIEL OF JABNEH 207 


Gamaliel’s insistence on authority led him into sharp en- 
counters with his colleagues. His brother-in-law, Eliezer son 
of Hyrcanus, was one who, in the opinion of his teacher 
Johanan, outweighed all his colleagues in the knowledge of 
tradition and was likened to ‘a plastered cistern, which 
loseth not a drop’; nevertheless Gamaliel overruled him. At 
another time Gamaliel had set the calendar in accordance 
with his prerogative as head of the Sanhedrin; accordingly, 
he compelled Joshua son of Hananiah (likewise a disciple of 
Johanan) to appear before him, with staff and wallet, on 
what was the Day of Atonement according to that scholar’s 
calculation. Eliezer stubbornly defied the majority of the 
scholars and was put under the ban; but Joshua was per- 
suaded by his friends to obey. This submission pleased 
Gamaliel. He kissed the scholar on his head and addressed 
him as his master in wisdom and his pupil by virtue of 
compliance, congratulating the generation in which the great 
defer to their inferiors. 

On two further occasions Gamaliel humiliated Joshua. 
Consequently the scholars met and deposed Gamaliel, who 
was replaced by Eleazar son of Azariah. This session (about 
the year 90) was a memorable one. Of the measures then 
passed the most important was the one delimiting and defin- 
ing Scripture. Certain writings, like the Wisdom of Ben Sira, 
which were near-Scriptural, were pronounced as outside 
Holy Writ, inspiration, which had ceased in the Persian 
period, being conceived as the mark of Scripture. Gamaliel 
sought out Joshua, whose trade was that of a needle-maker, 
and found him in his house blackened with soot. ‘I see that 
thou usest charcoal,’ said Gamaliel. “Woe to the generation,’ 
answered Joshua, ‘whose leader thou art, seeing thou know- 
est not the privations of scholars, nor how they maintain 
themselves.’ A reconciliation followed, and Gamaliel was 
reinstated. In 95 he headed a delegation to emperor Domitian 
(81-96) to remonstrate against an edict forbidding Jewish 
proselytizing, said to be in preparation following the con- 
version of the emperor’s cousin, Flavius Clemens, 

Gamaliel organized divine worship and gave it a stated 


208 - SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION 


form. The principal daily prayer, consisting of seventeen 
benedictions, was recast, and an additional section, directed 
against apostates and heretics of the type of the Nazarenes, 
was inserted. The groundwork of this prayer antedated the 
destruction of the Temple and was modeled in part after the 
liturgy in the sacred edifice. It began with an invocation of 
the God of the Fathers, the Mighty (whose power is revealed 
in the giving of rain and dew and in the quickening of the 
dead) and Holy, and concluded with petitions for the accep- 
tance of the Temple worship and of the nation’s thanks- 
giving and for the blessing of peace. The introduction and 
conclusion are still recited, in the ritual of the synagogue, 
every day in the year, including the sabbath and festivals. 
They constitute the oldest framework. The prayer for peace 
coincided with the priestly blessing in the Temple (‘The 
Lord bless thee, and keep thee; the Lord make His face to 
shine upon thee, and-be gracious unto thee; the Lord lift up 
His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace,’ Numbers 
6, 24-26). Between the first and last invocations, it was the 
wont in the Temple liturgy to insert prayers for the for- 
giveness of sins through understanding and repentance, for 
the healing of the sick, for the blessing of the year, for na- 
tional redemption and the gathering of the dispersed, for the 
constituted authorities (judges, elders, teachers), for the 
Holy City. In Gamaliel’s revision reference was had to the 
altered conditions and the prayers were so rephrased that 
God was petitioned to restore the Temple worship and the 
ancient polity, to rebuild Jerusalem, and to renew the 
Davidic kingdom through the Messiah. The Jews were then 
vexed by the rise of heretics, specifically the Nazarene sect, 
and the malediction pronounced upon them was grounded 
in the conditions of the time. On the other hand, the pros- 
elytes of righteousness were deemed worthy of affection by 
the side of the teachers and the pious. 

This Prayer par excellence (Tephillah, also called Shemoneh- 
esreh, ‘The Eighteen Benedictions’) was preceded by the 
Confession of Faith (the Shema‘: ‘Hear O Israel: the Lord 
our God, the Lord is One’), which itself was enclosed in a 


ae ee ee eee ee eee 


[2 SHE SYNAGOGUE WoRsHIP 209 


edittions, for the blessing of daylight (or 
@night), for the election of fsrael, and for 
re redemption. On sabbaths and holy days 
ahaa the Prophets were read, the read- 
ed sasranie: into the vsessiagey 


— ays hid Thure days, ‘oleae the as 
ets in the sabe —_s sections is ~— 


‘read ipiiblicty in hie synagokue: A peri ial 
A for these Sc ih ure readings. Any one of 


i the service. Care was taken that the 

idignified bearing ang suitably garbed. 
scially saintly mea were invited te read the 
: — ipers to contrition The super- 
B was in the hancs. of the ‘head’ of the 
'fesponsible ta him’ was the sexton 


‘The finances were looked after by a 


Eepiles public daily services were held 
ed number of men. In the ferns ten 
Sof the student class, were paid to 


t sessions. Sis 500R 28 ee Saenubattil 
4 and twenty male adults, a court of 
ers was constituted, Beside one or more 
mmunity maintained public baths (with 
ersion) and cisterns. According to the 


| 2 mpkeep of ihe charitable and other com- 
is. The fullest burden rested upon those 
s for over a-vear or owned a dwelling. 


te it was to take the scroll out of the . 


ie ytdsials were gradually called upon 


1 ot xiv f ony 
yiwee on ie cacred ed iif Ice, he ier 


he Cand of the Fathers, the Mighty fn 
jw de giving of rain and dew and ia® 
Sim and H oly an d conchuded eed 


Gateg ana foot | the blessing 
Oewihision are staf] recs cited, an the rit 


Re 4 me | -- - ‘2 
eCITHeEC, WILE Le 
i oy 1, y 
a Lage Sg 


¥ PE-25). Between aa tant i 
se TEE in phe Ten iple e liturgy : 
: ane th arnt : 


oF ae 
tao was petitioned 


panier pp ie “f t y z 
po a ° § 


Pavalic king ton rents ae 
vetad by the rise of hereti 
emt the maladic ot at prowoue 
the renditions Gi 


THE SYNAGOGUE WORSHIP 209 


framework of benedictions, for the blessing of daylight (or 
for the repose of the night), for the election of Israel, and for 
the past and future redemption. On sabbaths and holy days 
sections of the Torah and the Prophets were read, the read- 
ing being accompanied by translation into the Aramaic 
vernacular and expositions which took on the nature of 
sermons. On Mondays and Thursdays, when the villagers 
came to the markets in the cities, shorter sections of the 
Torah were read. The Torah scrolls were kept in a chest (the 
Ark) and clothed in linen wrappers; other chests held the 
remaining books of the Scriptures. Scripture was also called 
Lection (Mikra), and those books alene counted as such 
which might be read publicly in the synagogue. A special 
desk was provided for these Scripture readings. Any one of 
the congregation, who possessed a voice, might pass before 
the Ark and lead in the service. Care was taken that the 
reader was a man of dignified bearing and suitably garbed. 
On fast days, especially saintly men were invited to read the 
service so as to move the worshipers to contrition. The super- 
vision of the service was in the hands of the ‘head’ of the 
synagogue. Directly responsible to him was the sexton 
(hazzan), whose function it was to take the scroll out of the 
Ark and to replace it. The finances were looked after by a 
board of managers. 

In the villages no regular public daily services were held 
for want of the required number of men. In the towns ten 
men of leisure, mostly of the student class, were paid to 
attend synagogue. In the towns, likewise, provision was 
made for stated court sessions. So soon as the population 
included a hundred and twenty male adults, a court of 
twenty-three members was constituted. Beside one or more 
synagogues, each community maintained public baths (with 
basins for ritual immersion) and cisterns. According to the 
length of residence, individuals were gradually called upon 
to contribute to the upkeep of the charitable and other com- 
munal institutions. The fullest burden rested upon those 
who had been residents for over a vear or owned adwelling. 
These alone had a voice in electing the administrative coun- 


210 SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION 


cil, which usually consisted of seven men, called ‘managers’ 
(parnasim) or ‘best men of the town’ (tobe ha-‘ir). None but 
men of pure blood might serve on the council. It was an 
honor sometimes held for life; frequently the son followed 
the father in the office. The community expected of its 
managers complete disinterestedness and a dignified bear- 
ing; they were installed by the college of judges or by a 
scholar of repute. The council collected and spent moneys 
for current needs; bought and disposed of communal prop- 
erty; supervised trade and commerce; fixed measures and 
weights and the scale of wages; regulated the various char- 
ities and maintained courts and schools; saw to safety, sani- 
tation, and order; issued police regulations and imposed fines 
for disobedience. 

The funds for administrative as well as for charitable pur- 
poses were collected as the need presented itself and imme- 
diately disbursed. Friday was the regular day for weekly 
grants of aid to the needy (kuppah); the hungry were fed at 
soup-kitchens (tamhui) any day of the week. It made no 
difference whether the beneficiaries were residents or out- 
siders, Jews or non-Jews. Special collections were made on 
Purim and the funds were used for dowering indigent brides 
or for ransoming captives. In the synagogues, offerings were 
made for charity (zedakah). Collections and disbursements 
were in the hand of commissions, chiefly from among the 
members of the council, men in whom absolute trust could 
be reposed and of whom no accounting was asked. Such was 
the esteem of the charity collector (gabbai) that a priest 
might take to wife a daughter of his without scrutinizing the 
pedigree. 

Every synagogue had a Bible school and a high school for 
the study of the traditional lore. The community looked to 
the education of poor or fatherless children. Rich parents en- 
gaged tutors at their homes. Teachers might set up private 
schools, since tuition was paid by the parents. Strictly speak- 


ing, the Torah must not be taught for reward; such pay as _ 


the teacher received was accounted as compensation for the 
time which he might employ otherwise or for the care he 


211 


@ good fiw public funds Tt was required 
of taking their childved to school. Girls 
‘as boys, bur education wes compulsory 
from theac sath or gevesrih ydar on. 
bin high teepecr. At the mys ef the educa- 
oe “the Hall-of Stialy Cheah baemidrash), 
sch holars were prepared. 
fuction was rindely dlsthed towards 
(98-ft ey wy ith hele sutexation of 


Pala: re ree tonty it at ti bali: routes 
‘West were ail ix he ieyela of Rome, 


Parthian aggression ia Arnienis. fa $14 the 


: for the Rast, reorgariac! the eastern Aght- 
d Armenia and stn ness antG@e aud turned 
ances (115>. Vhe sext ydar he crossed 
Adiabete ‘ ci ee toyed themise had 
uring the reen «f Clandiue and had 
the fews durizy che (veat War. Ctesi- 
taken, and the evereror advanced to the 


ced. 


wander the Great. \\ ich an eve 4» the far- 
1 and in direct esiiusion with che Arme- 
the Jews of Firypt, Cyrene, and Cyprus 


ad; driven fre Halestine, it fanned the 
| min the Dispersion. 
t with the sepreme stralzing of all their 


= rere put to death. For @ time the Jews in 
hac the saci ome fut ee Creeks S000 'suc- 


1 rm Renin $ cia Tarbo- c yprus wae 
ared ‘that not a Jew wes afterwerds per- 
on the island. Fut in the rear of the 


; rT the wscher fell short in his earnings, 


oe 


templating the cmuqiuest of Fiedea after . 
éand the Grerks, The aérit of zealctism - 


same futhless methods their opponents 
inst thers. Thousands upe thousands of 


Dae 


Kat 


‘wail tt lericis bald: i life; hei 
the. Settier in the office.:The com 
raga complete disinte: STOUT 
page they were: installed: Ly the: 
ag@ielar of repute: The course col 
toy Gurrent needs; bought and diap 
wey . supervised trade and cae n 
vate ates ae scale af wie 


din neky: "disbursed Fidel 
geynte of aid to the needy: 
gees ce ( (‘tambui) any 
difference whether the 
wither, Hews oF non-Jews 


ee fOr Byndoor) captives: 4 j 
~ tate for charity (zedakal 
 @eere io the hand of commise 
“VS weermbers of the council, mea | 
Ae pepoeed and of whom no & 
Me esteem of the, charity” COL 
etehe cake ta wife a donee | 


a 


3 ay Wjerion nist poor or sping hi 
hh ery ites at their homes. Teael 
. oa wamcle tuition ‘was paid by: 


bo must not be ta 
iil mt peived was 3 BCCO : 


i 
a 
re 
? 4 


thet a: 


116] THE INSURRECTION UNDER TRAJAN 211 


took of the children. If the teacher fell short in his earnings, 
the deficit was made good from public funds. It was required 
of a teacher that he should be a married man, as mothers 
were in the habit of taking their children to school. Girls 
were taught as well as boys, but education was compulsory 
only for the boys from their sixth or seventh year on. 
Teachers were held in high respect. At the top of the educa- 
tional system stood the Hall of Study (beth ha-midrash), 
where the higher scholars were prepared. 

The peaceful reconstruction was rudely disturbed towards 
the end of Trajan’s reign (98-117). With the annexation of 
Nabatean Arabia and the lands about the sources-of the 
Jordan previously held by Agrippa TI., the trade routes 
between East and West were all in the hands of Rome, 
except for Parthian aggression in Armenia. In 114 the 
emperor set out for the East, reorganized the eastern fight- 
ing forces, subdued Armenia and Mesopotamia and turned 
them into Roman provinces (115). The next year he crossed 
the Tigris and annexed Adiabene, whose royal house had 
embraced Judaism during the reign of Claudius and had 
fought on the side of the Jews during the Great War. Ctesi- 
phon was likewise taken, and the emperor advanced to the 
Persian Gulf, contemplating the conquest of India after 
the manner of Alexander the Great. With an eye to the far- 
eastern commotion and in direct collusion with the Arme- 
nians and Parthians, the Jews of Egypt, Cyrene, and Cyprus 
rose up against Rome and the Greeks. The spirit of zealotism 
was not quite dead; driven from Palestine, it fanned the 
flame of insurrection in the Dispersion. 

The Jews fought with the supreme straining of all their 
powers and by the same ruthless methods their opponents 
had employed against them. Thousands upon thousands of 
their enemies were put to death. For a time the Jews in 
Alexandria had the upper hand, but the Greeks soon suc- 
ceeded in turning them out with much bloodshed. The insur- 
rection was quelled by Trajan’s general Turbo; Cyprus was 
so completely cleared that not a Jew was afterwards per- 
mitted to set foot on the island. But in the rear of the 


212 SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION [117 


emperor the Jews of Mesopotamia had risen. Against them 
Trajan dispatched Lusius Quietus, who with barbaric cruelty 
restored order. How far Palestine itself participated in this 
Second War (for a war it was) against Rome is uncertain. So 
much we know that Quietus was sent to Palestine as gover- 
nor and that he was recalled by Hadrian and subsequently 
executed. The appalling depression of the spirit among 
Palestinian Jewry may be gauged from the enactment that 
brides should show their mourning by forbearing to adorn 
themselves with wreaths. It was also ordained that the study 
of the Greek language should be forbidden; an exception was 
made for the house of Gamaliel because of the necessary 
dealings with the Roman governors. Greek was the language 
of diplomatic intercourse and mercantile transactions in the 
East; spoken by the Jews of the Dispersion, it had begun to 
invade the Jewish circles of Palestine. The old Greek transla- 
tion of the Scriptures’ prepared in Alexandria had by this 
time been taken over by the Greek converts to Nazarenism, 
Christianity, as it was now called. A new translation, more 
exact and more in accordance with the latest development of 
interpretation, was made on Palestinian soil, under the eye 
of such masters as Eliezer and Joshua, by Aquila of Pontus, 
a convert from paganism. 

While the Jewish uprising failed, as might have been 
expected, to shake Rome, it contributed to the collapse of 
Trajan’s eastern campaign. The emperor met with defeat 
at the hands of the Arabs of the desert (117) and died shortly 
thereafter in Cilicia. His successor Hadrian (117—138) aban- 
doned the conquests beyond the Euphrates and reverted to 
the policy of Augustus to consolidate the empire within its 
limits. The Jews, it would appear, had received, possibly 
from Trajan, a vague promise that they would be permitted 
to rebuild the Temple. But this was made nugatory by the 
opposition of the Samaritans and the new emperor’s aver- 
sion to foreign cults. Whatever hope the Jews may have 
cherished was completely shattered by the news that Hadrian 
was projecting the conversion of Jerusalem into a heathen 
city. The people were sorely embittered. The aged Joshua 


> ae ae 

TS ee aa it a ee 
. Fe Dee oh Wyn ee ee if ~~ Rael 

ae Sia a 39 ral er - (7 ge i eM i 


iv ew Pees oth ot ea 


t Pate et, 
We a 7? 


* 7s 


| ARTBA 213 


ne} 


y them by telling the well-known fable of the 
Crane: the Jews mighty consider themselves 
e eidagrcet with their bare lives out of-the 
Al. peaceful ffascning was to no purpose, 


) Of the beady and ineidentatly cir- 
t ike decree was not aimed at the Jews, 
tantamowet ie xs attack on the Jewish 
be met by peikerence. 
| War agaiont Rame was launched. The 
ig Was the schular Akiba sow of foseph. In 
cen An illiterate shepherd; he wan the love 
@ daughter wad at her bidding had him- 
fas trained «x va: echools of Peers and 
he moted for deen erudition and a keen 
Colleagtie Ishanae!, of high priestly descent, 
MN Meaning of Geripuure, Akiba built moun- 
ms upon every letter of the Torah, nav upon 
Neither broeteci any compromise with 
ni the process of ailegorical (so-called 
tion threw # aii aliegiance to the Torah. 
EP iehachie avd 2 also did Akiba; nover- 
Ventured upon sermonizing, his col- 
ly bside him return to his own domain of 
ence. Alkibs was the first to arrange the 
| onal lore according to subject- Taatier; it 
bef in the eorlification of the great body of 
down by word of mouth, te which was 
Mistinat: (Rehearsal). He was an exclusiv- 
Hs peculiar relation to Ged My Beloved 
| His’ }for whose sake the Jews are willing to 


# Akiba the holiest book in the third 
e Salsa song of union between Ged and 
8 an ardent patriot. He traveled far and 
i Jewish national solidarity. When, in the 
of Cozeba, a leader presented himself ready 
truggle with Rome, Akiba acclaimed him as 


re Hadrian revived an old law _ 


sae whom they live waite death. The” 


OL ae ee 


7 


oe 


ne vat ae Bayh ie : 
4 UAL. RECONSTRUCT N.2) 


emperor Tit Jews 
‘ 4 Tr aja n ry 7c dla usius Osea whos 


‘ Seoe ined | WY ar | 
. much we kaon Ww 
baa ert hor and chy sett was iad th ig ch 
| | emecu tor appa} ine deps cession of the spi 
} | 2 Paless: sul eae ¥ may be gauged 1 erat 
ie Brides vivuld show their mourning 
pe: “ther 2a with wreaths. It was @ 
| fee the chews sano should be for vis 
ace dae the house of Gameliel. 
des oan with the Roman govern: 
‘of “iylematic intercourse and me 
Piast a by the Jews of the 
; re jpnb 2 Ep seis of helvinnes 
um 2. Chladanity, ast was n ; 
Bea TE dea aad Tee 3a accordaiee 


ir ieomretation, was eee prc 
ot a masters B: 
4 convert from. siete: 
W idie the poe abe uprising 
expecsed, to shake. Rome,’ 
» Trajan’s eastern campaign. 
atihe hands of the Arabs. of . 
thereafter in Cilicia. His suc 
“Woned ihe conquests beyank 
ote policy of Augiistus: LO a 
pease The Jews, it would a 
NG Tsien. z vague promise ; 
ty wehaghidel the Temple: Bu 
| pe poeiten of the Samaritans 4 


A 


SOY Bs lll — mete 


Hah pres 
city. ee he 


AKIBA 213 


sought to allay them by telling the well-known fable of the 
Lion and the Crane: the Jews might consider. themselves 
fortunate that they emerged with their bare lives out of the 
jaws of Rome. All peaceful reasoning was to no purpose, 
when a short time afterwards Hadrian revived an old law 
forbidding mutilations of the body and incidentally cir- 
cumcision. Though the decree was not aimed at the Jews, 
for them it was tantamount to an attack on the Jewish 
religion which must be met by resistance. 

Thus the Third War against Rome was launched. The 
soul of the uprising was the scholar Akiba son of Joseph. In 
his youth he had been an illiterate shepherd; he won the love 
of his rich master’s daughter and at her bidding had him- 
self educated. He was trained in the schools of Eliezer and 
Joshua and became noted for deep erudition and a keen 
intellect. While his colleague Ishmael, of high priestly descent, 
held to the plain meaning of Scripture, Akiba built moun- 
tains of legal norms upon every letter of the Torah, nay upon 
its jots and tittles. Neither brooked any compromise with 
the heretics who by the process of allegorical (so-called 
spiritual) interpretation threw off all allegiance to the Torah. 
Ishmael excelled as a preacher and so also did Akiba; never- 
theless when Akiba ventured upon sermonizing, his col- 
leagues occasionally bade him return to his own domain of 
religious jurisprudence. Akiba was the first to arrange the 
accumulated traditional lore according to subject-matter; it 
was an advanced step in the codification of the great body of 
Jewish law handed down by word of mouth, to which was 
given the name of Mishnah (Rehearsal). He was an exclusiv- 
ist as regards Israel’s peculiar relation to God (‘My Beloved 
is mine, and I am His’) for whose sake the Jews are willing to 
undergo martyrdom and whom they love unto death. The 
Song of Songs was for Akiba the holiest book in the third 
division of Scripture, the song of union between God and 
Israel. Akiba was an ardent patriot. He traveled far and 
wide to strengthen Jewish national solidarity. When, in the 
person of Simon of Cozeba, a leader presented himself ready 
to take up the struggle with Rome, Akiba acclaimed him as 


214 SPIRITUAL RECONSTRUCTION [132-134 


the Messiah, though the more timid scholars protested. 
Simon was for Akiba the Star that had stepped forth out of 
Jacob (Numbers 24, 17); the heroic chief was renamed Son 
of the Star (Bar Kokeba), and on the coins struck by him a 
figure of the Temple was surmounted by a star. 

The insurrection broke out in 132, when the emperor had 
returned to Rome from his travels in Egypt and Syria. But 
the organization of the revolt had been going on secretly for 
some time. It spread now all over Palestine. It was natural 
that the Nazarenes (Christians) should reject the new 
Messiah; otherwise the people stood united to take up arms 
for religious and national freedom. They gathered in fortified 
places, strongholds, caves, and subterranean passages. Avoid- 
ing an open battle, they sallied forth from their hiding- 
places and attacked their enemies. Jerusalem, which was 
guarded by one legion, was captured; it seems that an altar 
was erected, at which Simon’s uncle, the priest Eleazar, 
ministered. The conditions of the restoration under Zerub- 
babel and the priest Joshua (p. 120) appeared to repeat 
themselves: by the side of the civil head of the nation stood 
the chief priest. The regained sovereignty was marked by 
restamping the coinage, and the legends proudly counted 
First, Second Year after the Liberation of Jerusalem. 

The governor Tineius Rufus was not equal to the situa- 
tion. At last Hadrian dispatched one of his best generals, 
Severus, whom he recalled from Britain. It was not possible 
to meet the rebels in pitched battle; but their small units 
were hunted down in their places of refuge and, their lines 
of communication cut off, annihilated. It was a protracted 
guerilla warfare, which brought very heavy losses to the 
Roman side likewise. Hadrian was for a time present in per- 
son to direct the military operations; but by the spring of 
134 he was persuaded that he could leave the conclusion 
safely to his general. Jerusalem was retaken, and on the 
ninth of Ab a beginning could be made with the foundation 
of the new city according to the previous plans. In accord- — 
ance with Roman custom, after the ruins were cleared, the 
earth was freshly plowed up in token of the new foundation. 


215 
th ‘me body of the gen with their leader 


n. Paton: a sina per pete pao 
“Those. that, hatter wancambed to 
Ase the Vinton int whe etigh But the 


a q “ avy acmngy soe pet’ ‘Half a 
have perished. A Sree gtretber were 
et near che cerelibaats aed isnrenlia 


ire on were tala Se He Rayo, 
Er amine or Shipwreck, >< 

a desert. Fifty fortresses wat w tieaunend 
‘Upon the mte of the Mabe tre sew 
107, 'elia C aprading ‘ae en, 's 


big, att Vers; on the iseepery where 
Banctuary was reared the temple of 
Ape. seathern e% uf the cbt Wats itr 


- Powe: in re city yarn ik Pear, ees apres 
réamed thither. beg giv aied britiag the 
vase here tor i ingfet ant serp. This 


’ ait ite theaters And twitoies dedi. 


PVIRITUAL RECON 
erie ne Aaland at P though the more ‘feu 
‘ Hint wie tor Akiba the Star that had. 
KAN § Number & 2% I Ty; the heroic: eh 
ob tive Sear (Bar Kokeba), and om thew 
Wares af che Ten ple was surmounted 
> Ftug seurrect fon br on out in i 
sta meted tc R: 
Rye We he em 
aime time. It rena hie 
fmt the herons’ 
hee waia hi: OLE PWS . 
tercrelicious andwnat ge rah  fecoehogall 
places, strongholds, caves, and 
“phe an 1 battle, they pene. 
haces cat ‘ees their .@ 
guarded by one sein was Cakp 
ara 
i restamping the coinage, and 


' First, Second Year after the | 

The governor Tineius Rut 
aon. Al las : Hadrian dispat: 
“Severus, whom 2 he recat ee © 


oo ae eo BO ation Cut off, 
Aaa eS genet hey vactar “, ve br 
SRLS yO aires 3a de like Wise 


a i = pce hat h 
wil ‘ ane te = hix : 


a an 


ae 


135] THE FALL OF BETH-THER JARS) 


Meanwhile the main body of the Jews with their leader 
had entrenched themselves behind the strong mountain fast- 
ness of Beth-ther, southwest of Jerusalem. It was the last 
gasp of Jewish freedom. After a long and stubborn defense, 
the fortress fell in 135. Those that had not succumbed to 
famine were butchered by the victorious legions. But the 
victory was not cheaply purchased. So great were the Roman 
losses that the emperor, in reporting to the Senate, omitted 
the customary formula, ‘I and my army are well.’ Half a 
million Jews are said to have perished. A great number were 
sold as slaves in the market near the terebinth of Hebron— 
so many that a Jewish slave fetched no more than a horse. 
Such as were not sold there were taken to Gaza or Egypt, 
and many died from famine or shipwreck. 

Judea resembled a desert. Fifty fortresses and a thousand 
villages were in ruins. Upon the site of the Holy City now 
rose the new foundation, Aelia Capitolina (the emperor’s 
first name was Aelius), with its theaters and temples dedi- 
cated to Bacchus, Serapis, and Venus; on the mount where 
formerly stood the Sanctuary was reared the temple of 
Jupiter Capitolinus. The southern gate of the city was sur- 
mounted by the figure of a boar, the emblem of the tenth 
legion. No Jew might set foot in the city. Once a year, on the 
ninth of Ab, Jews streamed thither, begging and bribing the 
Roman guards to permit them to linger and weep. This 
lament kept alive through the ages the memory of the de- 
parted glory. Equally undying was the hope of future 
restoration. 


CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE MAKERS OF THE MISHNAH 
(135-175) 


r “4 HE enemy realized that Jewish resistance derived its 
strength from the Jewish religion and the Jewish 
religious organization. Hadrian purposed to bring 

down that inner citadel as Antiochus Epiphanes had sought 

to do; in the long run Rome was no more successful than 

Antioch. As soon as the insurrection had become noticeable, 

an edict was issued forbidding not only circumcision but also 

the observance of the sabbath, the teaching of the Torah, 
and the maintenance of the religious organization through 
ordination. Ten scholars, in especial, are said to have suffered 
martyrdom. Ishmael and another scholar were seized and 
executed, while Akiba was detained in prison at the gover- 
nor’s seat Caesarea. From his prison cell Akiba persisted in 
directing through his disciples the people’s religious life; 
unflinchingly he met death at the executioner’s hands. 

Though his body was being lacerated with combs of iron, he 

died with the profession of the Unity upon his lips. 

A similar fate overtook Hanina son of Teradion. He was 
detected teaching the Torah; when asked why he did so in 
disobedience of the imperial edict, he answered: ‘Even as the 
Lord my God commanded me’ (Deuteronomy 4, 5). He was 
wrapped in the scroll and burned at the stake. The last 
among the martyred scholars was the saintly Judah son of 
Baba. He defied the emperor by ordaining the leading dis- 
ciples of Akiba. Before he was apprehended and cruelly done 
to death, he persuaded them to seek safety in flight. They 
escaped to Babylonia, where Hananiah, Joshua’s nephew, 
had established a school near Nehardea. This scholar con- 
templated assuming the spiritual leadership of the Jewish 
people. But the time of Babylonia had not come yet; as soon 
as the Palestinian schools were reorganized they successfully 


reasserted their supremacy. 
216 


¥ SON OF GAMALIEL 217 


et Jui had been broken up. So 
ts remwiried in force, clashes with the, 
were unavoidable. Antoninus Pius (138-. 
ic va choice of vielding to Jewish sus- 

‘exterminating the Jewish people. He 
e. The intolerant laws were revoked, 
| mitted tm practise the rite of circum- 
1 persons of their own race. The fugitive 
returned and set themselves to the task of 
eligious life. At the first appactunity 
ain Galilee ark! aaiebctice ein the San- 


| Bes the soantacpeahiores of wee lower 
forcement of discipline, the maintenance 
ja matter of leza! obligazion, tht restric- 

ts to a fifth of one’s income a a maxi- 
ptic lof scholars from the process of. 


malie! kcihe had ieacmascl during, Hhe per- 
, Succeeded hic father as head of the 
ea scholarly than several of his eni- 
Fa modest man, he wasa stickier for the 
pio his station, believing that position 
mce towards maintaining the unity of 
ae Maite, whese father was the Babylo- 
n the third in rank, the counselor (hakam) 
% ¥ expose Simen’s inferior scholarship i m 
i, however, k earned of this aid prepared 
being a peaceiul man, effected @ rerimrilia- 
ief ‘but Meir persis sted in his extiange ment. 
k the measure carried at Usha, Meir would 
exc orn wunicated. As it -was, the tw@ Censpirators - 
*o the exten: that they were net mentioned 
tholastic discussions but manera to anony- 
ay ; others ony’). - 
ant towards. the Seciiaalaeiis. whom he 
sidodeine with Jews in every respect, laud- 
in anes religious duties as had been 


CH APT ER? 
THE MAKERS OF THE 


an ec tarigs was issued fc forhiddiag eek 
the observance of the s sabbath, the, 
2nd the maint tenance of the tehgi 
psercan nation, Ten scholars, 4 in 

artyrdom. — rae! is 


ta sinihech feel he met ewe 
Though his body was betag: 
| died 5 with the profession of th 


X . ao. detecenn efachio te ora: ; 
3 obec lience of the baer | 


pont “ phat sh 
a ie. He defied. the emperor. 
Cat wameof Aiba. Before he was; 
ge atiy he persuaded t 3 
ae eninge £0 Bab yylonia, | 
had anemened 3 a segbout 


oe. j eee einai ‘of Ba 
as the Paie Ian echools 


reasserted ‘ chiar 


SIMON SON OF GAMALIEL 217 


The scholastic center at Jabneh had been broken up. So 
long as Hadrian’s edicts remained in force, clashes with the 
Roman authorities were unavoidable. Antoninus Pius (138- 
161) was placed before the choice of yielding to Jewish sus- 
ceptibilities or else of exterminating the Jewish people. He 
chose the former course. The intolerant laws were revoked, 
and the Jews were permitted to practise the rite of circum- 
cision, but only on persons of their own race. The fugitive 
disciples of Akiba returned and set themselves to the task of 
reconstructing the religious life. At the first opportunity 
they gathered at Usha in Galilee and reéstablished the San- 
hedrin; among the most important measures there enacted 
were those pertaining to the reorganization of the lower 
schools and the enforcement of discipline, the maintenance 
of minor children as a matter of legal obligation, the restric- 
tion of charitable gifts to a fifth of one’s income as a maxi- 
mum, and the exemption of scholars from the process of 
excommunication. 

Simon son of Gamaliel, who had escaped during the per- 
secution under Hadrian, succeeded his father as head of the 
Sanhedrin. Though less scholarly than several of his col- 
leagues and otherwise a modest man, he was a stickler for the 
distinctive honors due to his station, believing that position 
to be a great influence towards maintaining the unity of 
Israel. His deputy Nathan, whose father was the Babylo- 
nian exilarch, and the third in rank, the counselor (hakam) 
Meir, conspired to expose Simon’s inferior scholarship in 
public session. Simon, however, learned of this and prepared 
himself. Nathan, being a peaceful man, effected a reconcilia- 
tion with his chief, but Meir persisted in his estrangement. 
Had it not been for the measure carried at Usha, Meir would 
have been excommunicated. As it was, the two conspirators 
were disciplined to the extent that they were not mentioned 
by name in the scholastic discussions but referred to anony- 
mously (‘some say,’ ‘others say’). 

Simon was tolerant towards the Samaritans, whom he 
placed on an equal footing with Jews in every respect, laud- 
ing their strictness in such religious duties as had been 


218 THE MAKERS OF THE MISHNAH 


accepted by them, which exceeded that of the Jews. Sim- 
ilarly he insisted on impartial justice to non-Jews and recog- 
nized the validity of documents executed in a non-Jewish 
court and witnessed by non-Jews. He was averse to burden- 
ing the people with new regulations which it was beyond 
their power to observe; every one should follow the customs 
of his own district. Whenever possible, he made legal excep- 
tions in favor of women; he held that one was obliged to 
ransom a captive slave as much as a captive freeman. How 
truly the conditions of the period are mirrored in his remark 
that his own contemporaries were as grateful as the ancients 
for deliverances from persecutions, but that the calamities 
were now so frequent that one could barely recount them! 
Just as all waters are gathered together in the ocean, so, he 
was certain, Jerusalem would some day become the place of 
assembly for the whole world. 

The time was rich in great scholars, particularly from the 
school of Akiba. Meir was easily the first among them. He 
had also studied with Ishmael; nor had he disdained the 
instruction of Elisha son of Abuiah, who had lost himself in 
esoteric speculations and turned heretic. Meir was satisfied 
that he knew how to throw away the husk, while he absorbed 
the kernel, and he honored his apostate teacher beyond the 
grave. In the same manner, in maturer years, he was on 
intimate terms of friendship with the heathen philosopher 
Oenomaus of Gadara. Meir held that a non-Jew who is a 
student of the Torah is on a par with the high priest, just as 
he taught the unconditional character of Israel’s relation to 
God (‘Ye are the sons of the Lord your God—whether ye 
act or act not as sons’). Meir was a master of the dialectic 
art: playfully he would advance reasons for pronouncing a 
thing clean when it was unclean and the reverse, so much so 
that his colleagues sometimes could not follow him. His legal 
opinions therefore were not accepted save in the matter of 
restrictions which partook of the nature of preventive meas- 
ures. In point of fact, however, his decisions were free from 
casuistry and unprofitable hair-splitting. On the whole, he 
adhered to Akiba’s system of clear-cut statements, which he 


ReiacaND: joan suormar st 


he. teviewsihe body of biaiitidnal lore 
. s master fp 21.35. That was-the third step in 
mjol the Misiwcn. Meir's kecteres were so 
t at > tim Was eren?y divided between matters 
1 sayings, and fables, Hix aermons on the 
in the ayviceegue of Tiberias were fis- 
He earne? bis livelihood thvough his 
a piace: Water by his hand wes highly 
vile ica. the icvghrer of tet martyred 
2 was herself ascuoiar, whose legal apinions 
ed in the-schools. Har Susband was vexed by 
gnbore; Pray,’ wad see wife, ‘for tiie. dewstruc- 
han for the dea: of the sinner,” Phair two 
sabi Br atterncas while e the oe was 


ey sadly et for by tabs OWT, “Why, 
bthe unsuspectiny husband. Came then 
leeping root, they were given te us for 
God has reextie:! chem.’ 

A With whom he differed on so many points 
| Son of. Som ~ was sacra to'as a chief 


ome hie eae sayings vif This , arson 
inne father, who was a pun ué ieinad (p. 
a -much of that scholar's lew: he handed 
hiotis of others of that eariv cede; but in 
on the ane of Akiba, bar squans of 


uenniétion. Sei ames iniedele ba hele to be 


wa iin the other, you will be frozen. What 
Valk kin ane, middie,” 


| jig works, and be would et his | 


re iin one va} ice; sree you sie’ in the one, you « 


i» 


PT. ee” Ce 


va ae 
oe Bis 


a 8 
4 
im : 
tell he 
= arin 
~~ . AG 


+ 


oa a THE MARERS oF Tae 4 


thes : res to ane every se he 
of tvs oxen district. Whenever pow 
riogw ft favor of women; he hel 
cewek a captive slave as much 
| the conditions of the period: 
his own contemporaries wer 
‘ce SP aitiveciides from, persecution 
eee now so frequent that ane 
‘eae as all waters are gathered | 
eee certain, Jerusalem went ae 
agvembly for the whole work <= 
The time was rich in grewe 
wetiool of Akiba, Meir wae anion 
sal also studied with (shomely nee 
| feptruc tion. of Elisha son Of Pack 
 gieteric speculations and turned 
Sat hi knew how to throw awal 
“0m kernel, and he honored his. 
jeeve. In the same manner: 
Hpate terms of friendehip: 
‘omtraus of Gadara, Meir-held (ita a 
«y-huet! of the Torah is ona par Th th 
ne oye the unconditional chamgete 
‘djoet Ve are the sons.of the 
@e ce aot as sons"). Meir 
et: "7 oli bois ¢ he would advance 
| "a deas when it was: unclear 
4 ec aL egrUes sometimes 
oldie therefore were nota 
nest ittions which partook of 
* ate ee of vow penta. 


MEIR AND JUDAH SON OF ILAI 219 


perfected, just as he revised the body of traditional lore 
assembled by his master (p. 213). That was the third step in 
the codification of the Mishnah. Meir’s lectures were so 
arranged that the time was evenly divided between matters 
of law, sententious sayings, and fables. His sermons on the 
eve of the sabbath in the synagogue of Tiberias were lis- 
tened to with delight. He earned his livelihood through his 
penmanship; a Bible copy written by his hand was highly 
prized. His wife, Beruriah, the daughter of the martyred 
Hanina (p. 216), was herself a scholar, whose legal opinions 
were recorded in the schools. Her husband was vexed by 
unworthy neighbors; ‘Pray,’ said the wife, ‘for the destruc- 
tion of sin rather than for the death of the sinner.’ Their two 
boys died on a sabbath afternoon while the husband was 
lecturing in the synagogue. When he came home, she hid 
from him the tragedy until he had recited the blessings over . 
the parting of the sabbath. Then she asked him whether it 
was meet to return a deposit called for by the owner. ‘Why, 
of course,’ answered the unsuspecting husband. ‘Come then 
to the children’s sleeping room; they were given to us for 
safe-keeping, now God has recalled them.’ 

Meir’s colleague, with whom he differed on so many points 
of law, was Judah son of Ilai. He was deferred to as a chief 
authority by the other scholars and was well thought of by 
the patriarch. Some three thousand sayings of his are on 
record. Through his father, who was a pupil of Eliezer (p. 
207), he absorbed much of that scholar’s lore; he handed 
down also the opinions of others of that early circle; but in 
the main he rested on the teaching of Akiba, by means of 
which he contributed to the expansion of the material trans- 
mitted to the next generation. Study, however, he held to be 
but the means to good works, and he would interrupt his 
scholastic pursuits to pay his respects to the dead or to 
gladden a bridal couple at their marriage feast. He was a 
man of the golden mean. ‘This Torah is likened unto two 
roads, one of fire and one of ice; if you walk in the one, you 
will be burned, and if in the other, you will be frozen What 
shall one do? Walk in the middle.’ 


220 - THE MAKERS OF THE MISHNAH [176 


Judah’s home was at Usha. At Sepphoris resided his col- 
league Jose son of Halaphtha. Both he and his fellow-student 
Simon son of Johai sought to penetrate to the underlying 
reasons of the teachings they had received from their mas- 
ters. Simon was of a more independent disposition and often 
rejected the opinions of his predecessors. Nor was his attitude 
to Rome as conciliatory as that of the other members of that 
entire group. A derogatory remark was brought to the atten- 
tion of the Roman authorities and he was sentenced to death. 
With his son Eleazar he hid himself in a cave and remained 
there for thirteen years. Those were the times when the 
empire had begun to be on the defensive. Under Marcus 
Aurelius (161—180) and the co-emperor Verus (161-169), the 
Parthian king Vologaeses III. invaded Cappadocia and 
Syria. It seems that among certain elements of the Jews in 
Palestine an attempt was made to turn these complications 
to their advantage. The Parthians, however, were beaten, 
and Verus punished the Jews by depriving them of their 
autonomous judiciary and imposing other restrictions. These 
exceptional laws were rescinded after the death of Verus (169). 

A year later, Judah I. was inducted into the patriarchate, 
left vacant by the death of his father Simon son of Gamaliel 
some years previously. Patriarch (nasi) was now the accepted 
title for the head of the Sanhedrin, recognized as such by 
the imperial government. The dignity of the patriarch was 
nothing short of that of an actual monarch. Judah was care- 
fully trained in his father’s house by private tutors and for 
short periods attended the schools of Akiba’s great pupils, 
such as Judah at Usha and Simon son of Johai at Tekoa 
(northwest of Safed). In contradistinction to his father and 
grandfather he was the greatest scholar of the period. He sur- 
rounded himself by colleagues and disciples. ‘Much,’ he said, 


a i i ee 


‘I learned from my teachers, more from my associates, and — 
most of all from my pupils.’ He had a particularly high © 
opinion of his student Hiya, a Babylonian by birth, whom he © 


designated as his ‘counselor from a far country’ (Isaiah 46, 


11). In Judah, it was said, Torah and high station were — 


united a& they had not been since the days of Moses. Judah 


JU 3 


Psi oo whi he gave freely to poor 
. scp af eonduct merited for him the 
JUS! ax for his learning he was spoken 
(Rabbi) par axcelience, 

the good-wili of the Antonine emperors, 
m {possibly Marcus Aurelius) fe is said to 
imme te terms, With: all his humetity, which 
ed, he filled his position with dignity and 
right of ordination he reserved for himself. 
Onality dominare, the Sanhedrin, though he 
i b to carry a point in the face of apposition. 
ed to abolish the irksome observance af the 
Was attentied-by much hardshep, espe- 
nae to che dire persecut ons. aennehes 


an ie Aaeale : Se and the young 
‘the meaning of many an obscure word of 
Tistening to the living : speech of the domes- 
wlinid..The seat of the patriarchate was 
sshéarim (northeast of Tab or), but the 
ars of this life Judah spent at Sepphoris, 
its high altitucle afforded hira relief from 
Geis 
i eoweied a hail century. He-brought to a 
ton of the Mishnah, the first steps tewards 
aker at Jabneh (p. 206) and then by Akiba 
{p; 219), Ac a matter of fact, the other 
“among the contempararies of Akiba or his 
@-Mishnah, that is, the sunt of traditional 
me The point about the @aal redaction was 
da corporate effort, embedying the con- 
B and tis associates, seme older and some 
n | imself; The material culled from the earlier 
1 ound od out and rendered more complete. Also 


With his son Flea azar he hid mel 


Baides hime an me gue 
“DL fearned f rota my. teachers 


dey hte fiat! nie W as ae 


TEASE. xa the tea Be they 
vera, Simon was of a more > independent 
reseoted th e opinions of his prec 
ey Rome as conciliatory as that 
entire gro cise A derogatory reviha Tv 
ton of the Roman authorit ties and] 


ame ‘ 

sche | cing 
» 

ra, aye seems 


be) 


te the eit r advant wee B 


wn hp ial ‘ieee were res : 
A year later, Judah T, 
t vacant by the death 
ine years pt reviously, 
tithe for r the head of th 


ged 


s| 
w 


most of al ee 


calyplil as. nad 
i). tn: Padah, it wast 
united os they had not 


JUDAH I, 221 


possessed great wealth of which he gave freely to poor 
scholars. His high standard of conduct merited for him the 
appellation of the Saint, just as for his learning he was spoken 
of as the Master (Rabbi) par excellence. 

Judah enjoyed the good-will of the Antonine emperors, 
with one of whom (possibly Marcus Aurelius) he is said to 
have been on intimate terms. With all his humility, which 
was highly praised, he filled his position with dignity and 
distinction. The right of ordination he reserved for himself. 
His strong personality dominated the Sanhedrin, though he 
was not always able to carry a point in the face of opposition. 
Thus he was minded to abolish the irksome observance of the 
sabbatic year which was attended by much hardship, espe- 
cially in those days so close to the dire persecutions. Phinehas 
son of Jair, who was reputed for his great saintliness, swayed 
the majority of the scholars, and Judah was content with 
introducing some measures of alleviation. Judah favored the 
Hebrew speech which in all but certain nooks and corners 
had receded from the mouth of the people in favor of Aramaic. 
Hebrew was spoken in the patriarch’s home, and the young 
scholars learned the meaning of many an obscure word of 
the Scriptures by listening to the living speech of the domes- 
tics in Judah’s household. The seat of the patriarchate was 
principally at Beth-shearim (northeast of Tabor), but the 
last seventeen years of his life Judah spent at Sepphoris, 
which because of its high altitude afforded him relief from 
his ailments. | 

Judah's activity covered a half century. He brought to a 
finish the codification of the Mishnah, the first steps towards 
which had been taken at Jabneh (p. 206) and then by Akiba 
(p. 213) and Meir (p. 219). As a matter of fact, the other 
scholars, whether among the contemporaries of Akiba or his 
disciples, had each a Mishnah, that is, the sum of traditional 
lore taught by him. The point about the final redaction was 
that it constituted a corporate effort, embodying the con- 
clusions of Judah and his associates, some older and some 
younger than himself. The material culled from the earlier 
sources was rounded out and rendered more complete. Also 


222 . THE MAKERS OF THE MISHNAH 


the arrangement of the contents was perfected, though to a 
large extent the order had been well established. The Code, 
as it has come down, contains additions introduced in the 
next generation, but on the whole its compass is nearly as 
Judah left it. The work is arranged in six Orders; each Order 
is divided into Tractates, and each Tractate into chapters 
and paragraphs. The Orders are named Seeds (religious laws 


pertaining to agriculture, preceded by the Tractate ‘Bles- © 


sings’ which treats of the daily prayers and the blessings on 
partaking of food), Seasons (sabbath, festivals, fasts), 
Women (laws of marriage and divorce and vows), Damages 
(civil and criminal legislation; in this Order is incorporated 
the Tractate ‘Fathers,’ giving the ethical sayings of the 
teachers from the times of the Great Synagogue on), Holy 
Things (laws concerning ritual slaughtering, sacrifices and 
consecrated things, the Temple and Temple worship), and 
Purities (laws of ceremonial impurity). 

The language of the Mishnah is the Hebrew as it had 
developed naturally in the centuries since Nehemiah. The 
diction is concise. The aim of the work was clearly to furnish 
a text-book for the guidance of judges and religious teachers. 
Whatever had been settled in the past or in Judah’s own 
school, by majority vote or through the preponderating 
influence of one in authority, was entered as a decision 
anonymously. The formulation was mainly taken over from 
Meir’s Mishnah; but as a rule Judah put down in the same 
form an opinion reached by himself, generally with the con- 
currence of the patriarchal court. Thus the compilation, to 
a limited extent, assumed the form of a Code. Dissenting 
opinions were carefully set down, together with the names of 
their sponsors. The accepted view was placed last; the oppos- 


ing opinion was recorded in order to show that it had been © 


considered but failed of acceptance. Altogether a hundred 


and forty-eight scholars are mentioned by name and these © 


and the other teachers of the period from Hillel to Judah ‘ 


were called Tannaim, Mishnah teachers. 
Side by side with the compilations in the form of Mishnah, 


the sayings of the Tannaim, whether in the domain of law — 


eee eee ta Tr, Ga) yee ee Hh Ee 
_< Pia ~ , wh i ee ee " 
» gel Ear aeties ne Shes ws : 


COMPILATIONS 223 


bl thing (Hageadah, were assembled in 
omme ntary ea the Pentalatc?. Such a com- 
led Midcos: (Searchings Sone was pre- 
of Genesis. since (>) melee practically 
se On the uther hoake iF “be Torah cir- 
ons, as they eoianate$ fees «he school of 
h imael. ‘The Gnal ope etion of these 
‘as they @re extant, Wat etc ced in the 
| ion af the Midbews 2+ the same 
were made i ent Mishnall epsedations in 
Supplement (Toseplita), of whites Meow escribed 

v1 a! ) enjoyed eprecial an tg i> AR Tan- 
excluded fren the Micktjeh were cdesig- 
ut Mish (Baritha). 


aen bas 

ee a i lef ft iv arrang » 
is @ivided into Tractates, and each 
ane esti neon: The Ordest a are nas 
Hertaining to agriculture, preceded 
eines’ which imate of the daily ¥ 
partaking of food), Seasons 
Women (Jaws of marriage and div 

~ teil and criminal legislation; in 

the Tractate ‘Fathers,’ giving. 
ieochers from the times of the @ 
la 1¢8 vay we conce cerning ritual 
crated things, the Tew 
ae re = (laws of ceremonial 
he language of the | 
cal vara naturally 3 in & 


oT, is cot cise. ‘The & ai | 


? pend Bisir lon Was aed 

| itwlidbered but failed. of 
ant twery-cight scholar 
eel Got her teachers 
wen led Tannaim, Mts 
epee sy spec €or 
the bias a d 


wae" ar 


eee | ee ee 


Fg Mee eh Rs ae 


TANNAITIC COMPILATIONS 223 


(Halakah) or of preaching (Haggadah), were assembled in 
the shape of a commentary on the Pentateuch. Such a com- 
mentary was called Midrash (Searching). None was pre- 
pared for the book of Genesis, since it contains practically 
no legal matter. Those on the other books of the Torah cir- 
culated in two versions, as they emanated from the school of 
Akiba or that of Ishmael. The final compilation of these 
commentaries, so far as they are extant, was effected in the 
age following the completion of the Mishnah. In the same 
period also were made independent Mishnah compilations in 
the form of Supplement (Tosephta), of which those ascribed 
to Hiya and Hoshaiah enjoyed special authority. All Tan- 
naitic statements excluded from the Mishnah were desig- 
nated as Extraneous Mishnah (Baraitha). 


CHAPTER XXXV 
THE LAST PATRIARCHS 


(180-425) 


URING Judah's patriarchate, the conditions in Pales- . 

1) tine were on the whole tolerable, even though rapa- 
cious governors might tax the people too heavily, : 
the emperor being too far away to afford redress. Thus, 
under Commodus (180-192), Niger told a Jewish deputation 
that he was sorry he could not tax the very air they breathed. 
Certainly, the Jews had no reason to favor Niger in his con- 
test with Septimius Severus for the imperial position (193/ 
194), as was charged. It is possible that some hotheads 
among the Jews plotted to rid themselves of both. Whatever 
the disturbance was, it was quelled rapidly by Severus; but 
the Parthian campaign, on which he now started, prompted 
a conciliatory attitude towards the Jews of Palestine, in 
order not to arouse the opposition of their brethren in Baby- 
lonia. Thus the Jews in Palestine might hold honorary civic 
offices in so far as they did not conflict with their religious 
obligations. Severus, it is true, forbade Jewish proselytism ; 
but in the same manner he barred Christian propaganda. By 
the act of the emperor Caracalla (212), the Jews, along with 
all free inhabitants of the empire, became full Roman citi- 
zens; the hardships, consisting in additional burdens of taxa- 
tion, affected but the wealthier classes and were outweighed — 
by the advantage of being placed on a footing of political and — 
legal equality with the non-Jews. — q 
Compared with the rule of the Sassanid kings of Persia (p. 
240), the Roman dominion appeared as the lesser of two ~ 
evils. Thus the Jews of Cappadocia fought on the side of the — | 
emperor Alexander Severus (222-235) against Ardashir I. 
Nor were the Jews of the empire inclined to support Shapur — 
I. (241-272) in his efforts to push the Romans out of Asia. | 
The campaign in which the emperor Valerian was taken — 


224 


’ 


B SuccHssoRs GF fe viva, ar 225 


d Palestine, whied after the awee ta 
ved by Odeivcath, oeinee of Palmyra, 


the Palmyrenes a tat acting in con- 
. had. begun toeneycweh wpon territory 
rath 's widow, the arergetae queen Zeno- 
a By einperor Adwiich $272). Palestine 
¢ under the ealend Ryans Carus (282) 
Mign againse the ‘Pevatans; but the 
ng the froneiers Bote heavily upon 
onditions in Feieasine, as elsewhere in 
tehed indeed. 
i The reign of Gacdiet’s con. Judah 
pvetlto Tiberias, Pine divsa)tion was still 
pa. though There tRiankerior schoi- 


nporaries, he @Ax wersA Bpon as a 
escope in friintan ecicban: ‘@ activity. 


pitas & 
; ; 


ty Bo pang, roe the 


us t not be interr ies eos Mea ar 

ng of the Tema, i. ete: ten age e 
ople by reason af fie we gn etme od the 
from | the Hisdans awe > eet bis 
permissios to Dit ae » ink: Aes. Beuae,. Bus 


Judab 1. weve = nade 5H Sa$S-275) 


decésscrs; ieee 
1d E mipre mito tex. Aeiteice es, jpoamhegnt oon- 
Re dada Eis wiles i: ytundtather’s 

7 | pats coanaiontant 


—e of the laser. This derinion was. 


aA. He was succeeded by is éldest son 
% ‘one (225-255), Tiavgkes of the patri- 


the second | uelste. oa et possess his. 


[to “ssedagi ce i eewtion by. 


5 F820). Neithes mateges! Sx% ter fosition 
ge ae pate be school 


On 


a 


”? y 
ties 
Relinctace 
3 
$ 
ry 


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. = % 
, 
bi 9g 
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m 
i 
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YOR a 
ea st 
4 
¥ 7 Ke 
a 
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} ie 
: ¥ os 
J os a | 


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hy " 
thoi 

« 
"hs 
ee 
rf 
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La 
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Me £2 6 Foe 


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mons 


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Evel, Ba: 


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217-320] THE SUCCESSORS OF JUDAH I. 225 


captive (260) affected Palestine, which after the check to 
the Persian arms inflicted by Odainath, prince of Palmyra, 
passed under the sway of the latter. This dominion was 
terminated so soon as the Palmyrenes, at first acting in con- 
cert with the Romans, had begun to encroach upon territory 
of the empire; Odainath’s widow, the energetic queen Zeno- 
bia, was dethroned by emperor Aurelian (272). Palestine 
thus was brought back under the rule of Rome. Carus (282) 
led a successful campaign against the Persians; but the 
increasing cost of defending the frontiers bore heavily upon 
the taxpayers, and conditions in Palestine, as elsewhere in 
the empire, were wretched indeed. 

Judah died about 217. He was succeeded by his eldest son 
Gamaliel IIT. (217—225). The reign of Gamaliel’s son, Judah 
II., was a much longer one (225-255). The seat of the patri- 
archate was now removed to Tiberias. The position was still 
one of glamor; though the second Judah did not possess his 
grandfather’s learning and though there were superior schol- 
ars among his contemporaries, he was looked upon as a 
leader and found ample scope in fruitful communal activity. 
Thus he endeavored to perfect elementary education by 
organizing schools in all towns and villages, holding that the 
world is sustained by the breath of school children and that 
their instruction must not be interrupted even for so worthy 
a cause as the building of the Temple. In order to alleviate 
the distress of the people by reason of the devastation of the 
country resulting from the Hadrianic war, Judah and his 
colleagues gave permission to buy oil from non-Jews, thus 
revoking an earlier measure. 

The successors of Judah II. were Gamaliel IV. (255-275) 
and Judah III. (275-320). Neither commanded the position 
held by their predecessors; the leadership in the school 
passed more and more into the hands of prominent con- 
temporary scholars. Judah III. followed his grandfather’s 
example in improving elementary education. It was charged 
against the patriarch that he appointed as judges unworthy 
men who bought their positions. One of the younger scholars 
applied to such an appointee the Scriptural verse (Habak- 


226 THE LAST PATRIARCHS 


kuk 2, 19): ‘Woe unto him that saith to the wood, Awake, 
to the dumb stone, Arise! Can this teach? behold, it is over- 
laid with gold and silver, and there is no spirit at all therein.’ 
When once the patriarch complained about the extortionate 
practices of the Roman governor and how difficult it was 
always to meet them, a scholar advised him to take nothing 
if he wished to give nothing. Gifts poured in from all parts of 
the Dispersion and were largely appropriated for the main- 
tenance of the patriarchal station. The scholars who received 
but a meager share grumbled, the more so since they were 
not exempted from contributing to the support of com- 
munal institutions along with other more opulent persons. 
Under these conditions the scholastic leadership passed 
out of the control of the patriarch. The students frequented 
the schools of those teachers who stood out preéminently by 
virtue of their knowledge and intellect. The lectures turned 
now not so much upon absorbing the traditional matter (that 
was now available in the Mishnah which every scholar was 
expected to know by heart), as upon its discussion for the 
purpose of reaching new deductions and of formulating the 
law. Such instruction was called Talmud (Dialectical Exposi- 
tion); the language in which the argumentation was carried 
on was the popular speech, which was the Aramaic as spoken 
in Galilee. The greatest master in this art was Johanan, 
whose father was a humble smith (hence the son was called 
Bar Nappaha, the smith’s son). Left orphaned in early child- 
hood, he had a hard struggle, and for a time engaged in busi- 
ness; but he realized that his vocation was to be a scholar, 
though it entailed a life of privation. As he humorously said, 
he must prove in his own person the truth that ‘the poor 
shall never cease out of the land.’ In his early youth he had 
been among the youngest pupils of Judah I., sitting some 
seventeen rows behind the Babylonian Rab (p. 236) and 
quite unable to follow the discussion. His principal teacher 
was Jannai; he also attended the lectures of Hanina and for 
thirteen years or more those of Hoshaiah at Caesarea. 
Johanan taught at first at Sepphoris, and then at Tiberias. 
Of all the contemporary scholars, he was the only one to 


NAN AND SIMON SON OF LAKISH 227 


th: fudah 11. deferred, humeoring him tn his 
ition and bestowing tipen hitm a pension. Yet 

i es often overbearing towords his equals, 
Bie egies: person, even a avn Pe was toler- 
in dissenters and even «if apostates, being 
wort sof wisdom frora tim-Jews. He had 
| agape and desraunter) of the true 


stained 1 by. his preaching, ait ei = pee Oe 
aC rie had a large circle of attettnts whom he 
und miztter of the Misimab, Lacend to: be 


aye es the Palestinian Talmud, which in 
i ever it was completed) dates from the 
h-of the patriarchate and the based of 


ie 


Anstitution: %, 


lbevaited upon Wie to i etivdoti his 
g sister in marriage, and made of him | 
‘master swordsman. arproved him- 
skilful in parryi axgactents., He 
rhether the a, ar any of his | 


¢ ¥ 4 
4 f 
re . ' - af aie ie 
o : + Ln a Se i SS eal. t q Maree ie 
gett, Ni cai wr aa a Se a ee wi Pas 4 A ‘ 
aye 7h aaa aa 
: ae 
ae < eis 
& > 
ee 
;= 
* PY 
Pits va > 
PP 
aia # 
gakrs 
5 7 


ages Fe 1%) Mk. Se er A aes a ee ES 
vs nit Awe jaeienth, 
t oe Sat Ty Ra ak ae 1k ee ee 
i : i ‘ 
4 ¥ 4 ‘ “ > a Muerte are *, 
: Se Wee a ue he] Gal te Pe i; LE cir 4 lage a at 


& 
j 


: = 7 . a > 3 
(Sie Re gh akg aa SeRethy 


Se val + oso | 
ae toe by 
rite 5 | B Maley 
, ¢ ad ~y i 
ae 
¢ Sera to 4 yet 
- ] y ekg 
t 2 Wy 
, 
ae Fa So “ % Je, 
hs + yt 
bolt Fine L ack 
 . 7 
eo } os 7 & 
. ae oS me we 
‘ i fame * t 
‘ a 
& he % Cope Se + 2 ‘ 7 
Ln a +e 8) : c rt pet A 


gaz ¢ : 
Soar ut Vics = 
- ” 

me SN ; rw 


2794 JOHANAN AND SIMON SON OF LAKISH 227 


whom the patriarch Judah II. deferred, humoring him in his 
dislike of opposition and bestowing upon him a pension. Yet 
this scholar who was often overbearing towards his equals, 
was kindly to the meanest person, even a slave. He was toler- 
ant of the Samaritan dissenters and even of apostates, being 
willing to accept words of wisdom from non-Jews. He had 
a high conception of scholarship and demanded of the true 
scholar absolute devotion to the Torah for her own sake. 
He made much of public worship. He was loved by the peo- 
ple whom he sustained by his preaching, and he practised 
what he preached. He had a large circle of students whom he 
taught how to sift the matter of the Mishnah, how to be 
exact in its exposition, and how to expand the traditional 
lore and secure its hold upon the people. Johanan’s authority 
was unquestioned beyond the confines of his own country, 
just as he admired the scholarship of the Babylonian teachers. 
He lived to a ripe old age, his death occurring about 279, 
and left the foundations of the Palestinian Talmud, which in 
its completed form (if ever it was completed) dates from the 
time of the extinction of the patriarchate and the closing of 
_the higher scholastic institutions. 

Johanan’s colleague, Simon son of Lakish, was a man of 
powerful physique, who in his younger days was thrown in 
with gladiators. Johanan prevailed upon him to abandon his 
occupation, gave him his sister in marriage, and made of him 
a scholar. The erstwhile master swordsman approved him- 
self as keen a debater, skilful in parrying arguments. He 
would truckle to none, whether the patriarch or any of his 
colleagues or even his teacher Johanan. Many a time he 

es listened to the praises which a ripe scholar like Jannai sang 
«> of his brother-in-law, and then insisted that Johanan was 
wrong after all. Nor would Simon put up with any and every 
» extraneous Mishnah unless it could be proved trustworthy. 
He was also free in his opinions on Scriptural matter, as 
when he pronounced the narrative concerning Job, including 
the controversy between God and Satan, a poetic fiction. He 
was a thorough Palestinian and looked down upon the Baby- 
lonian Jews, their boasted pedigrees as well as their preten- 


228 THE LAST PATRIARCHS 


sions to learning. He spoke quite deprecatingly of even so 
notable a Babylonian teacher as Rab. Still the man who, 
though the equal neither of Johanan in founding a school nor 
of Simon in argumentative skill, was a worthy third, hailed 
from Babylonia. Eleazar son of Pedath received his early 
education at home; in Palestine he attended the lectures of 
Hiya, Hoshaiah, and Jannai; when Johanan passed away he 
took his place, and his countrymen in Babylonia referred to 
him with pride as the master of the Land of Israel. 

The scholars that followed, whether at Tiberias or else- 
where in Palestine, were for the most part either Babylo- 
nians by birth or studied for some time in Babylonia. Occu- 
pation with the talmudic development of the traditional 
lore continued, but the branch upon which the Palestinian 
teachers of the later generations threw themselves with par- 
ticular zest was the collection of homilies. The patriarchs, 
with one exception, were men of mediocre caliber who exerted © 
no appreciable influence upon the spiritual life of the peo- 
ple; but as functionaries they enjoyed the recognition of the 
emperors. During the administration of Judah III., Palestine 
with Syria was ruled by Diocletian (284-305), who granted 
to the Jews immunity from taking part in the state cult. 
The Samaritans, who had to submit to such participation, 
were henceforth treated by the Jews as heathens. Thus the 
conciliatory policy, which it had still been possible for 
Johanan to maintain, was definitely abandoned. 

Then, under Constantine the Great (311-337), came that 
momentous turn which in the long run subjected the Jews of 
the empire to the dominion of the cross. Among the early 
followers of Jesus there were Jews who came from the Dis- 
persion and were given to a freer interpretation of Judaism. 
The seeds sown by them ripened at Antioch; there the name 
‘Christian’ sprang up, and there the first Gentile church was 
founded. There, too, the new religion was created when the 
scruples of the conservative Peter were overcome and Paul 
of Tarsus proclaimed the abrogation of the Mosaic Law. 
The ‘apostle to the Gentiles’ envisaged the Church of God 
as one and dual at the same time, in which Jew and Greek 


1 & CHRISTIAN EMPERORS 229 


» He thaitefore les the ‘Grerogatives. of 
he Panicient gifts of grace and the election 
@ inherent logic of the Paiiline position, 
a dethronement of the Jewish, people. 
ple claimed that the dle'tion from the 
, They appropriated the Oid Testa- 
d no longer the Jews guevession, and 
husdespoiled wis cost off by thwtioug hter. With 
ons the Church, intrinsically # transformed 
to the world. Despite jetreseutions, as 
Punder Diccletian (7406), it cap- 
ry of the hollowness @f feganism by 
peruth stripped of -ainina reremonies 
vie Mitvian Bridge (xen) trad done 
| Christianity i in the Weaf, fae defeat of 
sat Ad HeepHe (323) attetaplished in. 
‘of tolerat i issued wt Mate (243), all 
; hence also the Jews, had heen given 
‘oless Whatever religion ' they. «howe. Juda- 
is hei Sag m, ever Bein me higinaaly ere 


asters leas Nawits donianninni ies: tide. 
Molestation vi lewish empire i Chris- 
forbiddés. Oppression by ayeetad under- 
ib catise of frieiion. | 
ntius If. (437-461), when ‘hei bein’ 
vallus was ruler im the Kost, dptiacne be- 
army ii to local outtresde whit were 
Commande: t/rsicinus with fearful severity 
i& Sepphoris, and Lod were destanyed. ‘Thus 
vish learning received ‘their deathly blow. The 
| Th: 4380 343) was the last outstanding figure 
« of the Haviriqus family fenieadtont iy his name- 


p in vf all t60 o short duration was s-aftoretod 3 
a D Fraction under Jolian the Aposkare {S63--368). 


* Ab seed wre quite ; 
ee Shs: 4, Re eeeae paneer ae 
#8 Ye “" ate Le we shill, was a we 
resem 2 bch deli sa aia wet Pedi | 

A fete Jaiae a ene Se 
(Mae pad Dee : When 


ames oF; ay PT erin, hel 

joy the 

we oe BE 5 es Set ee ; 

See yh ea eas carve 

(pnt Se Ve hnbgeasces 

pai : Ley Gaia iat eS : 
¥ Se t fos ef ah 

pe AES) ro Ve 


mer | 


« 


rs a é bce a 3 


st tes * noel 
, BY poapn Om “anes alieg § 


~ 


S pt Sento) Ow OF them died ied sey: 
he st Caen 


rane io ang Thee, F 


; a4YTe* > ay oat. y ao ie ake e és er 
oH ONE ANG GUA at the same taaey aie 


323-361] THE CHRISTIAN EMPERORS 229 


had each his place. He therefore left the prerogatives of 
Israel untouched; the ancient gifts of grace and the election 
were irrevocable. The inherent logic of the Pauline position, 
however, made for a dethronement of the Jewish people. 
The new Christian people claimed that the election from the 
start was for themselves. They appropriated the Old Testa- 
ment as their own and no longer the Jews’ possession, and 
the mother thus despoiled was cast off by the daughter. With 
these pretensions the Church, intrinsically a transformed 
Judaism, offered itself to the world. Despite persecutions, as 
under Nero and then under Diocletian (284-305), it cap- 
tured a humanity weary of the hollowness of paganism by 
a residue of the Jewish truth stripped of Jewish ceremonies 
and national limitations. 

What the victory at the Milvian Bridge (312) had done 
for the ascendancy of Christianity in the West, the defeat of 
the co-emperor Licinius at oe e (323) accomplished in 
the East. By the edict of toleration issued at Milan (313), all 
subjects of the empire, hence also the Jews, had been given 
the freedom to profess whatever religion they chose. Juda- 
ism continued to be a licit religion, even after the first steps 
had been taken at the Council of Nicea (325) to establish 
Christianity as the state religion. But Judaism was to be 
practised by those who were born Jews; conversion to Juda- 
ism as well as the molestation of Jewish converts to Chris- 
tianity was strictly forbidden. Oppression by imperial under- 
lings was a frequent cause of friction. 

Under Constantius IJ. (337-361), when the emperor’s 
brother-in-law Gallus was ruler in the East, collisions be- 
tween Jews and the army led to local outbreaks which were 
put down by the commander Ursicinus with fearful severity 
(351). Tiberias, Sepphoris, and Lod were destroyed. Thus 
the seats of Jewish learning received their death-blow. The 
patriarch Hillel II. (320-365) was the last outstanding figure 
in the long line of the illustrious family founded by his name- 
sake Hillel the Elder. 

A favorable interlude of all too short duration was afforded 
by the pagan reaction under Julian the Apostate (361-363). 


230 | THE LAST PATRIARCHS [365-425 


Though distinctly hostile to Christianity and regarding the 
pagan philosophies as superior truths, he was tolerant of 
Judaism. In a letter addressed to the Jewish nation, he 
announced that he had committed to the flames the tax- 
rolls in which the Jews were charged with heavy burdens 
towards the imperial exchequer. As an evidence of further 
favor, which the Jews had little reason to be grateful for, he 
mentioned an order to his ‘brother, the venerable patriarch 
Hillel,’ to put a stop to collections of money through messen- 
gers for the upkeep of the patriarchate. The emperor, who 
was preparing a campaign against the Persians, hoped to 
enlist Jewish sympathies still further by the promise to 
rebuild the Temple upon his return. Unfortunately he died 
before this promise could be made good. 

The principle of toleration for the Jewish religion was 
maintained by the subsequent Christian emperors, notably 
by Theodosius I. (the Great, 379-395) and Theodosius II. 
(408-450). But under the influence of fanatical ecclesiastics, 
the Jews were subjected to increasingly vexatious regulations 
with a view to reducing their number by conversions. It was 
entirely in the spirit of the churchmen that the Jews were 
designated as perverse and wicked and their sect as vile and 
bestial. In addition, Christian merchants and traders desired 
to rid themselves of Jewish competition. It became unlawful 
for Jews to circumcise their slaves or to own Christian slaves. 
Jews were not to exercise authority over Christians and must 
therefore be debarred from public office. Intermarriage be- 
tween Jews and Christians was made a criminal offense. 
Palestine was more and more overrun by Christians, and 
Jewish economic life was rendered precarious. The schools 
were Closed for lack of support. Hillel II. was succeeded by 
Gamaliel V. (365-385), and he in turn by Judah EV. (385- 
400); but when Gamaliel VI. (400-425) died without male 
issue, the emperor Theodosius II. abolished the patriarchal 
office altogether. Thus the last semblance of visible national 
organization, maintained in Palestine for upward of three 
centuries, was no more, and the headship in Jewish affairs 
passed over from the mother-country to other centers. 


rs 


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THE BASTERN CENTER UNTIL THE 
EXTINCTION OF THE GAONATE 


(175-1038) 


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2 oaarre i XXXVI 
hi RAB AND AMO 
we ein Sse ete 7 
is Palestine, ead i lei tate pepacainig all 76 


oduoed mos Paw. “resco Bisits aences, sea 
pet Geeish life. This 

sedits bes voinge mete Babylo- . 

<a “dni aD rahi basin shel eu trans- 


eae Ears inf eomate went forth 
te repeople the wasie Piette of iudes, the 
emainec pr. They Wages those that - 
“ : “i 4 ei van reatored 
ever i RSE: i: *‘Ghiitenance 
poopie the lead oe xe By a mat- 
eWol to be wean Viet, down 
patriacch Judah f,. a Mpeedan Jewry: Fe 
background Land had wh ae a, Matary of casa 
it 


| athe Jews beyonit ior weal iaienies were 
‘The gost import pve paises were 
ae junction of es ae oe ee, ancl, ee 


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CHAPTER XXXVI 
RAB AND SAMUEL 
(175-254) 


EXT to Palestine, and in a manner surpassing all the 
N Jewish settlements in the west, the Babylonian 

center produced most far-reaching influences, which 
strengthened Jewish resistance and shaped Jewish life. This 
eastern seat of Jewry had its beginnings in the two Babylo- 
nian deportations (p. 110, 112). We saw how the trans- 
planted Jews, the best part of the nation, fared during the 
first fifty years (p. 114-117). When with Sheshbazzar (p. 
119) and subsequently with Ezra (p. 122) colonies went forth 
from Babylonia to repeople the waste places of Judea, the 
great majority remained behind. They supplied those that 
returned with funds (p. 122); they took pride in the restored 
community and ever after contributed to the maintenance 
of the Temple. They accepted the lead of Palestine as a mat- 
ter of course. It is therefore not to be wondered at that, down 
to the times of the patriarch Judah I., Babylonian Jewry 
remained in the background and had as it were no history of 
its Own. , 

Yet in Roman times the Jews beyond the Euphrates were 
counted by millions. The most important communities were 
those of Nehardea, at the junction of the Euphrates and the 
Royal Canal; Nisibis and Mahoza on the same canal; 
Pumbeditha; Sura, also called Mahaseia. But Jews lived 
also outside the large cities, in villages and hamlets. Farm- 
ing and cattle-raising were their principal occupations. The 
ground was owned by the rich and leased at exorbitant rates. 
The men who tilled the soil underwent great hardships, as 
they toiled to convey the waters from the canals to the irriga- 
tion ditches or strove to keep them from overflowing. Taxes 
were high, and the tax-gatherers ruthless. Yet, in the popu- 
lar estimation, ‘a yoke of arable land was worth more than a 
store of merchandise.’ 


233 


234 RAB AND SAMUEL 


The artisan accounted himself a happier man: “seven years 
of famine, but never did it cross the threshold of the crafts- 
man.’ Jews labored as bakers and brewers, weavers, dyers, 
and tailors, ship-builders and wood-cutters; we find among 
them blacksmiths and tanners, fishermen, sailors, and porters. 
The farmer took his produce to town once a week; in the 
market, each trade had its own stall, and a market inspector 
watched over the measures and weights and settled disputes 
according to law and custom. There were street-vendors and 
retail traffickers, eking out a modest living, and then the 
princes of commerce who exported grain, wine, wool, and 
flax, and imported silks, iron, and precious stones. The man 
of business suffered less at the hands of the government and 
lived better; the rich merchants, who traveled by water or 
by caravan route to distant marts, led a life of luxury, amid 
a retinue of slaves and menials. 

Slaves were frequently made free. It occasionally hap- 
pened that a freedman married a Jewess, or that a Jew took 
to wife a former slave. But such alliances were frowned upon, 
and a public record of them was kept in order that none 
might marry into the disgraced family. Purity of blood was 
made much of by the Babylonian Jews. People married early 
in life, the young men between eighteen and twenty, and the 


girls still younger. Marriage followed betrothal: after a’ 


twelve months’ interval or a shorter period, when the bride 


was led to the home of her husband with music and lighted 


tapers amid great festivity. Frequently a father bestowed 
a house upon his son; it was not good form to dwell in the 
home of one’s father-in-law. The women were given to per- 
sonal adornment and the use of cosmetics; it was a mark 
of modesty for a woman to paint but one eye. The women 
folk had their own chambers, and the tasks of the household 
absorbed their attention. Mothers looked to the education of 
their children. The wife was held in high esteem. Polygamy, 
it seems, was rare. Life was not exactly free from care; but 
on the whole the people were merry, good-natured, and 
sociable. They appreciated humor and were fond of music; 
the holidays were occasions of veritable joy. | 


Pah - h . 


THE EXWLARCE 3 235 


; life was ordered om the whole after the 
mi (p. 209 &.). Tie Iigtextt wllicial of Baby- 
8 ‘the exilarch (Rest Tackett, ‘Head of the 
This.office marked the @w eucating point of 
m Those wo held if: teaeedt sine ancestry to 
/i din the male How a Se looked up 


igs uae tgane were alia 
stiture was a hightetkBoaer act. It was 


| leaders lay ‘and epepiaay ee laying on 
a ae ai ot fers ore goin 


a. a ee as ve her: the 
8 would as offen as ieae rte teen away be- 
ritual ieeaphasibeaad Eh Oe peeenration 


salwayn > wbste Gok: Whebinapyearcd 


i ont-es aod ciwer irene | The mem- 
rtec three. 92 an Be, be .. The 
praltic sik od aig wink ai in 
n eats). Srok Wes em one 
a lion, = Ree. % juntas oo. 


ch oda t. ee int wa HEVEFEnOe before the 
ABE, ss» « ert 238). 


On anert in ‘piu matters, 


OMe the sain at is oak eaten anew. 


n ‘eagintnedaonadali besenet men, 


q he OP 7 
942 kaw Pt aA s e. 
ages P oe 


The artisan accouliiod lernahee 
of famine bie never a eek & 
Pete? few Into? oo maker awl 
aa@ tations. ship-lsukleve and eerie 
theme, blacksmiths ak hiner «, Gsleete 3 
*% e darmer took he DR hiner! Tey % 
peed ricet. each git eee tt own atuitl: 

Stitched over the memes ated wig hts 
aroording to law ancl canton Theres : 
retail trafiickete athe Ct vanchent 
erwmices of cx rie rr when expen ted 
flax, and imporied wii ls, shone A. easel: pr 
of business suffered lege a7 4h hanel 
ved better: ths wy ryyaies iets: who tr vi 
by caravan route to ¢ ihe Lane peabates | fi 
4 retinue of slaves and meryigs es 

Miaves were ire eorghy ceaehe bias 
pened that a rasta ces Tee eR ge jew 
ro wife'a former slave: Bact aly wane ce 
and a public record ef enti was Bepe. 
might marry into the diverared? faniit 
. made much of iy ihe Hilovenitns Tews. 
in life, the your mist beteeh Sigh heer 
girls still younger. Matrage Solow 
twelve months’ ipterval or @ehaeier me 
Was led Te the home of biker haba wr 
tapers amid great festivity, Pipe 
a house upon his son: H was hast goad 
home of orie’s fathersin-law. Pie wart 
sonal adornment and the use a ee 
of modesty for a wortan so goin tat 
folk had thetr own chambers, and hee 
absorbed their attention. Mothen ool 
their children. The wife wag held high. 
it sterms, was rare. Life w ‘ae thet exact 
on the whole the people ware merry, : 
sociable. They appreciated hummer ap 
the holidays were occasions of veelts 


CHOW 


4 is 


ge 


THE EXILARCH 235 


The. communal life was ordered on the whole after the 
Palestinian pattern (p. 209 ff.). The highest official of Baby- 
lonian Jewry was the exilarch (Resh Galutha, ‘Head of the 
Captivity’). This office marked the culminating point of 
Jewish autonomy. Those who held it traced their ancestry to 
the house of David in the male line. The Jews looked up 
with pride to this dignitary and willingly submitted to his 
authority. The Persian court considered him as the repre- 
sentative of Jewry, answerable for whatever taxes were levied 
-upon them. His investiture was a highly solemn act. It was 
participated in by leaders lay and spiritual, with laying on 
of hands and blowing of trumpets; on the sabbath following 
the elevation an elaborate service was held when the new 
prince was acclaimed. 

Enriched by gifts from his ARES: people and in posses- 
sion of extensive estates, the exilarch maintained an almost 
regal establishment. At his table rich and varied dishes were 
served and wine flowed freely. The company included a host 
of poor scholars who wore a badge as his dependents; the 
more punctilious would as often as feasible keep away be- 
cause they suspected ritual irregularities in the preparation 
of the food. On the festivals the people thronged about the 
palace. The prince was always richly clad. When he appeared 
at court, as for example on the occasion of the Persian new 
year when he carried with him a gift of money, he wore a 
wide belt inwoven with gold and silver threads. The mem- 
bers of his suite disported themselves in silk garments. The 
prince’s seal bore the heraldic device of a fly. So at least in 
later times; but at an earlier period the seal was adorned 
with the design of a lion, the lion of Judah. 

Certain of these princes were unquestionably learned men. 
Thus the patriarch Judah I. bowed in reverence before the 
exilarch Huna; Ukba II. was a disciple of Samuel (p. 238). 
For the most part the exilarchs depended upon the counsel of 
the heads of the colleges, who at a later period composed for 
them their inaugural addresses, until at last the speech was 
delivered by the ‘Excellency’ (Gaon) of Sura. But the prince 
was duly advised of weighty decisions in spiritual matters. 


236 RAB AND SAMUEL 


In his palace sat one of the high courts of appeals. He rarely 
presided over this court. Still the ‘judges of the gate’ dis- 
pensed justice in his name; his word was law in all matters of 
‘nternal administration and his authority unquestioned, to 
impose fines, to chastise and imprison delinquents. It was a 
harsh rule which at times led to mutterings; but even then 
it was the abuse of power by subordinate officials rather than 
the office itself that aroused opposition. 

Any learned man in a community was competent to 
decide civil suits (criminal cases were heard before a college 
of three judges); still one confirmed by the exilarch or 
directly appointed by him had the advantage that he could 
not be sued for damages for an error of judgment. The judges, 
unsalaried and barred from accepting fees, had the power to 
inflict corporal punishment or to imprison and to pronounce 
the ban; if they were properly authorized, also to impose 
fines. It was furthermore within the province of a judge to 
remove the communal council, to appoint physicians and 
collectors of charity, and to proclaim fast days. 

The man who laid the foundation upon which the life of 
the Babylonian Jews rested and gave it direction was Rab, 
‘Master’ par excellence, as his admirers called him. His name 
was Abba. He was of towering stature (hence he was sur- 
named Arika, ‘the Tall’); he once remarked jestingly that 
he had a commanding range of vision. Though affable and 
agreeable, he was not given to compromise. Of Babylonian 
birth and the son of well-to-do parents, he passed under the 
tutelage of his uncle Hiya who had settled in Palestine. 
There Rab was privileged to sit at the feet of Judah I. and 
to amass a stock of knowledge which made him a ‘full man 
in all things.’ For some reason or other he failed of obtaining 
complete ordination; his efforts, even at a later period, to 
have the scope of his authority widened somehow proved 
futile. Unlike Hiya, as soon as his apprenticeship was over, 
he returned to his native land. He was eagerly received by 
such men as the judge Karna and Samuel; for a while he 
assisted Shila, then presiding over the academy of Nehardea, 
as ‘interpreter’ (Amora), expounding the master’s lectures. 


et. “rain peor a wea ae 
. es Pea sia rns but he 
eupaga who was a 


sep i, Ling ROSE Rye wawktion ortied 

liad See wad’ Se skcerving the lax 
ditions a: aoe: adie & conftict with 
‘result Ses a Bygetaes e 5 Reet his friend 
at hime. Wee ae 


he ews dee: iw ignorance vii 
new ae, wink nheed. the older 


ee ee i wan if Rab that 
in asec weit oe ight ees Fe led the 


~ host o pupils, me 2 eee the day 
ing as farm bends ous joes. 4. “Tp the. two 
g spring and autuntes His 3 baths months 


Ly ‘out, from morning Shick: Giink; gattrered 


crowds of nee | 
in phe school Wiielatie Show «aby: of 


im Palestine. eh BarRE 2: late the dows 
Ban lathe: in the Hiagerient. at been 
en upon Else: Palestiartey Hei Firsts ard his 
Main ascsccl to Mayes & shewttors, since 
whore: weer ae ‘etert in their 
e tha éasaitel be hea ue Map achools of 
| ist paactice rather 

Tox y thas : he the Ane pce settiement of 
a had hee reached gue Hiwwet recorded, the 
mywher bari yay themnset vag with the Why and 

. re (ith a exposition of the underlying theory, 


Bes 
pT ie 


gh oal Lawebaied er Beaght interrup-. 


ervance of Judabeag® cxgetled pos-— 
t to the prohibitionieiy ies ae sought — 
ity. fy the earign kee: he weak late at~ 


lemiber), sonic twelve MElsvtien! students - 


+, In the week before tae, soa vioadeatumn 
mon matter ce Ves Ga were | 


Smaapach mi the Mighasy Gi. Pas had 


; igs a kth : eo qo & i . Me oye 3) cme 
sated an Ube aE 8 “ctr 
7 % ¥ y wy 


4 rege. ‘ 
eee! BA 


me 23 ee = 
Behe: rt 
2% ae x % 
5 Liel oF 
"ih oreo e 
: ae x : 
ea os + ut 
as 
: 
‘ ie 
am Se 
sd <i ) 
% -e +; 
tee Ey : 
2 raed F 
f 
igs oo a4 


os ee | e] e — 
Phere Rab was prioviieged 7 
{Q amass a ale of innowtedige whied 


1 FE +2 re | hi are , 
oe all things.’ Por seu reg oon ie 


such inen as the judge Karna # 


e Ohi 3 eee : ms 
as isigted ea, then Tres eae over he 


ee 
i 2 aan 5 


as ‘biterpretes (FAT 


THE SCHOOL AT SURA 237 


When Shila passed away, Rab was to be his successor; but he 
retired in favor of his younger colleague Samuel, who was a 
Nehardean by birth. Rab had previously been appointed by 
the exilarch inspector of markets, and this position afforded 
him an opportunity for travel and for observing the lax 
religious conditions among the country folk. A conflict with 
the exilarch resulted in his imprisonment, but his friend 
Karna intervened to set him free. 

Rab determined to create a sphere of activity for himself. 
In the far-off Sura, where he knew that dense ignorance pre- 
vailed, he founded a new school, which eclipsed the older 
seat of learning at Nehardea and lasted with slight interrup- 
tions for nearly eight centuries. It was well said of Rab that 
‘he found an open plain and left it fenced in.’ He led the 
people to a strict observance of Judaism and compelled pos- 
terity to give assent to the prohibitions by which he sought 
to overcome ritual laxity. In the early morning and late at 
night Rab taught a host of pupils, who during the day 
earned their living as farm hands out of town. In the two 
months preceding spring and autumn, the Kalla months 
(March and September), some twelve thousand students 
day in and day out, from morning till evening, gathered 
about their master. In the week before the spring and autumn 
festivals, public discourses on matters of Jewish law were 
delivered before enormous crowds of laymen. 

The subject taught in the school was the whole body of 
tradition as it lay codified in the Mishnah which Rab had 
brought with him from Palestine. Up to that time the Jews 
of Babylonia, as elsewhere in the Dispersion, had been 
wholly dependent upon the Palestinian patriarch and his 
Sanhedrin for decisions in regard to religious questions, since 
in numberless instances scholars were far apart in their 
opinions. All therefore that could be taught in the schools of 
distant lands was confined to acknowledged practice rather 
than theory. Now that in the main a definitive settlement of 
all past disputes had been reached and stood recorded, the 
schools anywhere might busy themselves with the Why and 
the Wherefore, with an exposition of the underlying theory, 


938 RAB AND SAMUEL [247 


of ramifications and deductions, in short with the whole 
range of Talmud as supplementary to the Mishnah. A deci- 
sion arrived at by Rab would accordingly be as binding as 
any proceeding from the Palestinian schools. Rab elucidated 
to his compatriots many an unfamiliar and archaic expres- 
sion in the Mishnah by recourse to the Scriptures. Similarly 
he found in the Scriptural word unlooked-for foundation for 
novel deductions and all sorts of regulations, in part perhaps 
called for by the local conditions. : 

Thus, whether as teacher or preacher or active judge, Rab 
endeavored to regulate judicial procedure, to induce men of 
learning to serve as judges, to improve the people’s morals 
by lending sanctity to marriage and rendering divorce more 
difficult. In his own home he exercised infinite patience with 
his contentious wife; humble and forgiving, he was beloved 
of all men, and his school with its synagogue was spoken of 
as a ‘little sanctuary’ (Ezekiel 11, 16). His death in 247 was 
universally mourned; all of his pupils followed his body to 
the grave. For a year the myrtle and the boughs of the palm- 
tree were dispensed with at weddings. As religious questions 
came up which baffled the ingenuity of the younger genera- 
tion, it was realized all too keenly that the father of Jewish 
learning in Babylonia was gone. 

Rab’s superiority was recognized by none more readily 
than by his former classmate and lifelong friend, Samuel. 
‘The man is departed, of whom I stood in awe.’ And yet 
Samuel possessed a fund of qualities which made him a nota- 
ble complement to his colleague. He was for one thing more 
versatile. Even before his student years in the school of 
Rabbi he had begun his studies in medicine; he prescribed 
for his teacher when troubled with an affection of his sight, 
and the patriarch was grieved that somehow he was denied 
the opportunity of naming Samuel master through the 
process of ordination. A salve for the eyes prepared by 
Samuel was much in demand; through dissection, practised 
on the dead bodies of executed slaves, he became a master of 
anatomy, and the ailments of women engrossed his atten- 
tion. Above all he was given to the study of astronomy, and 


ae 


ae ee 


he neehae. tasepthay oth the paths of the 
Ee trs Nalei: ‘only the erratic 


pas. astrological super- 
eof “ie by deed him in good 
, a . eet calendar, which 
mf ite 44 Piiestine. Johanan, 
ancient intixx af determining the 
festive veo t fo year, : 
ay Seocavet: alized in civil 
mntnicnt the: bench enlarged his 
A his: wide: onding:. “oi legal prin- 
ons, ab WS ne jas. ‘peutrouncements 
@ Ceaeees, persone stithoritative in 
RAREST Segal Maxim of his 
ine ih ot} srioers not affecting re- 
gu upon ti: 2+. ‘After the death of 
ec tthe isiae sgh te Beene his suc: 


st vid ase: ad Faecal ak ites 
‘After the gia) of Rab, when for a 


rel wad, ERY Ax ‘Knowledged spiritual 
Jewry. Rak bese acholars found 
ab ish niformity if Pa -oclerof public service; 
of many an old prose: ss modified to express 
feenines. se aoe i =e Book of ae was 


sete the fas rete Alen) io the Day 


» Ke his ken. Unlike ° 


bof hewi) he new gehool atSura 


ear, 2 he ep BN ia Israel's hope 


i ish ea Bien arch “aiid antaotensetl 
rrine 02 Tatnod os supplementary 
Bice attiwed st by Kab would actem 
sok: wstiowedine from the eben 
re. ey Epes Mishna uf) "ea fee ‘ourse pre ‘ 
i? fnaiiyd ix the Scriptural word umloe 
soe! clecuctions and allsorts-of regu 
lat for by the local condrtions a? 
Phos, whether as teacher ‘or prea 
eodeavured tp regulate judicial prog 
narnitu be serve aa jdgea, tO impr } 
hy lending avhctity to mariage amd 
dificult. le bis-own home be exe rcised 
is Comtertios We; > humble and for 
of ali raen, and Awe echoal with ite 4 
aaa ‘little s techn pier it, 1a)e bes 


the grave. For a year the  meyetl e pe e 
ree were dispensed with at weddinge aa 
came up witich tex ae the 5 Oe 
ling in Babvienia was gone! 
Rab’s superiorit VY Was reeoenielll 
than by his fornver classmate and 
‘The man is departed, of whom 17 
Samuel possessec a fund of qualities ® 
bie complement ¢o bis colleague, Hes 
. iit. Even before his student 
cabbi he bad begun his stuciiesda 
tor his teacher when troubled aith am 
and the patriarch was grieved that se 
the opportunity of biscpisin Samuel 
process of ordination. A salve fopugs 
Samuel was much in vale marta ; through 
on the dead ‘hodies of executed slaved 

atatomy, and the ailments of womeneenl 
tlom, Above all he was given tothe ie 


SAMUEL » 239 


he could boast that he was as familiar with the paths of the 
sky as with the streets of his own Nehardea; only the erratic 
movements of shooting stars went beyond his ken. Unlike 
his Gentile friend Ablat, he repudiated all astrological super- 
stitions. His knowledge of astronomy stood him in good 
stead in working out by calculation a fixed calendar, which 
he sent to Johanan son of Nappaha in Palestine. Johanan, 
however, preferred the ancient method of determining the 
dates of new moons and festivals from year to year. __ 

In the field of jurisprudence, Samuel specialized in civil 
cases, and his early appointment to the bench enlarged his 
experience and deepened his understanding of legal prin- 
ciples so that his decisions, as well as his pronouncements 
later during his career as a teacher, became authoritative in 
this branch of the law. A far-reaching legal maxim of his 
makes the law of the state, in all matters not affecting: re- 
ligious practice, binding upon the Jew. After the death of 
Shila, when Rab declined the invitation to become his suc- 
cessor, Samuel presided over the school of his native city 
with great dignity and efficiency, excelling as he did in the 
handling of men and being on terms of friendship with the 
house of the exilarch. After the death of Rab, when for a 
number of years the office of head of the new school at Sura 
remained vacant, Samuel was the acknowledged spiritual 
leader of Babylonian Jewry. Both these scholars found 
leisure to establish uniformity in the order of public service; 
the wording of many an old prayer was modified to express 
the people’s deepest yearnings, and the Book of Prayer was 
enriched by new compositions from their own pen. Thus the 
shorter form of the Eighteen Benedictions was composed by 
Samuel, while Rab wrote the Adoration (Alenu) for the Day 
of the New Year, a rhythmic poem embodying Israel’s hope 
in the advent of the Kingdom of God. 


CHAPTER XxXXVII 
UNDER THE SASSANIANS. THE TALMUD OF BABYLON 


(254-632) 


r “ue times of Rab and Samuel, at least at the begin- 
ning of their careers, were propitious enough to 
prove helpful to their plans. The ruling dynasty of 

the Arsacids was favorably inclined to the Jews. Artaban 

IV. was personally acquainted with Rab and entertained a 

high regard for the Jewish scholar. When in 226 the Arsacid 

empire, which had endured for three centuries and a half, 
made way for the Sassanian or Neo-Persian, Rab exclaimed: 

‘The bond is broken.’ Fhe foreboding seemed all too well 

founded. The new king, Ardashir I. (226-241), had grown 

up under the influence of the fire-worshiping Magians, who 
scrupulously observed the expanded Zoroastrian ritual and 
were intolerant of all other creeds. The priests forbade the 
killing of animals for food unless certain parts were offered 
on their altars, thus practically making it impossible for the 

Jews to eat meat. As the Parsees were enjoined not to pollute 

the earth with corpses, the dead in Jewish burial-grounds 

were exhumed and cast out to the vultures and dogs; syna- 
gogues were destroyed and religious practices, like immer- 

sion, forbidden. The Jews accepted these visitations as a 

token of their sinfulness and were disposed to heed the 

admonitions of their teachers to redouble their zeal for their 

own faith. , . 

Samuel did his utmost to conciliate the government. His 
efforts met with success under the reign of Shapur I. (241- 
272), who was in need of money for his campaigns against 
the Roman provinces to the west and who, moreover, had a 
warm regard for Samuel. Out of deference to him, the king 
spared the lives of Jews in the conquered countries unless 
they offered resistance. When Samuel died in 254, Shapur 
had the whole of Syria in his hands; the emperor Valerian, 


240 


yt 
| ester bin: wad iei¢ated and: made 
thes victory wax ton frustrated by 
lt ip. 7253, whe twice forced the 
their capital Ctesiphon (203-205). As the 
umiyrenie with particnlar birterness, the 
el ir fury ¥pon Nehardea in which the Jew- 
edominater!, snc) razed thee Swurishing city 
e-blow prewe! fatal te ele achool built up 
v presided over ly gre al his pupils, 
i. When at length the aebcol found a 
»& Bev seat of jeaming had been 
hs 01 of Ezekiei a: Puctbeditia: this school 
mportance Kab = foundatiena: Sura, by the 
r bed for eight contaries; 
downs ip the life of these two principal 
i persoosliiics shed laste wpon the 
th which they were conmeeted and often 
rom the other insticurien fe times of 
HUM, 8 whe itu, Rat's successany ied after an 
ing Over forty years (257-297), tha: orphaned 
f the head «{ the sister. insti¢dtion. The 
Ss wer » known fox their keen intettect; often: 
on et Linte hair-splitting caswistry; it was 
it they made.en elephant pass through the 
bbe h se of Nahmani 1308-830) was 


heac of the Pambeditlas academy mets 
heéivg consulted, dhetew in its infu- 
hi SE iiteaguc Joseph, for the reason-that 
St erudition, garnered in aa-one ‘garners 


obtained the post; after Rabbah's 
cb pnlabeliecnicberadeper 
differed also temperamental : Joseph 
shisstudies. But Rabbeh-p Brave fet 
FR d a magnetic teacher; so many 
flocked te Bia Heiner toate wine de 


(hig = ae i 


; 


i S egreeph stepped aside ‘and. his more — 


260-330] THE SCHOOL AT PUMBEDITHA 241 


who marched to encounter him, was defeated and made 
prisoner (260). But this victory was soon frustrated by 
Odainath, prince of Palmyra (p. 225), who twice forced the 
Persians back to their capital Ctesiphon (263-265). As the 
Jews fought the Palmyrenes with particular bitterness, the 
invaders spent their fury upon Nehardea in which the Jew- 
ish population predominated, and razed the flourishing city 
to the ground. The blow proved fatal to the school built up 
by Samuel and now presided over by one of his pupils, 
Nahman son of Jacob. When at length the school found a 
resting place at Mahoza, a new seat of learning had been 
founded by Judah son of Ezekiel at Pumbeditha; this school 
soon rivaled in importance Rab’s foundation at Sura, by the 
side of which it continued for eight centuries. 

There were ups and downs in the life of these two principal 
academies. Outstanding personalities shed lustre upon the 
particular school with which they were connected and often 
attracted students from the other institution. In times of 
interregnum, as when Huna, Rab’s successor, died after an 
activity stretching over forty years (257-297), the orphaned 
school recognized the head of the sister institution. The 
Pumbedithans were known for their keen intellect; often 
their subtlety led them into hair-splitting casuistry; it was 
said of them that they made an elephant pass through the 
eye of a needle. Rabbah son of Nahmani (309-330) was 
famed as a dialectician, a veritable ‘mover of mountains’; 
his appointment as head of the Pumbeditha academy hung 
in the balance. Palestine, being consulted, threw in its influ- 
ence on the side of his colleague Joseph, for the reason that 
he commanded a vast erudition, garnered in as one ‘garners 
wheat’. Nevertheless Joseph stepped aside and his more 
brilliant contemporary obtained the post; after Rabbah’s 
death he succeeded him for the brief period of three years. 

The two scholars differed also temperamentally: Joseph 
was ofamild disposition, while Rabbah was harsh and entire- 
ly preoccupied with his studies. But Rabbah proved himself 
an ideal administrator and a magnetic teacher; so many 
thousands of students flocked to his lectures that he was de- 


242 | UNDER THE SASSANIANS 


nounced to the government for withdrawing them twice in 
the year from active work and thus entailing a loss in taxes 
to the treasury. The teacher fled, fearing punishment, and 
died on his flight. As legend has it, there was a division of 
opinion in the heavenly academy between God and the 
angels concerning a matter of impurity, God declaring it to 
be pure. It was agreed to refer the question to Rabbah who 
had specialized in the subject of pure and impure, though it 
had no longer any practical bearing upon life. As he pro- 
nounced, Pure, he expired, and a voice from heaven called 
out: ‘Happy art thou, Rabbah son of Nahmani, for thy body 
is pure, and thy soul is gone forth in purity.’ Posterity ruled 
that, with but few exceptions, the opinion of Rabbah was to 
be followed over the dissent of his colleague. Joseph’s 
strength lay in other directions. He was at home in the Scrip- 
tures as very few of the teachers were; he was also familiar 
with the Aramaic version which had been imported from 
Palestine, and he was a preacher cf marked impressiveness. 
The mantle of Rabbah fell upon his brother’s son Nah- 
mani, better known by his other name Abaye. He was left 
orphaned in his infancy and was cared for by his uncle, who 
early sought to develop and sharpen his reasoning faculties. 
But the young scholar soon passed over to the school of 
Joseph, and this teacher’s influence proved the stronger. 
Abaye, it is true, did not quite share Joseph’s disparage- 
ment of the dialectic method, and he held that a man might 
be a great scholar though one or the other tradition escaped 
him. But on the whole he set store by comprehensive knowl- 
edge. He lived in poverty and suffered privation, tilling his 
small plot of land in the night that he might be free to study 
all day long. His scrupulous honesty and charitable disposi- 
tion made him beloved of the people. He took an eager 
delight in the progress of any and all of his students; never- 
theless the number had dwindled considerably from what it 
had been under his predecessor. Young men were told that 
instead of munching bones with Abaye they might rather 
partake of rich meat with Raba at the new school which he 
maintained in Mahoza. | yf 


243 


, epg ha cee es ed two boys, their 
nce fF costae hig Questia ‘Who is it that we 
"The Ifa 8c (Soule > “Peer where is God?’ 

dh ee eG Fate, ject eased his finger 
The blocs jrone of Abaye was 


yiwas; barhiey vox pels - = Uw, the ruling 
Pas hove. Whi: Me sons passed away 
nedith, comme Was Eee ini the students 
Léa, wince he. Peres te stay in his” 
. Cree Bas. a ettctal head 
aa Rate Pass siieed all the 
t is activity of 1h S900 yemerations. 
tions of the schigahiy Pootbeditha as 
his tis fipked to FN ix Svea through 
Rabbah : and Josepit. Hei. ‘e *ara he had 

H wa whose a tik wee of a. 

ventually married. 

sk pate of Comment capee ie matter of 
“€normous!y’. Hig see: siied detected 
t unprotnicin: quate ye Che Scrip- 
eid the Torah or chiretgys wcctded sup-: 
t regulations. Serial # Be took his 
Aearhaie Cueto on aes - Liprnwems to 
public asserbicd for wnebie le the eyna- 
‘s itp the com preheniine if the taity the 
ce ad fe know | in order Wetniive shen, He 
apse aevings and 

Shee. ta conduct 

ead sites dewinl ps axe in Psalms, 
, anc aOR Senptural boeky: hamhing delighted 
t a the Eepowting prayer vie ‘Kaddish') in 
tin aon mgregation ferva:tty joie’, lel oving the name 
id, O students ve, demand ciemast sincerity ; 
Lhe monty with outward anduct, just as the 
nat, ws covered with gold within and with-_ 
y unless the fearvnt God were coupled 


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ay long. Hie serupulons pati ce. 
tion made him beloved! 


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mat, GSP UnRGEr 6 ’ ri 
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338] RABA AND ABAYE 243 


Both these men had studied together from early child- 
hood. In order to test the intelligence of the two boys, their 
teacher once put to them the question: ‘Who is it that we 
pray to?’—‘The Merciful One (God).’—‘But where is God?’ 
—Abaye pointed to the sky, but Raba just raised his finger 
toward the ceiling. The blunter intelligence of Abaye was 
not able to cope with the keen intellect of his colleague, close 
as their friendship was; barring six points of law, the ruling 
of Raba was accepted as norm. When Abaye passed away 
(338), the Pumbeditha school was closed and the students 
sought out Raba at Mahoza, since he preferred to stay in his 
own native town though he was recognized as official head 
in succession to his colleague. In Raba were united all the 
threads of the intellectual activity of the past generations. 
He carried on the traditions of the school of Pumbeditha as 
well as of that of Sura; he was linked to Pumbeditha through 
his associations with Rabbah and Joseph, and in Sura he had 
been trained by Hisda, whose daughter, the widow of a 
fellow-student, he eventually married. 

Under his hands the mass of comment upon the matter of 
the Mishnah grew enormously. His acute mind detected 
analogies in the most unpromising quarters, and the Scrip- 
tural word, whether in the Torah or elsewhere, yielded sup- 
port for traditional regulations. Seriously as he took his 
scholastic work, it was his custom on sabbath afternoons to 
address the large public assembled for worship in the syna- 
gogue, bringing down to the comprehension of the laity the 
things they must needs know in order to observe them. He 
would punctuate his remarks with homely sayings and 
quaint parables, and would drive home lessons in conduct 
and in religious steadfastness drawn from texts in Psalms, 
Proverbs, Job, and other Scriptural books. Nothing delighted 
him as much as the concluding prayer (the ‘Kaddish’) in 
which the congregation fervently joined, hallowing the name 
of God. Of his students he demanded utmost sincerity; 
thought should harmonize with outward conduct, just as the 
Ark of the covenant was covered with gold within and with- 
out. Mere learning, unless the fear of God were coupled 


244 UNDER THE SASSANIANS «(352-427 


therewith, would not ensure everlasting life. He said of him- 
self that he prayed for wisdom such as Huna’s and wealth 


such as Hisda enjoyed, and they were granted to him; but it 


was not given to him to be humble. This self-reproach must 
not be taken literally; he had no false pride about retracting 
a decision when convinced of its error. 

The times were not exactly favorable for study: one day’s 
evil was surpassed by the next day’s. The policy of Shapur 
II. (310-379), like that of his predecessors, was bent upon 
strengthening the national religion, and conflicts, though not 
serious ones, arose. Raba was fortunate in possessing the 
confidence of the royal court, and the king’s mother, Ifra 
Hormizd, whowas particularly devoted to the Jewish scholar, 
saved many an uncomfortable situation. It is significant 
that the prestige of the heads of the schools was beginning 
to overshadow the position of the exilarch, both in matters 
of representation at the court and in the eyes of Jewry 
within, so much so that official notifications concerning the 
calendar from Palestine were sent direct to Raba. 

Among the successors of Raba (died in 352), first at 
Mahoza and then in the older seat at Pumbeditha, there 
were no outstanding personalities, and they were com- 
pletely left in the background by the illustrious master of 
Sura, Ashi (375-427). The school building, erected in 293 
under Hisda, had fallen into decay; the new structure, as 
it rose under the personal supervision of the young master, 
overtopped all other dwellingsin the city. Theschool regained 
the prestige which it had enjoyed under Rab; it is here that 
the exilarch presented himself to receive the homage of his 
people, and the master of Sura outranked the head of Pum- 
beditha. Like Rabbi, Ashi commanded both learning and 
affluence. The times were tranquil, and for more than fifty 
years he presided over the school, taking up in the semi- 
annual Kalla sessions by turn one tractate after another so 
that by the time of his death the ground was not only cov- 
ered wholly but also gone over a second time. The accumu- 
lated sum of discussions had become so unwieldy that 
memory had to be aided by all sorts of mnemonic devices. 


wae 


si , that he created order out of chaos aud 
ae arrangement of the miateria! ane the 


shang together. Ashi laid the foundation for 
ork, the Babylonian Talmud, and his sue- 
ut tthe Lessig tanelee thereto 2 incor- 


ee 2S" 


get in during the retgn of jazdegerd 11. 
‘ait witiwful for te Hews co keep sab- 
even to recite the Cimfesston of the 
eroz (457-444) procesied anit) more viru- 
peal that two — wid been slain 


Ze OFOARLTE S| setaions "Ove © ap convoca- 
er s interdicted, and sepaeal keacling men, 
ening exilarch, were autem’: The fear 
| sap +s lore in n Fie hoy a eee unto- 


ctions te commen tae Dicanaions at 
fapalse had in his hepily pire acites in a 


ited form-which howeven; Silt wever publicly. 


ue» that o stad to be but one 


e et to peers: dans and the. ‘pen 
pare fre. te iad ies malantic activ- 


) * ASRI AND RA BINA IL i. 


ne Geaviey of the Arnoraint, as these builders. 
were called. was hastened fy o chain of per- 


% , th inte i hunvtyle. 
ter tabent bierally : Pe haved ond 
ee 


Pe ee ye 


Phe reo were not exactly Revere 
aay) by the ne x day's, 


Ce ewe ae HY am Ves, dowel i¢ 


a 
Efetrperseis, whe Wad PG particule 
epee eeaci\y tak. Cs ecuotortathe: a 
deat the presiige a ‘ehees coh buat me 


: 2 4 , Baie ie 
+ (FV GFen yah Wy Ta) puree 1f553 et be: 
‘ rem sent Uy ) a Tha xe Po a 
within, 0 miarn soon vast otfciah « 


AMO Y Gee * SCC Reso wt £ Rabe 
Mahesh ara 2 io the older wat 
were mo eustan “dae ters C6 Oy! 
pletely left inthe background By 

y 5-427). rhe wat: by 


Ht rose ander the person at nap 
\ se a ee ‘ * ae " eo 
omertopped all other dweRinge ss a 


the prestige wha Mt hag enjoyed 
the exilarca pre sented his siaell €o 
aie, and the siaster of Sura ont at 


beditha. Like Rabbi, Ashi 
'¢ , % ta ' Sub r, g* a me 5 
ghiuence. ihe iibes were tramneul 


mars he presided over the arhodh: 


annual Kalla sessions by 2c ole 
that hy the Gime of ns detith tha g 


iby oe also uO Ver Bt 
vied avis. of discussions hack 


twnhory had to he aided 


474-499] ASHI AND RABINA II. 245 


It is the merit of Ashi that he created order out of chaos and 
by a more systematic arrangement of the material caused the 
complex of questions and answers, of arguments and counter- 
arguments to hang together. Ashi laid the foundation for 
that gigantic work, the Babylonian Talmud, and his suc- 
cessors merely put the finishing touches thereto by incor- 
porating the opinions of Ashi himself and of teachers after 
him. 

The close of the activity of the Amoraim, as these builders 
of the Talmud were called, was hastened by a chain of per- 
secutions which had set in during the reign of Jazdegerd II. 
(438-457), who made it unlawful for the Jews to keep sab- 
bath and festivals or even to recite the Confession of the 
Unity (Shema‘). Peroz (457-484) proceeded still more viru- 
lently. Because of a charge that two Magians had been slain 
by Jews, one half of the Jewish population in Ispahan was 
put to death. Jewish children were taken away by force and 
brought up in the Zoroastrian religion. The large convoca- 
tions of students were interdicted, and several leading men, 
among them the reigning exilarch, were executed. The fear 
for the continuity of the oral lore in the face of these unto- 
ward circumstances led to a momentous step which was 
taken by the Suran master Rabina II. (474-499). Hitherto 
there had been objections to committing the discussions to 
writing. Many a scholar had in his hands stray notes in a 
much abbreviated form which, however, were never publicly 
exhibited; the feeling had been that there was to be but one 
written Torah. Now at last it seemed that the mass of tradi- 
tion could not be entrusted to memory alone and the pen 
of the scribe was given free scope. Thus the scholastic activ- 
ity of three centuries and of more than a thousand scholars 
was turned into a book, the Talmud of Babylon. 

The Talmud is primarily a legal commentary upon the 
Mishnah. Naturally, the interpretation of difficult words or 
expressions forms a part of this commentary; but in the 
main the concern is with the legal matter (halakah). Every 
statement is scrutinized, every division of opinion traced to 
its source and principle. The discussion, as it grew in the 


246 | UNDER THE SASSANIANS - [500-540 


course of generations, is faithfully reproduced, thus present- 
ing a picture of cumulative layers of argumentation. The 
reader is taken into the atmosphere of the schools; he is made 
to witness the strenuous mental contests as proponent and 
opponent engage in thrusts and counter-thrusts. Constantly 
one js led from one subject to another, the very variety keep- 
ing the mind agile. The curt phraseology, half Hebrew half 
Aramaic, yields now and then to the easy flow of the Aramaic 
vernacular; the legal tone is dropped, and the strain is 
relieved by a succession of sententious sayings and quaint 
tales (haggadah). Sometimes the lighter matter covers sev- 
eral pages and even complete chapters. As a result of the 
ease with which transitions are effected, the Talmud becomes 
a veritable encyclopaedia, in which, over and above juris- 
prudence, there are found imbedded theology and esoteric 
theosophy, moral and natural science, medicine, mathe- 
matics, astronomy, history, legend, folklore. There are two 
sides to the Talmud—the one rigidly legalistic and intel- 
lectual, the product of critical analysis which penetrates to 
the bottom of things; and the other ethical, spiritual, appeal- 
ing to the emotions. Jewish life as it developed came to rest 
wholly on the Talmud; by it religious practice was regulated, 
Jewish piety in every act and in every thought molded, and 
Jewish mentality kept wide-awake even in the: darkest 
periods of general stagnation. 

The immediate successors of the Amoraim called them- 
selves Ponderers (Saboraim). It is by their hands that redac- 
tional improvements and a few additions were-introduced 
into the body of the Talmud. During this transitional period, 
which lasted forty years (500-540), the Jews were subjected 
to fresh persecutions by the Persians. Kavadh I. (488-531) 
was a vigorous ruler and favored the communistic teachings 
of Mazdak which served him as a weapon against the nobles. 
The exilarch somehow clashed with this sovereign and was 
put to death. Nothing untoward happened during the reign 
of the orthodox Khosrau I. (531-579), called Anushirvan 
(the Blessed). His adjustment of the imperial taxation, which 
was later adopted by the Arabs, was equitable, and if for a 


se eo were nit the Bd ones 
i) .2ee) for the worse under 
Tee wes favored the general 
Ge air or the king. The schools 
# > cwpaided over by the suc- 
tik themselves Gaons— 
- - for ‘Head of the 


ibe sep massacred a 
pr tt Bisping Khosrau 


re (614). 
ale vba (ise Woheaihe by his 
AMO « The Hig: ~ setween the Byzan- 

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589-632] THE GAONS 247 


time it brought hardships, the Jews were not the only ones 
that were affected. Conditions changed for the worse under 
his son Hormizd IV. (579-590) ; the Jews favored the general 
Bahram who led a conspiracy against the king. The schools 
were reopened (589) and were now presided over by the suc- 
cessors of the Saboraim who called themselves Gaons— 
Geonim, Excellencies; an abbreviated title for ‘Head of the 
College, which is the Excellency of Jacob.’ 

The rebels were eventually discomfited and the prince 
Khosrau mounted the throne by the aid of the Byzantine 
emperor Maurice, whose daughter he had taken to wife. In 
the course of their invasion the Roman troops massacred a 
great portion of the Jewish population of Mahoza. Khosrau 
(II., surnamed Parvez, the Conqueror, 590-628) was sup- 
ported in all his vicissitudes by his Jewish subjects and they 
accompanied him on his campaigns of revenge against the 
assassins of Maurice which led him as far as Jerusalem (614). 
Great disorders followed after the murder of, the king by his 
own son, Kavadh II. (628). The struggle between the Byzan- 


tine empire and Persia enduring for a hundred years had | 


enfeebled both. A new enemy and a new power stood at the 
door, and when the last Persian ruler, Jazdegerd III., 
ascended the throne (632), the Arab hosts were marching 
against his land under the banner of a new faith, Islam. 


£ 


CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM 


(622-858) 


NCE again Judaism gave rise to a new religious move- 
() ment which in turn determined the course of Jewish 

history and made itself felt in the development of 
Jewish life and Jewish thought. It were idle to deny to the 
prophet of Arabia the power of an original personality; nor 
is it necessary to disparage the stimulus which came to him 
from Christianity and other ancient lore. But it is just as 
unmistakable that Mohammed’s central message, and still 
more potently his ordering of the state-church, rested upon 
direct borrowings from Judaism or upon imitations of; Jew- 
ish originals. Whether it is the Jewish Scriptures or the 
embellishments spun out by Jewish haggadists, a knowledge 
of them could come to the illiterate prophet only through 
the Jewish mentors whom he had near at hand. 

Long before the advent of Mohammed Jews had settled in 
Arabia, a remnant broken off from the main body and car- 
ried thither on the wave of dispersion which set in after the 
legions of Rome had laid waste the Holy City. In the south- 
west corner, the rich and fruitful Yemen, their industry and 
enterprising spirit helped to revive the prosperity of the 
country. They instigated the native Himyarites to repel the 
invasions from Christian Abyssinia, thus seconding the 
policy of the Sassanian rulers to prevent Christianity from 
obtaining a foothold in southern Arabia. For a time it 
seemed as if Judaism might make headway. In the fifth cen- 
tury there arose a new kingdom, half-Jewish, half-Sabean, 
whose most illustrious ruler, Dhu-Nuwas, became converted 
to Judaism and took the name of Joseph. But a renewed 
attack by the Abyssinians, supported by the Byzantine 
emperor, made an end of this kingdom in 525, The Abys- 


248 


nm JEWS OF ARABIA “te 


a. died not last long, and in 575 the 
| take d thet mcerainty over the land. , 
est ol the ponineula the jews occupied the: 
eof the care <0 putt Mime from north to 
WPadak, Khasier Wadi-ieKaaa (Vale of Vil 
baat, uct “ache tehe later Medina, 
was in ih cedbality totwuted by them. 
mits Gonsistes? ) { Sogreqaver of plantations, 
ng castle-liky ives which, now closer to- 
r apart, lay seai4 <attered palm. groves, 
ed field. i< spweara that the culture of 
oduced ite *iida by the Jews. They 
unerce, and a= ~>clers and goldsmiths 
r aanaod. Thee femed ceanpact com- 
rged by accessiciia “one among the natives; 
. ed to Jadaiom. §) sj. after the manner of 
3 were dive!) ort a number of tribes, 
ich were the Kxomrka’, the Nadbir, and 
Jatter two wert Sher of as the ‘priestly’ 
Aaronitic desers) Aovon er trait im which 
pure Arabs wi © at the diverse tribes 
al fends with amy ccather, and it is this 
ed them 26 a aos rey for attack. 


v was pitted agit Jews Newercheless, 
eT | captive amet eos abot tobe sald, the 


> comradien.. they aeutwetted: God has 
rele: ow «wn peopie, Thus, in all but 
Jews lived aud conducted themselves like 

3 y bore for ihe moat. port Arab TAMeEs, | 
Arabic, aad in it whey composed: their 

with those of other Arabs in nobility and . 
S10 n, OF one of thats, poets, who dwelt in 


: Arabs began: ve LG UP ie ptt in 
_ ated os x tine Lown, seth “pw srg 


ents. The Jews, exurding ae tiny waned . 
book: part in thy x etnecine Waslare; with 


jd unite «tary hirn back. Wher ups - 


~ vars 
ee % 
Li 7 
" a 
qs 
Las. ¢ 
t Bt i 
« 4 ss A 
: - a 
" eet 
4 ? i 
r a ; & ay ‘ Boll . Ooee ’ 
Bo. ete te so: 442 & wy a 
; 3 ‘ ga 
-§ ae + és ol ; 
, * Oe ae ay ee a4 
a : 
7 ¥ = rs 
4 4 4. 


2 Sather on LHe Wave 0 chepere 
ES Se Rates ised w shahek thet 


OF ae lia pegee we 


Sra). THE JEWS OF ARABIA 249 


sinian occupation, however, did not last long, and in 575 the 
Persians established their suzerainty over the land. 

In the northwest of the peninsula the Jews occupied the 
oases on the line of the caravan route running from north to 
south. Taima, Fadak, Khaibar, Wadi-l-Kura (Vale of Vil- 
lages) were in their hands, and Yathrib (the later Medina, 
the Prophet’s City) was in all probability founded by them. 
These settlements consisted of aggregates of plantations, 
villages, and strong castle-like houses which, now closer to- 
gether, now wider apart, lay amid scattered palm groves, 
orchards, and cultivated fields. It appears that the culture of 
the date-palm was introduced into Arabia by the Jews. They 
also engaged in commerce, and as jewelers and goldsmiths 
they were in great demand. They formed compact com- 
munities, enlarged by accessions from among the natives, 
who were attracted to Judaism. Quite after the manner of 
the Arabs, the Jews were divided into a number of tribes, 
principal among which were the Kainuka’, the Nadhir, and 
the Kuraiza; the latter two were spoken of as the ‘priestly’ 
clans, that is, of Aaronitic descent. Another trait in which 
they resembled the pure Arabs was that the diverse tribes 
engaged in perpetual feuds with one another, and it is this 
disunion which marked them as an easy prey for attack. 

When the southern Arabs began to move up northward in 
the third Christian century, the Aus and Khazraj clans 
wrested Yathrib from the hands of the Jews, who now be- 
came their dependents. The Jews, according as they leaned 
upon either clan, took part in the internecine warfare, with 
the result that Jew was pitted against Jew. Nevertheless, 
when a Jew was taken captive and was about to be sold, the 
Jews of both sides would unite to buy him back. When up- 
braided by their Arab comrades, they answered: God has 
commanded us to redeem our own people. Thus, in all but 
their religion, the Jews lived and conducted themselves like 
their neighbors. They bore for the most part Arab names, 
their speech was Arabic, and in it they composed their 
poems which vied with those of other Arabs in nobility and 
dignity of expression. Of one of these poets, who dwelt in 


250 THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM - ieee 


his castle at Taima, Samuel son of Adiya, it is reported that 
he suffered his son to be slain when refusing to surrender the 
fortune which Imru-I-Kais, famed as king and poet, had 
left with him in trust. Long in after times Arabs were wont 
to say: ‘More faithful than Samuel.’ The treacherous assas-’ 
sination of the Jewish chiefs, by which the Khazraj broke 
the power of the Jews of Yathrib, was mourned in verse 
by a Jewish poetess with the biblical name Sarah. The 
astonishing thing indeed is that these Jews clung to their 
religion. Their neighbors knew them as the ‘People of the 
Book’; they had their religious teachers who taught them, 
in the end, to choose exile and death rather than to forswear 
their ancestral faith. 

When Mohammed, discouraged by the hostilities of his 
clansmen in his native city Mecca, fled to Medina in 622 
(hijra, hejira), he found.the ground well prepared. A number 
of citizens, who had grown receptive of monotheism through 
their associations with the Jews, were flattered that Allah 
had now spoken by the mouth of one of their own, an Arab 
prophet. It is true, the more substantial members of the 
community kept aloof and at best maintained a neutral atti- 
tude; Mohammed styled them ‘waverers.’ But what he could 
not forgive or even understand was that he made no head- 
way at all in winning the Jews over to his faith. Though 
some of the weaker members, lured by material considera- 
tions, joined Islam, the vast majority heard him and then 
went their way, scorning the confused utterances of the Arab 
prophet in all that pertained to Judaism, its Scriptures, and 
its Messianic hope. And yet he had looked upon his own 
advent as the consummation of their hopes. Moreover, like 
them he directed his prayers towards Jerusalem (kibla), and 
like them he kept the great fast on the tenth of Tishri (Day 
of Atonement). 

The Jews simply would not merge with his followers. 
Cleverly did they make mock of the prophet’s foibles and 
inconsistencies, thereby estranging some of his stoutest sup- 
porters. It soon dawned upon him that a way must be found 
to rid himself of the Jews if his heavenly mission to unite 


| me carces RXILED ed Ot 


+ of Islariy Was ta-prosper. mies: time 
wusly. ‘Hie immediate taxk was to weld 
is & Medina. his own, waepanions in the, 
3, and the Jews, im one commuiiity, 
UW ’ he yin the second yee sf the Flight, the. 
ere: confined in the geactice of their 
e secur possession of thairgroperty: They: 
ap ah 2 par with te ether groups, 
elves to act asa unit # the event of an’ 
rah st any Ghe of the Céritituent parts, 
pe “of converting the Tews to the new ~ 
4 oem arerees paisa and farther 


a etl fa shia fates one were avd ent x 
Ged and drink daring the whole month of 
a: iid sunrise (> sunget. 
s Meccans ty the battle at Badr (624), 
kan us the “Way of Deliverance,’ served 
tige sues Moharioned and. to eonsolidate 
7 its at Medina. The time was ripe 
cites Kainuke’. who had their quar- 
tsuburh. Wies Mohammed bade'them - 
their prophet. They refused, and defied 
. {Thou Wilt sa» that we are men.’ For 
fey were besieged). 2. inst, deapsiring of aid 
hazra’ jas, they sortendered. Only the inter- 
cha: Z ajite. Abdadveh thn Ubaiy prevented. a. 
viwere sent ints: sc’ anc, asvisted. by their 
of ‘Wadi. Kurs, on» cotigrated to Palestine. 
ng chiefly vice abe nae and g@ldemiths’ tools, 
mong the ere. “chaauned reserving for 
iad: Sika sv re Kitazrajites remarked: 
ts se ad. Isla, ~ yt bjotted ont ral treaties:! 


5 races jai - alve Mae of U TOF: i oatl the 
Hf vas wound His cause seemed discredited, 


25% ere wee Gar 3tG 

tees eae oe f cone, Aoneeeet £00 of 
muiliegand tis oon to oe alt 

lariat wQes 1 

beta wrth fice 44 Teg 

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ty bh chet, hy \ 


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cae oe a 
4 i i eee apf Yathrity, 
ee i ‘ae See ff 
ath the i 
Eye x el See | wat ae t ni 
a a ‘ x a. ve 4 ey 
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~ * tee 
ae ho ee oe re a far: % keeew mS 
= a . 2 . 
< ¢ » r 
= M i> oe J PT ee ea ree} . 
Perk) they Deal (Rar Cee 
a gg a Lomi Cc Be 
: # ois 
TaVtP Lt re Ute 
‘ahs : ete (Ay 
; : ie 
EHO st Se He PE it 
ie oe 5 $ zy ‘ $42 i ae taye 3 fbn» 
ot cht ao hav enters 
Shane x . ceri WESSTS 2 
; ¥ ee 
sd T. ud ¥ i kee: 
S af a7 thee = hoe 
i a) OD ' 
ree £ weet ss Ae 2 4 met Pct deat 
fie “ io . ee ee oo in 
tisle: Wd) vax} sty edd rae WHEY 
1X31. VE Net 
oe * 
. eS Se ae 
tay j t SEA sb hd Loree de 
SSP YS Ske? CRSA 
tory +a wera Ty Cele. Stes 
went ther Way, THT wae oe 


* therm 


iH Aion crt 


inmensatencies, th in eet: cangingt 
porters. lt soon dawned upon hingtiat 


t 
’ 
A 


5 it FOE 


Jere, cf rip Byte 


624] THE KAINUKA’ EXILED 251 


Arabia under the banner of Islam was to prosper. For a time 
he proceeded cautiously. His immediate task was to weld 
together the factions at Medina, his own companions in the 
flight, the new converts, and the Jews, in one community. 
In the Charter drawn up in the second year of the Flight, the 
Jews of Yathrib were confirmed in the practice of their 
religion and in the secure possession of their property. They 
were dealt with as a group on a par with the other groups, 
and all bound themselves to act as a unit in the event of an 
attack directed against any one of the constituent parts. 
However, as the hope of converting the Jews to the new 
religion waned, Mohammed moved, farther and farther 
away from Judaism, in the line of ancient Arab usages. The 
direction of prayer was changed towards the Kaaba at 
Mecca, the old national sanctuary of the Arabs, and in the 
place of the one great annual fast the believers were enjoined 
to abstain from food and drink during the whole month of 
Ramadhan, each day from sunrise to sunset. 

The victory over the Meccans in the battle of Badr (624), 
celebrated in the Koran as the ‘Dayof Deliverance,’ served 
to heighten the prestige of Mohammed and to consolidate 
his power over his adherents at Medina. The time was ripe 
now to strike at the hated Kainuka’, who had their quar- 
ters in a strongly built suburb. When Mohammed bade them 
acknowledge him as their prophet, they refused, and defied 
him to do his worst. ‘Thou wilt see that we are men.’ For 
fifteen days they were besieged. At last, despairing of aid 
from their Khazraj allies, they surrendered. Only the inter- 
vention of the Khazrajite Abdallah ibn Ubaiy prevented a 
massacre. They were sent into exile and, assisted by their 
coreligionists of Wadi-l-Kura, they emigrated to Palestine. 
The spoil, consisting chiefly of armor and goldsmiths’ tools, 
was distributed among the army, Mohammed reserving for 
himself a choice of arms. As one of the Khazrajites remarked: 
‘Hearts have changed. Islam hath blotted out all treaties.’ 

Twelve months later the Meccans inflicted a severe defeat 
on Mohammed’s forces in the battle of Uhud, and the 
prophet himself was wounded. His cause seemed discredited, 


252 THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM [627 


and so the Jews were made to pay the piper. A charge was 
trumped up against the Banu Nadhir that they plotted 
against the prophet’s life—so the angel Gabriel had told him 
—_and when they spurned banishment and no help was forth- 
coming either from the Khazrajites or their brethren in faith, 
the Kuraiza, they resolved to trust to the strength of their 
fortress. Gallantly they held out for a fortnight. To hasten 
their surrender, Mohammed ordered the surrounding date 
trees to be cut down. The expedient shocked even the be- 
lievers, and a special revelation was required to justify it. 
At last the Jews were ready to capitulate, with the stipula- 
tion that they might emigrate with their wives and children 
and take with them their chattels, any thing that could be 
laden upon their camels, even to their doors and lintels; only 
their arms they were forced to leave behind them. Thus they 
set out, with tabrets and music, a few taking refuge with 
their brethren at Khaibar, the large majority proceeding to 
the highlands east of the Jordan. The whole of the con- 
fiscated lands was apportioned among Mohammed's com- 
panions in his flight to Medina, who thus were advanced to 
a position of independence and affluence. 

In 627 the Meccans, roused by Mohammed’s growing 
power, formed a coalition of the bedouin tribes of the neigh- 
borhood with the intent to stamp out Islam. At the advice 
of a Persian convert, Mohammed had a wide and deep 
trench dug on the open sides of the city. This foreign artifice 
disconcerted the besiegers, and they opened negotiations 
with the Jewish clan of the Kuraiza, whose quarters lay in 
the section of the city least capable of defense. Mohammed’s 
emissaries were received by the Jews in a sullen mood, and 
in his alarm the prophet resorted to artful deception in order 
to sow discord between the Jews and their allies. Disheart- 
ened by their long drawn out operations, which were ren- 
dered still less effectual by the winter storms, the con- 
federates dispersed. As soon as the siege was raised, the Jews 
were invested in their fortress; they defended themselves 
bravely, but at last, brought to the verge of starvation, they 
surrendered, hoping to escape with their lives. As the Aus 


Y ens OF KHAIBAR 253 


the destruction of their ancient allies, 
ain herowely teit the decision to an Ausite 
* ore Balke huaksdived shed were butchered in 
bloo oa ieaiaagn and children were sold among the 
mpe for heres and arma. One beautiful 
ti whose busts fom perished in the massacre, 
i be added to she crphet’s kerem. The enor- 
v7 “Sppropriens ey Mobiaminied for himself 


ced was Bickerened's attack on the sank 
of ‘sau ‘p the following year: The 
erately frown wovm thelx etrong fortresses 
jo meet theip frew eit out. Doughty Jewish 
arhab and hik @ cer, met their death in 
iba: eich Moslem mwa of prowess sich as Ali and 


his Epewely wife Sete. Yin ‘amined took for his 
a taruai the sister af the slain 


cs 


from the 84 9c ef which he suffered 
ais death. Such veoveining fortresses as had 
capitulated. THA Mxxk of the Jews were left 
as wc: to a tan ef 8a che produce. Fadak 
: ubmitred io & Shen, ‘ate. oractically with- 


, dachieved his gary oc snd ne Jew in Accbiis 
is hand against Hr « openly te dapure his 
eres was may wre! upon detachiag his 


eat 0 [Allah on earth: ¢ae pilgrimage to Mecca and 
kissing ‘of the black =n were sanctioned ; by re- 
> 1Ols ; Mohamed? - & cred that he restored the 

| | been establisiet «1 that sanctuary by the frst 


dl died i in 642. Tie dying prophet i is reported to 
wo religions. aatot exist in Arabia.’ Accord- 
1 Omar (634-644) ae all Jews and © his- 


: enemy carried ce fort after another. The 
ana was subjectes 7. eedeh torbere and then - 


d the death of tec kis by putting in the 


from Judai. Mecca was procizimed as 


-of Islam, Abraham se father of Ishmael. Reed. 


ree RISM OF MORAN 


sui} wo Gee Jews were meade WO pay & 
thakgad. ap we th the Banu Nad 


ag a est the peo ohet's Hie—-se the angel 
\ ban thes ie ned banishment 


oe is 4 EY a rath 
- froan the dearest 


thelr eigrr’ fale , Me shaastantieal ordered: 
teen to he cut down. The expedient 
Hewes, and a Set: iad rpvelation. we 
Ad fast the jews were ready to capi 
: that they might enigrate with 

and take wit h them their chattela, 
Gilen upon their camels, even toa 1 
their arms they were forced ty leave 
Sef Ol, with tabret and yrisic, ae 
their brethren at Khaiber, the farge 
the highlands east of the Jorden 
es lands waa apportioned an : 
punions in his flight to Modina, who bEty 
a position ot sages. t oA ence and a 
In 627 the Meccans, rotted by” 
power, hic a coalition of the bede 
borhood with the intent to stamps 
af a Persian convert, Mohanued™ 
trench dug on the open sides of the city, 
dizconcerted the besiegers, and they 
with the Jewish clan of the Kuraiza;® 
the section of the city last capable om ¢ 
emis sartes were received by the Jews 
in his alarm the praphet resorted to a 
to sow discord bentael the Jews atid 
ened by their long drawn out opera 
dered siiil less effectual by the nt 
federates dispersed. As sodh as thes 
were invested in their fortresay the 
bravely, but at last, brought te thes 
surrendered, boping to escape with 


628] DESTRUCTION OF KHAIBAR 2453 


would not tolerate the destruction of their ancient allies, 
Mohammed treacherously left the decision to an Ausite 
chief, and more than six hundred men were butchered in 
cold blood. The women and children were sold among the 
bedouins in exchange for horses and arms. One beautiful 
Jewess, Rihana, whose husband had perished in the massacre, 
was spared to be added to the prophet’s harem. The enor- 
mous booty was appropriated by Mohammed for himself 
and the army. 

Quite unprovoked was Mohammed’s attack on the rich 
Jewish settlement of Khaibar in the following year. The 
Jews fought desperately from within their strong fortresses 
or sallied forth to meet their foes without. Doughty Jewish 
warriors, like Marhab and his brother, met their death in 
single combat with Moslem men of prowess such as Ali and 
Zubair. But the enemy carried one fort after another. The 
Jewish chief Kinana was subjected to cruel torture and then 
put to death; his comely wife Safia Mohammed took for his 
own. But another Jewess, Zainab, the sister of the slain 
Marhab, revenged the death of her kin by putting in the 
prophet’s food poison from the effects of which he suffered 
to the day of his death. Such remaining fortresses as had 
not been sacked capitulated. The lands of the Jews were left 
in their hands, subject to a tax of half the produce. Fadak 
and Wadi-l-Kura submitted to a like fate. practically with- 
out resistance. 

Mohammed had achieved his purpose and no Jew in Arabia 
dared to lift his hand against him or openly to dispute his 
claims. The prophet was now bent upon detaching his 
religion completely from Judaism. Mecca was proclaimed as 
the true seat of Allah on earth; the pilgrimage to Mecca and 
even the kissing of the black stone were sanctioned; by re- 
moving the idols Mohammed claimed that he restored the 
cult as it had been established in that sanctuary by the first 
preacher of Islam, Abraham the father of Ishmael. 

Mohammed died in 632. The dying prophet is reported to 
have said: ‘Two religions cannot exist in Arabia.’ Accord- 
ingly the caliph Omar (634-644) expelled all Jews and Chris- 


154 ‘THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM — (635-641 


tians from the peninsula; nevertheless centuries later flour- 
ishing Jewish communities were still to be found in Taima 
and Wadi-l-Kura. Within a short space of time the compact 
national Arab state expanded into an empire: Damascus 
was taken in 635; in the battle on the Jarmuch (636) the 
remainder of Syria as well as Palestine was won. The battle 
of Kadisiya (637) drove the Persians back to their ancient 
seat in Iran; Egypt was conquered in 640, and in the battle 
of Nehawend (641) Iran itself was subdued. The caliph had 
now to deal with vast numbers of Jewish and Christian 
subjects. Omar and his immediate successors left the unbe- 
lievers in the possession of their lands, but imposed upon the 
landlords a heavy ground tax in addition to the poll-tax 
levied upon every unbeliever whether he owned propert 
or not. . 
It was stipulated that those of other faiths should refrain 
from reviling the prophet or mocking the Mohammedan 
worship; Moslems were not to be lured away from their faith; 
non-Moslems should not be prevented from embracing 
Islam; a distinctive dress was prescribed for unbelievers. 
Nor were non-Moslems permitted to bear arms or ride on 
horses (they might use mules or donkeys), raise their dwel- 
lings above those of Moslems, conduct their worship in a 
loud voice, build new houses of worship or restore those in 
decay. These vexatious regulations, for disregard of which 
varying fines were imposed, were often allowed to lapse. As 
Moslems and Jews or Christians habituated themselves to 
one another, much of the harshness disappeared. On the 
whole, the local administration was left in the hands of the 
native population, and the Mohammedan rulers confirmed 
both Christian and Jewish dignitaries in their vested positions. 
The first exilarch to hold office under Mohammedan rule 
was Bustani (or Bustanai). As one version would have it, he 
was elevated to this dignity by noné other than the general 
who conquered Irak (Babylonia). About the birth of Bustani 
there cluster legends which are reminiscent of the story of 
the birth of Cyrus. A Persian king, bent uponexterminating — 
the royal seed of the house of David, dreams that he is hav- 


i “Pie exILARc BUSTANT 26S 


ys 
So 
, SE 


ond es 


28. 0 of a jock (bustan bee mere Jast as he 
riké at 4 tender epndd,, 4 axe is snatched 
mes hd mat ae hegled at his fore- 
rea a et bined spurié bey das countenance 
ie ‘pray 8 formercy and mee eoomise to nurse 
“ona 1 y shoot ia intoca Mey fee Or awaking 
pon hie face ani, eaervtmeed that the 
Ye; easaagie a Jom wee fer his skill in 


vs - *cIOn of the 


5 ae aieke ebiie ee nes: ra the sais 
ly how. The Wag sh be that the 
led with ali care, and Bang wtay isborn 
ni, Asihe griws up he diereypushes him- 
tlle. Surmmonedt feted Ye ting, he 
wannéred, for thowglkt he y atuag by a 
he design on © he exilorrts"y peeis, he for 
jayby 96 much as The Wer pewGent of a 
¢ a4 his oye! roster, Tee ving vhowers 
alls: Rien as hea 2 eh Soe Agativity. 
t Rachion: fhe orc dent witty ety takes 
of Omar wies otters an aikher man to 
jofice in: favor ci Busters, a steipling of 
iGercher oi (iat the alg bestowed 
lecaptive Pers.s::: cir eee, dotiadad by 
married, Netuciv he hedcether wives; 
children sexs &: # discreet (ee tegitiimacy 
hom the Perees. princess had Ler, on the 
ae her eta wes thutal slave, But 
hat Bustars «st Have — her a free 
rex ssa phe TATA. 

‘ ecm he 4 sater rena) im aiswer to a 

ence to. a eid: cause, rend or hypothetical. 
j = Gn the fore of Responses, coming from 


a) ee ve NES of the ompatien wal /con- 


eS ee a 


sicis Peg foe penitewles never ieleaa 
ru coommnities wereiétih 
th Welt i Rare. Withina short, spa 
Mm edirgor hah ahi CF ere inte’ 
wee tien in OMS; ie the Ratthe ones 
erento of “A ae ne as Pale 
df Baseiva (o37} drove the Perdana 
Meat ie yypt ke conquered inn Ge 
Negciweng 44 ih Irma iiscdf was OF 

i with vant wotsalaala en 
jioete Omer sad histmmediate 
eran the memento of ther ty 
heavy ground tas. i al 

leviel upon every wtbeleverg et] 


* 


I+ waa atoiated thet those@iet 
fon reviing tee propheb on nie 
weuwtic Moulemne were net 0 toe Tint 


PaLat ESeec liye POR WAS Te 

" + a - a 

Sor were! non-Meslesre permitted ta 

horses (iey might ose mules or aol 

“ oo , . ax fF SEH See mente 
f ‘ huat? Of oF SRS 

ty x | Welt: ow Vee at oe sty he roi ay fs “ ¥ 

j fe) TU Ee ee: OL ae 


deca’ hese vexaticds! reguiasegky 


« 
. 
* 


Moslems and Jows or Chrstiets fg 
res wother, much of the harshness 
chole, the local rapa: rao was 


native popwiatim, ane 


% ' ff y 
both Chyvistianan A jewish ve preset 
The first exilarch to hele ¢ 
mae ts a ay gery ob Sa ss ; 4 ae 
i ie Cai . OVE Phe taiaiash. As OTe’ 


Was elevated fs) this cis: SHULL iy none 
W rics ‘ OT = rey] frak (Bab bsletae = 


THE EXILARCH BUSTANI 255 


ing all the trees of a park (bustan) cut down. Just as he 
makes ready to strike at a tender sprig, the axe is snatched 
from his hand by a venerable old man and hurled at his fore- 
head with such force that blood spurts over his countenance © 
and beard. He prays for mercy and must promise to nurse 
the twig that it may shoot up into a leafy tree. On awaking 
he beholds the blood on his face and, convinced that the 
dream has significance, summons a Jew known for his skill in 
interpreting dreams. 

The daughter of this man had married a scion of the 
exilarch’s house and was with child. The father sees in the 
dream a reference to the unborn child who may be the last 
offspring of the princely house. The king orders that the 
mother be surrounded with all care, and when a boy is born 
he is named Bustani. As he grows up he distinguishes him- 
self by learning and intellect. Summoned before the king, he 
_ proves himself well mannered, for though he is stung by a 

wasp or fly (hence the design on the exilarch’s seal), he for- 
bears to. drive it away by so much as the movement of a 
finger out of deference to his royal master. The king showers 
gifts upon him and installs him as head of the captivity. 
According to another version, the incident with the fly takes 
place in the presence of Omar who orders an older man to 
vacate the princely office in favor of Bustani, a stripling of 
_ sixteen years. It is further reported that the caliph bestowed 
upon him one of the captive Persian princesses, Izdundad by 
“name, whom he married. Naturally he had other wives; 
subsequently their children sought to discredit the legitimacy 
of their brothers whom the Persian princess had born, on the 
ground that as a captive her status was that of a slave. But 
the Gaons ruled that Bustani must have made her a free 
woman and a convert before the marriage. 

The decision is recorded by a later Gaon in answer to a 
query with reference to a similar case, real or hypothetical. 
Answering queries (in the form of Responsa), coming from 
far and near throughout the confines of the Dispersion, con- 
stituted one of the chief activities of the two academies of 
Sura and Pumbeditha. The questions were much diversified. 


256 THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM (760-874 


They touched upon the whole range of law and upon the con- 
clusions to be drawn from the extended discussions in the 
Talmud, or upon the plain meaning of a talmudic phrase, 
halakic or haggadic. Some centered around a word or point 
in the Scriptures; still others turned on the order of worship, 
or a dogmatic point, or even history. Copies of the answers 
were in all likelihood kept; naturally they were cherished by 
the recipients who often.read them in public and permitted 
transcripts to be made and carried from one seat of learning 
to another. Subsequently these were assembled by various 
hands under divers titles, and upon their basis the early and 
later codes were constructed. 

The Talmud was altogether too unwieldy a work for aver- 
age minds to make practical use of in order to arrive at 
concrete conclusions. The earliest compendious code, which 
followed the unsystematic order of the Talmud, was com- 
posed by Jehudai, a blind scholar, who succeeded to the 
Gaonate of Sura in 760. Of a different order is a contem- 
poraneous work known as ‘Discussions’ (Sheeltoth) by Aha 
of Shabha, who left for Palestine when a younger colleague 
was named master at Pumbeditha. It consisted of a series of 
weekly discourses following the order of the Torah, in which 
legal matter was intermixed with homilies. On the basis of 
these two works there arose the ‘Great Halakoth,’ which 
passed through various stages of compilation and enjoyed 
such popularity that students were loath to consult the 
Talmud at first hand. ¢ 
- There was much uncertainty in the far-away communities 
as to the order of the synagogue service. A brief arrangement 
of the daily blessings had been prepared by Natronai, the 
Gaon of Sura (853-856), at the request of the community of 
Lucena in Spain. The first complete Order of Prayers was 
compiled for the use of the communities in Spain by his suc- 
cessor Amram, Gaon of Sura (856-874). Though the liturgical 
pieces are reproduced in full, the real purport of the work, 
answering to the need of the distant communities, was to 
incorporate all the regulations appertaining to the service. 
The material was culled from both Talmuds and the homi- 


. 


sss his. thn se fat 
eastern seats of Spyretng, and the 
i su wal: wert jontvng t under the 
wot which: wa ‘zie nud was the 


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Sane Sk aie presse med ais go 

er centered at : 

ve ie hee athers turned ‘ 
* oy histo 


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f ony Eki 4 worried: 
t Pee cid iense ats 
ota ad pone 


Ve 


Poe aS ies 
- . rk! aie Bile, x 
ei sek, ER aE. 


P abeied 2k fr: etal. 

There tas shots eer tainty in’ 
+ i the creer of the oamaypegeanr 
of the daily lbenwiteoe: Bad be 
(sain if Sura (843 856), ot ae 
| be Tee nt. “Pe fest | 
coro piled tor the uae the onan 
oomer Suuraa, Gaon of Sire ane 
Gat. are reproduces in-falt,: 
hiewrricg to the need of che. 
iene ahaha all the rey suka Cher 
The material was catieale from: 


- 
(ART: 


842-858] ‘THE GAON PALTOI Ay 


letical Midrashim, and the custom obtaining in the two 
schools as well as in Rab’s old synagogue at Sura was cited. 
From the sister academy also the Spanish communities 
received spiritual guidance and instruction. The Gaon of 
Pumbeditha, Paltoi (842-858), sent them a copy of the 
Talmud and talmudic explanations. Thus a unifying influ- 
ence radiated from the eastern seats of learning, and the 
farthest communities of the west were brought under the 
sway of an age-long tradition of which the Talmud was the 
authoritative expression. 


CHAPTER XXXIX 
THE KARAITE SCHISM 
(767-900) 


HE Jewish intellect, fully occupied with legal deduc- 

tions, disdained to probe the things secret, to lift the 

veil from ‘what is above and what is below, what 
was before and what shall be in the end.’ Yet imagination 
could not be starved, and speculation, rife among the sects 
on the border of Christianity, enticed some of the best men. 
The common people came in contact with the crude supersti- 
tions of Chaldaic lore which even the learned could not 
entirely shake off. The -very soil was impregnated with a 
succession of religious systems in which, as in Manicheism, 
mystic notions were blended, for the elect to take hold on. 
Jewish mysticism in the times of the Gaons reveled in the 
contemplation of the divine majesty, which took on grossly 
anthropomorphic forms. Those of sober mind were hostile to 
the fantastic writings of this genre. Nevertheless the boast 
of mystic profundity and of intimate intercourse with the 
prophet Elijah secured in 814 the headship of the school at 
Pumbeditha to the aged Joseph son of. Abba. His successor 
Abraham son of Sherira (816-828) was reputed to be able to 
prognosticate events from the soft murmur of palms on calm 
days. ; 

Deep in the people’s soul burned the spark of the Messi- 
anic hope, ready to be fanned into flame by any one who 
appealed to their imagination. There were those who were 
given to ‘calculating the end’ by deftly manipulating the 
obscure numbers in Daniel. In the more distant provinces of 
Persia, the Shiite sect of Islam had its seat; its tenets cen- 
tered in the exaltation of the religious head in succession to 
the Prophet and in the belief in the ‘hidden imam’ and his 
return.’ Here in the eighth century the Jewish masses were 
stirred by a pretender to the Messianic dignity who came 


258 


| GmRRSIANIC PRETENDERS | 299 


ions, The iver were the more veadity y 
the: reigning caliph, Omar #. (717-720), had 
“severe regulations fer non-believers and many 
ein Islami. However, Mis suctessor Yazid IT. 
é short shrift of the would-be Messiah, who 
d that he had only *exje mock of the Jews, 
c him i into the hands of ‘we he had duped. _ 
‘another Messianix s>>vement was led by 


vay of some ten he 4 Steak The time 
S, , for the Maghornengey rat ee was tom 


}.’Phe new monarch So0-4-Abbas (750- 
y much occupied to gee! Sith the Jewish 
‘Mansur (754-775) teetetod the throne, 
vitt his band northward. syader the pretence 


Bei ected from kag 7" oad hidden some- 
he purposed to join force with a Persian 
arevolt against the cw!i:.:. The vsbel forces 
the Mohammedans, aid Abu aa, mounted 
ader their strokes on ‘exrnring all too con- 
hs lines (755). 

d, his followers peemared in Galicving that 
. A disciple, Vatghan of Hamadan, an- 
3a prophet ai} saother forerunner of the 
was acclaiméey ss ‘shepherd’ by a number of 
One or the other of these pretenders made 


e sabbath and festivels was not. obligatory 


cae however, they were given to ascetic 
ined from meat and wine or increased the 


‘ + +? 4, G8 4 ra era we 4 
AO a ites Ae OAL SS ae oe ae) ee OMe ee) 


sh of Aspahan. This tine Palestine was to be - 


“rabbinic precepts or even ruled that the 


og 
* ‘ 
ben big fens ogee swe’ 
- - of 5 
P “i dese 
‘ 
P < 
i 
a 
oe a i 
. 
» Rat Ths 
¥ 
' 
e ti » 
I Sa 5S at - 
% Wy aes, 7} 


j . " $y j 
mai ota, éady tS ; hen 


o's > La nie 


> > 7 — = ” ai . b a * 
fee) is Re poeeen os 2 


ate sbet) to their ima 
4 
given te ‘calculate vai eng’ tay 


ohare sumbers in Diariet. bw the 
Persia, the Shiite sect of Ielare ta 
tered in the exaltation of the pele 
the Prophet and in the belief im ey 
‘return.’ Here in the eichth co 


stirred by a pretender tO the 


755] MESSIANIC PRETENDERS 259 


from a place named Shirin. He held out the promise of a 
miraculous restoration of Palestine and bade his followers 
abandon their possessions. The Jews were the more readily 
beguiled as the reigning caliph, Omar II. (717-720), had 
introduced severe regulations for non-believers and many 
sought refuge in Islam. However, his successor Yazid II. 
(720-724) made short shrift of the would-be Messiah, who 
lamely pretended that he had only made mock of the Jews, 
and delivered him into the hands of those he had duped. 

Some time later another Messianic movement was led by 
Abu Isa Obadiah of Ispahan. This time Palestine was to be 
regained by force of arms, and the bellicose leader, who gave 
himself out for the last of the forerunners of the Messiah, 
seriously believed in his mission and placed himself at the 
head of an armed host of some ten thousand Jews. The time 
seemed propitious, for the Mohammedan empire was torn 
by internal strife and another dynasty, that of the Abbasids, 
made ready to wrest the caliphate from the Omayyad Mer- 
wan II. (744-750). The new monarch, Abu-l-Abbas (750- 
754), was far too much occupied to deal with the Jewish 
rebel. But when Mansur (754-775) ascended the throne, 
Abu Isa fled with his band northward, under the pretence 
that he would find succor there at the hands of mythical 
Jews, believed to be descended from Moses and hidden some- 
where. In reality he purposed to join forces with a Persian 
chieftain who led a revolt against the caliph. The rebel forces 
were subdued by the Mohammedans, and Abu Isa, mounted 
on a horse, fell under their strokes on venturing all too con- 
fidently beyond the lines (755). 

Nothing daunted, his followers persisted in believing that 
he would reappear. A disciple, Yudghan of Hamadan, an- 
nounced himself as a prophet and another forerunner of the 
Messiah, and he was acclaimed as ‘shepherd’ by a number of 
believing Jews. One or the other of these pretenders made 
light of certain rabbinic precepts or even ruled that the 
observance of the sabbath and festivals was not obligatory 
in the exile. In the main, however, they were given to ascetic 
exercises and abstained from meat and wine or increased the 


260 | THE KARAITE SCHISM (767 


number of daily prayers. Their followers lingered on, but 
gradually dwindled away and were absorbed either by the 
mass of Jewry or by the new sect which, starting from 
entirely different premises, had its rise likewise in the eighth 
century and persists until the present day. 

Unlike the Messianists, this sect was in no wise Utopian. 
Its entire momentum lay in its opposition to the Talmud 
and the line of traditional development which this work 
connoted. The earlier anti-traditional tendencies had not 
entirely died out. After the destruction of the Temple, it is 
true, the Sadducees ceased to wield any influence as an 
organized party, and Pharisaism was in the seat of undis- 
puted leadership. But the Sadducee tendencies continued to 
manifest themselves, however inaudibly, through the cen- 
turies. The large mass of the Jewish people willingly bent 
their neck to the yoke of the Torah as interpreted by the 
bearers of the principle of tradition. Nevertheless, now and 
again there were mutterings against the ascendancy of rigor- 
ism and the reign of tradition which had so little to rest upon 
in the written Torah itself. ‘What good have the teachers 
done to us? Not so much as to make it lawful to partake of a 
raven!’ When at length a personality arose who sounded the 
keynote for deliverance from tradition, there was a chance 
for the movement to make headway. 

The story goes that Anan son of David was in the line of 
succession to the exilarchate. The Gaons, who had reasons 
to suspect his orthodoxy—he had lived for some time in 
Persia at the center of Jewish heresies—had his younger 
brother Hananiah, a man of inferior scholarship, elected 
in his stead. The election was confirmed by the caliph. 
Deeply hurt, Anan was urged by his friends to resistance; in 
secret conclave he was made a counter-exilarch (767). The 
government got wind of the rebellion and threw Anan into 
prison. There, the story continues, he had for a fellow- 
prisoner the famous Mohammedan student of jurisprudence 
Abu Hanifa, founder of the Hanafite system of law. He 
advised Anan to bribe the vizir, seek trial in the presence of 
the caliph, and pray for recognition as the representative of 


AMAN Shige Bat 


Jers ‘Ta. M sweet thei eiry brother men 
oi $ comapenities* Yee caliph was won 
ping the jwisits whet would appeal toa 
& hin facthn: revere Bichammed as a 
dt ctenc very putth Tee the Moham- 
) as the lunar phases weer gacertained by 
month to month «ther view | by calculation, 
4 with the main pace oe aeery: was 


a 


‘i ina, W hat iteceselae wy Gin was its 
.Forsake, aku: wore sd awesmam and 


| process. Se Anan fell lok deci the 
ge lore and gathers. wp iegas-ttes Talmud 


a pean oie net ‘HE we ae ditias hoes Car- 
> pri Jt analogy to: the eo alent guint. 
en asceticism ine fined hive tea rigorous 
the Temple,» wite ° wham tie Yai eae 
: Se — _— Ge pratt 


é all consequent ¢ at it lavetul 
r None a, ave — on the 


propinquily = ; hag ei tisatiiage were 
k aL saieniiai< Sitter carted ont 
fa Minna ee st gnight be corm He cae. 
- eLordl that besieth thew ‘Certain pracy ae 
red just for the sei of establishing difference. aa 
weaver, could new te discarded wholly. Anan's ei 
whic vouly omit vsciaing have been rec Or | 
‘st — those of the Goons A email mt 


4 


init ai 4 
Se 
ree | +o ? 
rere wy 
% a4 » 
4 


& t - i 
4 ba 7 ? [ <4 . men ‘ to] esi 7 ny uy its es 


ga tive tine of teactitran 
taal tec ie earie? ann 
gritty chet Guy Liner the thesis 
Ct!) Te 3a tice SS CCN 
- ten ’ 
tit poses Arty, oat ct Phare iat 


imitex! leadership ena 


4 


Rath ti st themselves, 


Wes. The large mass Pyles Sie 
the tr Fleck. TO the Vn ref : 
4 : ae : 


hearers of the principle wt ts 


. r me fs = Le ie me er is 
in the written 2orah 1seu 


’ 

, Ric z 7% rr ne 

thre fo wa? . Oks BMC Be 
: 9: STIh. 4. « os ; 

Fave ns w¥E Ci art eng th 4 


ths aoe TOs chat Anan son of om 
secession to the exilarchate: "Pines 
to suspect his orthodoxy—he had 
Persfa at the center of Jewish 


Deeply hurt, Anan was urged by aie 
he was ‘made 4 Gow 
government got wind of the rebel 
prison. There, the story cantina: 
prisoner the famous ot oe 


' ¥ ~ v z 
Abu Hanifa, foun der of the Me 


. aN os mt cera 
Secret CYNCie ve 


the cvliph, and pray for rece enition 


ANAN 261 


another body of Jews. ‘Is it meet that my brother should 
rule over two religious communities?’ The caliph was won 
over by Anan’s stressing the points which would appeal to a 
Moslem ruler, that his faction revered Mohammed as a 
prophet and held to a calendar very much like the Moham- 
medan, inasmuch as the lunar phases were ascertained by 
observation from month to month rather than by calculation. 

Thus the open breach with the main body of Jewry was 
effected. In all matters of belief or dogma Anan was at one 
with those he left behind. What differentiated him was his 
dissent from Tradition. ‘Forsake the words of Mishnah and 
Talmud, and I will make unto you a Talmud of my own.’ 
He failed to realize that the Talmud was not made; it had 
grown by a natural process. So Anan fell back upon the 
remnants of Sadducee lore and gathered up from the Talmud 
those opinions which had been rejected. Moreover, he could 
not quite escape the influence of the hated work. He took 
over its rules and methods and in his legal deductions car- 
ried the principle of analogy to the most absurd point. 

His tendency to asceticism inclined him to a rigorous 
interpretation of the law. Like the despondent witnesses 
of the destruction of the Temple, with whom the Tannaite 
Joshua was obliged to remonstrate, he forbade all meat 
except that of deer (Deuteronomy 12, 15), all fowl except 
pigeons. It was of small consequence that he made it lawful 
to eat meat with butter. None might leave the house on the 
sabbath, but anything might be carried unless it were laden 
on the shoulder. No lights might be kindled to illumine the 
home on the eve of sabbath, and all food on the day of rest 
was to be served cold. Fast days were multiplied. The for- 
bidden degrees of propinquity as a bar to marriage were 
extended. The killing of animals for food was carried out 
with great solemnity. In illness, no physician might be con- 
sulted: ‘for I am the Lord that healeth thee.’ Certain prac- 
tices were altered just for the sake of establishing difference. 
Tradition, however, could not be discarded wholly. Anan’s 
own code, of which only scant remains have been recovered, 


resembles in style very much those of the Gaons. A small 
§ 


262 THE KARAITE SCHISM [830 


group followed the pathfinder, the first man ‘who found the 
whole truth,’ in every particular; but in course of time the 
‘Ananites’ disappeared, making way for those that governed 
their life in accordance with newer teachings. 

It was the boast of the new sect that no two of its mem- 
bers agreed. Anan himself undermined authority by his 
double precept: eae the Scriptures diligently, and lean 
not upon my opinion.’ Any one might interpret Scripture 
according to his own lights, and no one’s ruling need be 
accepted by others. Still Anan was venerated by later gen- 
erations among those who attached themselves to his move- 
ment; he was looked up to as the ‘principal teacher’ and 
invested with a legendary halo. It was narrated that an 
attempt had been made upon his life, whereupon he escaped 
to the Holy City. Here, somewhat anachronistically, he was 
received kindly by Omar (640!) who gave him permission to 
erect a synagogue facing the western wall of the Temple. 

The movement started by Anan was solidified by Ben- 
jamin of Nehawend (830) with whom the new sect assumed 
a fixed appellation, ‘Children of Scripture’ (Bene Mikra). 
Subsequently they came to be called ‘Scripturists,’ “Ka- 
raites’ (Karaim), while their traditionist opponents were 
named ‘Rabbanites’ (Rabbanim). Benjamin abandoned arti- 
ficial opposition and now and then ranged himself on the 
side of the Rabbanites against Anan. ‘I have compiled for 
you this Code—he wrote it in Hebrew and called it ‘Ben- 
jamin’s Portion’—that you may judge your Scripturist 
brethren. | cite in every instance the Scriptural source. As 
for those laws which the Rabbanites follow, but for which I 
was not able to find support in the Scriptures, I wrote them 
down likewise, that you might follow them if you so chose.’ 
He held that none but an Israelite might judge a fellow- 
Israelite. He regarded it as lawful to leave one’s dwelling on 
the sabbath for a necessary cause, particularly in order to 
go to synagogue or the house of study, but not beyond a 
sabbath day’s journey. Even when he agreed with the Tradi- 
tionists, he used his own deductions, and the prophetic writ- 
ings in Scripture were drawn upon for support. His calendar 


® 


fo) DANIEL: Mwuimrst (|. 263 


he lating wimanth every year. He taughs 
of the world #k« vot God Himself, but an 
Him; by’ this we: wel was likewise the Law 
that soitichow, ehrough translation into 
the writings of Philo had reached him. 
i forecasting the advent of the Messiah 
ght, was due to appear is 1350. Though he did 
the Karaite sect Uper « timer basis, yet, true 
fe: eid a left 053 olivwere 6 free to disregard 


Geely commence? ty the Karaites, was 
vs al-Kumisi (!«: pias te his. later 


18 of a aay ng peer: ihe Hie 


a inte: thas Bie oh the ei 
Was to begisi wit the tenth # Tishri 
‘ie and Hot with ter firs of thay tmonth. 


tsel! to the soc cf F act The sect 
vidai knew oni + y hegeaey, hed grown 
traditional Judeson whew yet with a 
@ great master who ceatfitect the con- 


* 


Fees 


Estrictly adhered 3% the sitamle, natural .- 
ural word, He tery ie d on Aerie inter 


900] DANIEL AL-KUMISI 263 


was made up by intercalating a month every year. He taught 
that the Creator of the world was not God Himself, but an 
angel created by Him; by this angel was likewise the Law 
revealed—it seems that somehow, through translation into 
some Oriental tongue, the writings of Philo had reached him. 
He also indulged in forecasting the advent of the Messiah 
who, he thought, was due to appear in 1350. Though he did 
much to place the Karaite sect upon’a firmer basis, yet, true 
Karaite that he was, he left his followers free to disregard 
his own authority. 

A third teacher, greatly commended by the Karaites, was 
Daniel son of Moses al-Kumisi (about 900). In his later 
years he was violently opposed to Anan and the Ananites. 
In contrast to Benjamin, he rejected reason as a means of 
_ deciding questions of religious law. He spurned the alle- 
gorical method and strictly adhered to the simple, natural 
sense of the Scriptural word. He tended to a stricter inter- 
pretation of religious laws and sedulously maintained all the 
regulations concerning ritual purity. He would in no way 
tolerate calculation to enter into the make-up of the cal- 
endar. The new year was to begin with the tenth of Tishri 
(Day of Atonement), and not with the first of that month. 

With Daniel al-Kumisi the first period in the life of the 
Karaite sect closed. Thus far it had sought to arrive at a 
measure of fixity in religious observance, yet all the time 
fearful to commit itself to the reign of authority. The sect 
which the Gaon Jehudai knew only by hearsay, had grown 
to be a menace to traditional Judaism when it met with a 
formidable foe—the great master who confined the con- 
tagion within its narrow bounds. 


CHAPTER XL 
SAADIAH 


(882-942) 


ear 928 there was placed in the seat of the Gaon of 
Sura a scholar who was not a native of the country, 
especially since for about two centuries the office had been 
in the almost exclusive possession of three families. The 
dearth of outstanding personalities had brought the institu- 
tion to a low ebb. When Yom Tob Kahana, a weaver by 
trade, passed away after a tenure of but two years (926- 
928), the exilarch David son of Zaccai thought of closing 
the school altogether. This would have been quite to the 
satisfaction of the ambitious head of the rival school at 
Pumbeditha, Cohen-Zedek II. (917-936). However, a nom- 
inal head was appointed in the person of Nathan son of 
Jehudai, whose sudden death was taken as a warning that it 
would be sinful to terminate the existence of the venerable 
seat of learning. 

The choice narrowed itself Jae to Zemah son of Shahin, 
who belonged to an old family, and Saadiah son of Joseph 
(882-942) who came from the Fayum in Upper Egypt. The 
exilarch sought the advice of Nissi Naharwani, who had for- 
merly been helpful in healing the breach between the digni- 
tary and the refractory master of Pumbeditha. Nissi, who 
disinterestedly declined the honor for himself because of 
blindness, favored Saadiah’s rival. ‘It is true that Saadiah 
excels in wisdom, piety, and eloquence; but he is firm and 
unbending, of a combative disposition, and when once he has 
made up his mind he will recoil before none.’ However, the 
exilarch had resolved upon Saadiah, and so he was duly 
inducted into office, after giving his word that he would defer 
to the authority of the head of the captivity. 


264 


I: was altogether an unprecedented event when in the 


\ PALESTINE ANNEXED Sy HCVPT 265. 


a for the sew Gary & seat erudition must 
i in the. fuzid of hw Glee. where since the 
sone (640) thie Bad been a revival 
munal life. The larges: M4 wast flourishing 
nd in the capital Piketes “Ol4 Cairo) and 


Ja 1850 by 2 ie) e038 abt Abu-Ali 


i? the Jowieh you i ‘Gaimdbed eagerly 
oe pinaaeegl rife: al given im- 


h learning. ie okier cambiiaporary of 
®whom the younger solar eseeeconded on 
ts, was his compatriot ivsac sae at Solomon 
$ ar opener 5, ea se in at- 


3 Pibitcecphy a wets. The Bates had . 
hed gael in Pyaye¢, and there, as in 
car on Propageihics for theiy tenets. 
Aktion was aroused, seek lively Bterary 
the doughty protags + wt of Rabbanism 
S, eee netic tier his pasition as 
sion may have twy2 ‘he disturbance 
ed them with api euerwions, Saadiah, 
esire to perfect his kee vdge, wandered 
“Land, which the Pe. 4 governors of 
sd'to their country #87 
, scant information besa othe fortunes of 
after the extinctii: .« Le patriarchate 
ence of the a ory Wwews of the: 
3 expansion of Cheats. influence in the 
ma gradual thigiess cut of the Jewish 
laid bare i in cada tames, tell imately 


ts 
oS <a 1 esl mele coheg 


878] PALESTINE ANNEXED TO EGYPT 265 


The foundation for the new Gaon’s vast erudition must 
have been laid in the land of his birth, where since the 
Mohammedan occupation (640) there had been a revival 
of Jewish communal life. The largest and most flourishing 
settlement was found in the capital Fustat (Old Cairo) and 
was presided over in 850 by a Babylonian Jew, Abu-Ali 
Hasan of Bagdad. The Jews spoke the language of the gov- 
erning Arab classes, and the Jewish youth absorbed eagerly 
the culture to which Mohammedan rule had given im- 
petus. Naturally there must have been facilities for acquir- 
ing strictly Jewish learning. An older contemporary of 
Saadiah’s, with whom the younger scholar corresponded on 
learned subjects, was his compatriot Isaac son of Solomon 
Israeli. He was an eminent physician, subsequently in at- 
tendance upon the court at Kairawan, and wrote not only 
on medicine but on philosophy as well. The Karaites had 
likewise established themselves in Egypt, and there, as in 
Palestine, they carried on propaganda for their tenets. 
Saadiah’s fighting blood was aroused, and a lively literary 
feud ensued between the doughty protagonist of Rabbanism 
and the schismatics. Sympathetic towards his position as 
those of his own persuasion may have been, the disturbance 
of communal peace filled them with apprehensions. Saadiah, 
actuated also by a desire to perfect his knowledge, wandered 
forth to the Holy Land, which the Tulunid governors of 
Egypt had annexed to their country (878). 

We possess but scant information about the fortunes of 
Palestinian Jewry after the extinction of the patriarchate 
(425). In consequence of the discriminatory laws of the 
emperors and the expansion of Christian influence in the 
land, there had been a gradual thinning out of the Jewish 
population; the ruins, laid bare in recent times, tell mutely 
their tale of the once magnificent Galilean synagogues. The 
Code of Justinian I. (527-565) meddled with the internal 
affairs of the Synagogue and regulated which Greek transla- 
tion of the Scriptures might or might not be read. The 
midrashic discourses based on the successive oral tradition 
fell entirely under the ban. Yet we hear of ‘archipherekites’ 


266 SADDIAH [520-638 


(masters of courses, reshe phirke) as feeble successors to the 
patriarchs, among the first of whom may be reckoned Zutra 
his father, who bore the same name, was exilarch in Baby- 
lonia—-who emigrated to Palestine in 520. In the struggles 
between Heraclius (610-641) and Khosrau II. the Jews 
of Palestine, led by Benjamin, a man of great wealth at 
Tiberias, took sides with the Persian invaders. 

But it is only with the Arab conquest (636-638) that 
repose came to the Jews in the land of their fathers. As the 
Gaon Jehudai expressed himself, ‘when the Ishmaelites 
came, they left them free to occupy themselves with the 
Torah.’ When Jerusalem surrendered, the patriarch Sophro- 
nius stipulated that no Jews should be allowed to reside in 
the Holy City; but very soon a Jewish community sprang 
up. Jews were also attracted to Ramleh (near Ludd) where 
an Arab garrison was quartered. The Galilean schools were 
reorganized. Tiberias was the center of scholastic activity, 
which, following its earlier wont, addressed itself in par- 
ticular to careful watchfulness over the received text of the 
Scriptures in order that no jot or tittle should be altered. 
Lovingly did the humble teachers in elementary grades 
count every word and letter, draw up lists of irregular or 
unusual spellings, and build up those safeguards for the pre- 
servation of the Scriptural word which make up the Masorah. 
A system of notation, by means of points or figures above 
and below the letters, was devised to mark vowels and stops. 
Thus was perpetuated the traditional pronunciation and 
interpretation. 

Over against the Western (Palestinian) school stood the 
Eastern (Babylonian); the two diverged as regards textual 
readings and the method of marking the vowels and stops. 
Even in Palestine, Tiberias developed a system apart from 
that obtaining elsewhere in the land. The men of Tiberias 
were looked up to as authorities in this their chosen field. 
They accounted themselves carriers of a tradition ascending 
to Ezra the scribe; at the end they were recruited almost 
from one family. The last and most renowned member of 
this group, whose rulings were accepted by the entire West, 


BEN METR 267 


we f Moses: sot of Asher, jw con bs ckesch rk 


ant that in matrers pertaining to the letter of 
bylonian Amorair deferred to the. Pales- 
éxperts, we art not.’ Another point about 
inian scholars were sensitive was the regula- 
madar. Anciently, of course, when the empirical 
: of accepting the evidence of any one who 
ec the new moon in a lear sky, it fad been the 

: € “patriarchal ecuvt to semnety the new 
, when, owing to descrepanéy between the 
r alendar, the vernal seadem would have 
eatly a date, it har! been the rule of the 


Sh before Nisan. Woring the period when 


¢ themselves to Pelestine to be imetructed. 
2 r od the exilarch cocsguized a3 a8 ancient 
peme lay ruler, i <enpary with the heads 
. Rtas: and aff iveael, to accept the 
put by the authoriths i Palestine. But in 
partly to the aces ancy of the Babylo- 
partly to the wade suty established com- 
& practice fell into dec oc Babylonia made 
ide nt of the Holy Lewes pevet 
1 uarter of the tear «stury,' Palestine wit- 
‘of the higher #ko 0s of lewening, and the 
‘Babylonian execs, styled themselves 
th zealous dignica:.. Aaron Ben Meir, con- 
i improvement i: ( celendar ane sought to 
th e ancient authesty of the mother country. 
ly, in n the autumn <f xe year O21, the rectified 
was proclaimed, a» i Seen the wont, from the 
res. The news ne bed Saadiah, who was then 


at Aleppo, ane pe iramediately remonstrated’ 


He stinian mavier bv letter. Ben Meir had. pre- 
: Bagdad asl eon the adherence of the master 


» the Passover {«stival by intercalating — 


way to calculat: a. the intrimecies of com- | j 
i attended by mystery and the teachers of | 


77 3 
es 
— 
aa 


aa 


pad 


921] BEN MEIR 267 


was Aaron son of Moses son of Asher, an older contemporary 
of Saadiah. 

It is significant that in matters pertaining to the letter of 
Scripture the Babylonian Amoraim deferred to the Pales- 
tinians. “They are experts, we are not.’ Another point about 
which the Palestinian scholars were sensitive was the regula- 
tion of the calendar. Anciently, of course, when the empirical 
method prevailed of accepting the evidence of any one who 
chanced to see the new moon in a clear sky, it had been the 
prerogative of the patriarchal court to sanctify the new 
moon. Similarly, when, owing to discrepancy between the 
solar and the lunar calendar, the vernal season would have 
occurred at too early a date, it had been the rule of the 
patriarch to postpone the Passover festival by intercalating 
a thirteenth month before Nisan. During the period when 
observation gave way to calculation, the intricacies of com- 
putation were still attended by mystery and the teachers of 
Babylonia betook themselves to Palestine to be instructed. 
As late as the year 835 the exilarch recognized as an ancient 
custom for the supreme lay ruler, in company with the heads 
of the schools, the scholars, and all Israel, to accept the 
calendar as sent out by the authorities in Palestine. But in 
the sequel, owing partly to the ascendancy of the Babylo- 
nian schools and partly to the uniformly established com- 
putation, the practice fell into disuse, and Babylonia made 
itself independent of the Holy Land. 

In the first quarter of the tenth century, Palestine wit- 
nessed a revival of the higher schools of learning, and the 
masters, like their Babylonian colleagues, styled themselves 
Gaons. One such zealous dignitary, Aaron Ben Meir, con- 
ceived a small improvement in the calendar and sought to 
reéstablish the ancient authority of the mother country. 
Accordingly, in the autumn of the year 921, the rectified 
calendar was proclaimed, as had been the wont, from the 
Mount of Olives. The news reached Saadiah, who was then 
sojourning at Aleppo, and hé immediately remonstrated 
with the Palestinian master by letter. Ben Meir had pre- 
viously visited Bagdad and won the adherence of the master 


268 _ SAADIAH 


of Pumbeditha, Mebasser, by the support which he lent him 
against his rival Cohen-Zedek, who was the exilarch’s choice. 

When Saadiah arrived on the scene, he found that the 
internal quarrel had been composed, and he was able to 
move the authorities to address a joint letter to the author 
of the new calendar. It was couched im civil terms, asking 
him to withdraw his proclamation that the coming Passover 
would fall on Sunday instead of Tuesday. However, Ben 
Meir would not yield; incriminations and recriminations 
passed between Babylonia and Palestine; the tone of the 
missives grew in sharpness. The holidays were actually cele- 
brated on different days and the confusion created thereby 
was noticed even by non-Jews. Palestine kept insisting on 
its time-honored prerogative, and Babylonia urged the dan- 
ger of disunion in the face of the rift between the Rabbanites 
and the Karaite schismatics. 

The brunt of the battle was borne by Saadiah; he loved 
a combat, and he had it. He met’ invective by invective, 
though he forbore to descend to personal abuse such as his 
opponent heaped upon him and his. It mattered little that 
his former pupils in Egypt fell away from him and that in 
his new environment Ben Meir found supporters. Saadiah 
proved his mettle in this controversy, in which he demon- 
strated his vast learning and his grasp of an intricate subject. 
He had the ear of the exilarch and enjoyed his confidence. 
At the bidding of this dignitary the forceful protagonist of 
the prestige of the Babylonian schools composed a ‘Book of 
Seasons’ refuting the assertions of Ben Meir. It was written 
in biblical diction, and like the Bible was supplied with 
vowel and accent signs. Promulgated throughout the com- 
munities far and near, it was to be recited annually in the 
month preceding the new year. Ben Meir was worsted, and 
the prize of the victory was the elevation of Saadiah to the 
Sura Gaonate. | 

For two years all went well, but the blind counselor’s fore- 
bodings proved true only too soon. The immediate occasion 
for the rupture between David son of Zaccai and Saadiah was 
a lawsuit which involved the settlement of a large estate. It 


a igostion ie the contest “a 
eo she egies The ina ayaa 


% a pn his son 

Ory Pepa that the headstrong 
is i $4) wcivher entreatiés nor 
pce Jake hocwashed iin to sign 
oli another Pre a: raised bis hand to 
es er ang wes orceremmatiously put 
ted hawt. i captivity deposed 


who neice! Sy isemtap an order 
and aprons Bain a hrother, 
cer, burn : 
t aes Somnus! of ther he caliph, 
O, SListainers Deets, the, wetartunate 
ro opposing Farcoons endigmed. for seven 
‘the wealthy sad pronedaand, danutiies, 
family, shied oirh Saas” Phe cxil- 
etted by bis frincds, chink utter whom 
ade; scholor;, ambiieves, cet evar 
hah lived i, petrementiade Bagiad and 
i leisure to ecite some a) Thy newatest 
people weervad of the af ie nad, when 
; 1 to sustain 2s appeal te Satich on the 
gant and biel Sim flaggett, there was a 
ie peace. Hacky son df Aaron, Aaron’s 
: erates pas to — On the Fast- 


‘anu at ‘i exilarchal mansion. He was re-. 
ap hie office and cordial relations were restored. 
Q died: (940) Saadiah used his influence te have 


d Joseysh. it? Juco Mer Satia to. 
yer, te tee ay pronounced upon. 


937] RECONCILIATION WITH THE EXILARCH 269 


seems that the exilarch was not quite disinterested in pro- 
nouncing judgment. In order to give validity to the verdict, 
the two Gaons were invited to countersign the document. 
Saadiah evasively directed the parties to the contest to 
secure first the signature of his colleague. The obsequious 
Cohen-Zedek complied, but Saadiah refused to affix his 
signature and on being importuned gave his reason. The 
exilarch became insistent. He repeatedly dispatched his son 
Judah with the peremptory request that the headstrong 
Gaon should subscribe his name. But neither entreaties nor 
threats were of avail. Once Judah admonished him to sign 
and not act as a fool; another time he raised his hand to 
strike the inflexible master and was unceremoniously put 
out. At last the exasperated head of the captivity deposed 
the Gaon and appointed Joseph son of Jacob Bar Satia to 
the vacant seat. Moreover, the ban was pronounced upon 
the recalcitrant master, who retaliated by issuing an order 
removing the exilarch and appointing his younger brother, 
Hasan (Josiah), to succeed him. 

Whether it was that Hasan soon died or that the caliph, 
who was appealed to, sustained David, the unfortunate 
strife between the two opposing factions endured for seven 
years. The majority of the wealthy and prominent families, 
especially the Netira family, sided with Saadiah. The exil- 
arch, however, was abetted by his friends, chief among whom 
was Aaron Ibn Sarjado, scholarly, ambitious, and enor- 
mously wealthy. Saadiah lived in retirement at Bagdad and 
utilized his enforced leisure to write some of his greatest 
works. At length the people wearied of the strife and, when 
the exilarch declined to sustain an appeal to Saadiah on the 
part of a Suran litigant and had him flogged, there was a 
universal clamor for peace. Bishr son of Aaron, Aaron’s 
father-in-law, was prevailed upon to interfere. On the Fast 
of Esther of the year 937 the two adversaries were brought 
together, and they embraced. On the next day, Purim, 
Saadiah was a guest at the exilarchal mansion. He was re- 
instated in his office and cordial relations were restored. 
When David died (940) Saadiah used his influence to have 


270 SAADIAH [942 


his son Judah appointed exilarch. But Judah held the office 
for barely seven months when he died, leaving a boy of 
twelve years. Saadiah took the grandson of his erstwhile 
bitter enemy into his house and watched over him with 
fatherly care. Two years later (942) Saadiah passed away. 

To posterity Saadiah was known as the first master in 
all the branches of Jewish learning. With him Jewish scholar- 
ship assumed a diversified aspect. He cultivated the Halakah 
and codified talmudic law, both civil and ritual. For the first 
time a systematic presentation was attempted with the 
subject-matter properly classified and the principles outlined 
in a deductive manner, the sources being left unindicated. 
He also wrote an Introduction to the Talmud. His order of 
Prayers embodied the rite of his native country and incor- 
porated along with the ancient liturgical pieces the poetic 
(paitanic) hymns of Jose son of Jose, a Palestinian of the 
first half of the seventh century, and some original composi- 
tions. Saadiah was likewise acquainted with the productions 
of Jannai and of his celebrated pupil, Eleazar Kalir. 

It was the habit of these poets and their imitators to em- 
bellish their productions with acrostics—forming the names 
of the author, or running over the letters of the alphabet in 
their order, as is the case even in certain parts of Scrip- 
ture—and rhymes. Saadiah early in life composed a rhym- 
ing dictionary, intended to facilitate versification, which he 
called ‘Assembler.’ He tried his hand at versification of his 
own, as for example when he gathered up the six hundred 
and thirteen Commandments to be recited on the Festival of 
the Giving of the Law (Shabuoth), or composed a penitential 
poem for the Day of Atonement. But withal Saadiah, like 
the earlier authors of liturgical poems, was no poet. His con- 
struction is far too artificial and his diction labored, both 
characteristic of the age, with its unnatural taste for bizarre 
word-formations defying the rules of the structure of the 
Hebrew tongue. Yet Saadiah was the first to write a Hebrew 
Grammar, thus opening up a fruitful study which revolu- 
tionized the course of Jewish education and letters and 
marked a return to the Scriptures as the fountainhead of 


ft ‘conrnavasi. WRITINGS aan LE | 


| eek age te soamogptotally different 
roping ‘te gta on 2 the east a the 


| ent sit cen ‘healt sien of his ‘career 
oe cia ‘Rookof the Seasons’ 

aye nee en , 4, from tke diae mf his controversy with 
salt reation With, Heys.) foarch gave rise to *The 
€ Book that onic ‘dn which, aside from 
ive of the “om ew affair, he general- 
sotic ee. 'v: contrast to this he 

sl videritial ‘av@e= fe which at critical 
y pear rsin order is: gp che people aright. 
ser-of the. ies Seyawaihi (iwi) of 
: te >have had Bese towards Christian 
eculations ard Brome: teachings found 


itis wert ices for Anan and the 
's own conterteeer ees belonging to the 
. Barly and Se = ie, by means of 
‘and throughewt &.. other writings. " 
e opponents «if teattoeer. From-the arsenal 

nics the succeeehny ercrations berrowed 


+ the Karaises ever after leveled their 
| ubtable Mastersonic versialist whose very 
in exécration, % «ems probable that a 
ology by the {so was likewise aimed at 
tte aks ow tse sxthority of tradition. . 
king r literaty seertakings for which the 
famec pi his eranalation of the Scriptures 
| his theologicx! work in éhe defense of the 
“gare The version: i the Beapiats 


hoo ols, met nici nets nai on the part 


this everlastiig eociare with Karaite . 


Rt el ae auger dena ted exit 
dink “Seapgse a a ibe st mig sie re 
a ace Ue 5 na ‘thos: ‘and 

F ae ea ipa later ; ay 
ag: Sogn y Feadiah was haste 
FUE TON ee Adena wept 
ede ww, Both 


. see reer ta Ha 
#6 iy guirey Cale : 
: dic Tei? che scure 
sine an. Lei erin Ae 
i cre ygemeae T ae vise et hit 
nee eek the ancient ta 
ot eit Sak: te oat won ok fi 
od ne Ae wctbeels Cemetary 


Sie We Pat ing a! No 


fabs So: ae ‘saps i jhe pods, : 
ca ake Lr Sey es yeh ate 
ae rege Aer tho} 


pee goat. Py eee, ease Pes my 


ont, As ior example a ai te Qatk 
vinci oh Teen ® OMMNALRE wea le to be re 
the Ga of ug of the Law (Shabwothjoee 
polite ¢ the ee w seein. . 


struction is far too arts fics sad 1 and re ict 
characteristic of the aye, with at: c 
worddormations defying the Tule, 
Hebrew tongue. Yet Saadiah was thew 
Grammar, thus opening up a fruitful 


CONTROVERSIAL WRITINGS 271 


Judaism. This work was done in a manner totally different 
from the crude groping after the past on the part of the 
Karaites. 

Both by temperament and the vicissitudes of his career 
Saadiah was drawn to polemics. His ‘Book of the Seasons’ 
dates, as we have seen, from the time of his controversy with 
Ben Meir. His altercation with the exilarch gave rise to “The 
Open Book’ or “The Book that Refutes,’ in which, aside from 
the specific narrative of the unfortunate affair, he general- 
ized on the evils of despotic rulership. In contrast to this he 
pointed out the providential order by which at critical 
periods a teacher appears in order to guide the people aright. 
A sceptical traducer of the Scriptures, Hayawaihi (Hiwi) of 
Balkh, who seems to have had a leaning towards Christian 
and Zoroastrian speculations and whose teachings found 
their way into the schools, met with refutation on the part 
of Saadiah in a book written some time before he was called 
to the Gaonate. 

But the bitterest polemics were reserved for Anan and the 
writings of Saadiah’s own contemporaries belonging to the 
Karaite persuasion. Early and late in life, by means of 
specific treatises and throughout his other writings, he 
waged war with the opponents of tradition. From the arsenal 
of the Gaon’s polemics the succeeding generations borrowed 
their weapons in this everlasting warfare with Karaite 
adversaries, just as the Karaites ever after leveled their 
shafts at the redoubtable master-controversialist whose very 
name they held in execration. It seems probable that a 
treatise on Chronology by the Gaon was likewise aimed at 
offsetting Karaite attacks on the authority of tradition. 

The epoch-making literary undertakings for which the 
Gaon is justly famed were his translation of the Scriptures 
into Arabic and his theological work in the defense of the 
cardinal truths of Judaism. The version of the Scriptures 
was accompanied in certain books or parts of books by a 
commentary. The translation was intended for the people, 
the Jews in the vast domain of Arab culture, and to this day 
it is read by Yemenite Jews. The forced interpretation, so 


272 SAADIAH 


often indulged in by the rabbis, was discarded. Thus ground 
was broken for a rational exposition. The work yielded stores 
of information to successive generations of Bible students. 
They were equally indebted to the Gaon for the happy sug- 
gestions in an independent treatise dealing with some ninety 
words which are found but once or rarely in the Bible, ‘hav- 
ing neither brother nor friend,’ but capable of being under- 
stood by the aid of the later Hebrew or the cognate Arabic. 

Both his linguistic studies and his philosophic interests 
led Saadiah to expound the fantastic ‘Book of Creation,’ a 
product of early gaonic times which attaches mystic signi- 
ficance to letters and numbers. However, the crowning 
work, in which the Gaon brought to play all his many-sided 
powers, was his apology of Judaism as a system of faith, to 
which he gave the name of ‘Beliefs (religious doctrines) and 
Opinions (based on rational, philosophic thinking).’ The aim 
was clearly to link together the basic doctrines of Judaism as 
revealed in Scripture and the truths grounded on human 
reasoning. In terms of Mohammedan dogmatics, which sup- 
plied him with method and orientation, Saadiah was a 
rationalist thinker upon an orthodox basis, or an orthodox 
theologian given to rationalism. He presented a perfectly 
consistent system in which reason has its part and revelation 
is not impugned, in which the individual works out his 
destiny and corporate Israel reaches her goal. This work, 
like the majority of Saadiah’s writings, was composed in the 
Arabic language and written in the Arabic script. Moslem 
theologians read and appreciated this theological treatise. 
Naturally it was studied as well by the Jewish readers, 
especially after it had been translated into Hebrew (under 
the title of ‘Emunoth we-Deoth’); they were impressed by 
the positive tone and the harmonious welding together of 
religion and philosophy, of revelation and reason, in a work 


which was the first of its kind in the age of Arab-Jewish 
culture. | 


Tur SLB ELONTAN SCHOOLS 


/_ feraenas de® 


a Ete beet “Snistration a Saadiah 
| the Behowk ai at could:arrest only for 
' decline to Whive « was hastening. Saa- 

h Bar Sade wor 9 feeble match even 


Si carinieeed a se Fayumite, through 
Ce, nck ike seat vatated by 
aniah som 4% frc?y%s, (943). Aaron, as 


» Thongs 34 Ss been ordained by 
nu “iad inferior ¢¢ Awa, the brother of 
who was sages tite “Grough imimidation. 
a megs an’ awuld “breaks tio -con- 

- r dinates. Ds sarinfor hae was - rife, 


: ea own tex 6. disease arert ners 
DT > and was tty Sec hands of tedependent 
owas a prey t aw-vorful hints who made 
puppets. Die exnriry wee tevaged, and 
earning fion: itself sheath of its landed 


aught is eft to 4,” complains & scholar at this 


273 


tnbeditha, stalia gon of Joseph Ibn | 


e province wits ce ‘other tat fatien ; 


aa practically deprotet upon pious gifts from 


gs of ont ethers.’ Nor was the internal 
A ab conditions. Aaron and Nehemiah . 
| mary thought the former the ae histd ss 


ea SAADIAN 


dis, qui pillow’ 9 hee the tabbr wee 
; oo aR exp ostiony & Le 
wig 4y ae Bea Serta 4 
blow mows enwitte deheed to she (gm 
a Lear StS | treatise dei uli 

: er ence On ARP 

ig ‘wane Sekar Se ; 


dws oy at he leer Hebe 


es 


t ne % 
% RINSE 


ik ww sontoasy of Tudalaige 


netine of “Reliefg 


}- sacar 
rh : Parity. $. 


Lak troptidr: te bei 


4 


ma ot Mohsrunetiaat 
q ; 4 ¥ * 
ech. Sete! ane eae 


. ¢ * 
’ ‘oe bb’ 


yon ps which reasay aie 


» ‘ Ja tt Oe A 
Thee a Pe a tt 3 se TG 


P : 
qed es TCA BPM STAPeCIa 

id ‘ , . ob esedecon jae mrted 

% x ¥ eh ve ee zs Reo is Way 
ze : 
e 

ae P 

a . 

eat +3 

7 % >, \ 

fer a 

A - 

antgecet 


(Vs be Wed Ey Naam, 4 a} 
THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN SCHOOLS 
(943-1038) 


HE lustre which the brief administration of Saadiah 

shed upon the school at Sura could arrest only for 

a while the decline to which it was hastening. Saa- 
diah’s successor Joseph Bar Satia was a feeble match even 
for his colleague of Pumbeditha, Aaron son of Joseph Ibn 
Sarjado. This erstwhile opponent of the Fayumite, through 
his wealth and influence, mounted the seat vacated by 
Sherira’s father, Hananiah son of Judah (943). Aaron, as 
Sherira reports, did not belong to the class of scholars, but 
to that of merchants. Though he had been ordained by 
Mebasser, he was much inferior to Amram, the brother of 
Sherira’s mother, who was set aside through intimidation. 
Aaron bore himself magisterially and would brook no con- 
tradiction from his subordinates. Dissatisfaction was rife, 
and Nehemiah son of Cohen-Zedek led a revolt against the 
overbearing master, charging him with untruthfulness, gross 
peculation in the administration of the school funds, favorit- 
ism towards fawning students, and general malfeasance. 

The exilarch Solomon (David’s grandson) stepped in to 
recover in part at least the moneys received from Spain and 
diverted by Aaron to his own uses. Conditions were exceed- 
ingly precarious. One province after the other had fallen 
away from the empire and was in the hands of independent 
rulers. The capital was a prey to masterful chiefs who made 
of the caliphs mere puppets. The country was ravaged, and 
the Jewish seat of learning found itself shorn of its landed 
property and practically dependent upon pious gifts: from 
abroad. ‘Naught is left to us,’ complains a scholar at this 
time, ‘but the writings of our fathers.’ Nor was the internal 
strife calculated to improve conditions. Aaron and Nehemiah 
had each his following; many thought the former the worthier 


pats 


274 THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN SCHOOLS [960-998 


of the two men. Upon the death of Aaron (960), Nehemiah 
succeeded him. Sherira alone stood out in withholding 
recognition, though he held on to his office as president of 
the court which placed him next in rank. 

When Nehemiah passed away in 968, Sherira mounted the 
chief seat which his father and grandfather had occupied 
before him. For thirty years he labored assiduously to check 
the collapse now ominously threatening. He had himself 
lent a willing hand to the planting of the Torah in the lands 
toward the going down of the sun. But he justly contended 
that the parent institutions in the East must not be crippled, 
‘for how could the body be healthy, if the head were hurt?’ 
To such lengths had apparently gone the process of decen- 
tralization. Yet from the farthest corners queries in matters 
of law were addressed to the Gaon, and he followed implic- 
itly the rulings of the Talmud. The homilies (haggadahs) of 
the rabbis, however, he considered less binding; they were to 
be accepted only when supported by reason and Scripture. 

As if to render account of a period now closing, in reply to 
a request of the Kairawan community (p. 280), Sherira com- 
posed the justly famed Epistle bearing his name in which he 
delineated the origins of Mishnah and Talmud. With mas- 
terly erudition, aided by the school archives, the Gaon estab- 
lished the unbroken succession of the bearers of Tradition 
from the remote beginnings down to his own day. After a 
lapse of centuries, in the face of the rift between the up- 
holders of Tradition and their Scripturist antagonists, Jew- 
ish historiography was resumed, and Sherira’s chronicle 
served as a source and model for many future undertakings. 

Sherira had his enemies who denounced him to the caliph 
Kadir. The aged Gaon and his son Hai, whom he had placed 
as next in rank, were cast into prison and their property was 
confiscated; through the intervention of friends they were 
released. Sherira, broken in health, retired in favor of his son 
in 998, and after a few years he passed away at the age of 
almost one hundred. On the sabbath of Hai’s installation a 
signal honor was paid to father and son in that, by suitable 
selections from the Scriptures, it was brought home to the 


HAT GAGs: | ge 


» God of the spirits of all flesh’ had set in the 
rec master as worthy 2 sticcessor as Joshua 
OSES, pec lomon to King David. 
had: meanwitle twen redpened and was 
by Zemah wm «i dsaac and then by 
phni; a-gromdean tf * ahen-Zedek, At first 
r fost 4 between hitii «je? Shexira, but shortly 
‘ae rn ~ peacetiad hyeer. made, and it was 
arrying a dang biter of sonswel, It was agreed 
3 of Money, specs A —— was | 


ee ares hoe shee They version 
jed by @ (ace setae he though 
je Sense; wie * Cove verbose and fre- 
ay from thea Hieete bins 50 Samuel 


petites Ps te a sdaibowed Ra aR 
wenth centawy she emtient foundation 
\practicativ ciwrad te exdat after an 
. ries. J¢ is fremwlvy chat it was trans- - 


a ditha nt rate | ¢ Ragdad ncliaal ed 
Sadtiion, Fes ee tise Igst Gaon of 
summing up. cies period in the life 
» Like his fatsce. he attained a hoary 
ars (998-1858) Yer hisseminated knowl- 
le pep eer from afar. He mas. 


eC Ears all Se vere acconait in shickdat 
Scripture or Vdmud. He enjoyed the 
fs of the sil Chae ee: fisided 


ie Bible was esc in the Syriac version. | a 
ition and & jrofound and incisive mind. = sg 


f the civil aw of the Talennd was of funda- — ee ae 
yee for all posterity, We possess from his’. roe Aa 


rr y a thousand housand answers te? acini and the range ae 


998-1038] HAI GAON 275 


people that ‘the God of the spirits of all flesh’ had set in the 
seat of the retired master as worthy a successor as Joshua 
had been to Moses, or Solomon to King David. 

The Sura school had meanwhile been reopened and was 
presided over first by Zemah son of Isaac and then by 
Samuel son of Hophni, a grandson of Cohen-Zedek. At first 
there was friction between him and Sherira, but shortly 
before the latter’s death peace had been made, and it was 
sealed by Hai marrying a daughter of Samuel. It was agreed 
that all incoming gifts of money, unless a preference was 
specified by the donors, should be divided equally between 
the two schools. Samuel followed in the footsteps of Saadiah 
and rendered the Scriptures anew into Arabic. The version 
was likewise accompanied by a commentary which, though 
striving after the simple sense, was rather verbose and fre- 
quently wandered away from the immediate subject. Samuel 
was succeeded by Saadiah’s aged son Dosa who held the 
office fora brief period (1013-1017). Others followed him, but 
by the middle of the eleventh century the ancient foundation 
created by Rab had practically ceased to exist after an 
activity of eight centuries. It is possible that it was trans- 
ferred to Egypt. 

Nor did the Pumbeditha or rather Bagdad school long 
outlive the sister institution. Hai was the last Gaon of 
eminence, worthily summing up a creative period in the life 
of the Jewish people. Like his father, he attained a hoary 
age, and for forty years (998-1038) he disseminated knowl- 
- edge among near disciples and inquirers from afar. He mas- 
tered many tongues: Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Greek, and 
Persian, and he turned them all to good account in elucidat- 
ing obscurities in Scripture or Talmud. He enjoyed the 
friendship of the head of the Eastern Church, who resided 
at Bagdad, and sought information from him as to how a 
difficult verse in the Bible was rendered in the Syriac version. 
He possessed erudition and a profound and incisive mind. 
His codification of the civil law of the Talmud was of funda- 
mental importance for all posterity. We possess from his 
hand nearly a thousand answers to queries, and the range 


276 THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN SCHOOLS , 


of subjects discussed is a most varied one, including matters 
of philosophical and theological moment. He laid down the 
rule, ever followed in after times, that when the Palestinian 
Talmud clashed with the Babylonian the latter alone was 
authoritative. 

But what marks off Hai as the exponent of a new age is 
that with him began the series of commentators on a large 
scale. The literary works in which Tradition exhausted itself, 
Mishnah and Talmud above all, were felt to belong to a 
period quite remote. It was necessary to bring their sense 
home to latter generations by means of paraphrase and 
succinct, but nevertheless much needed elucidation. Hai 
was outstripped by more successful masters in the art of 
interpretation; but he had shown both the way and the | 
need. He knew weil how to distinguish between a talmudic 
ruling of binding force and a casual remark which must not 
be taken literally. He taught his followers to exercise toler- 
ance towards the Karaites. When he passed away, a poet in 
far-off Spain mournfully lamented the loss of ‘a pure body, a 
saintly heart, one resplendent like Moses.’ 

The exilarch Hezekiah, a descendant of David son of 
Zaccai, took over the Gaonate. But the Babylonian center 
had by this time been eclipsed. Other centers had arisen or 
were in the process of formation. The creative work of 
Babylonian Jewry was done. Its achievements passed on 
as a heritage to the communities of the West. In the hails of 
learning of northern Africa and Europe reverberated the: 
discussions of Rab and Samuel, of Rabbah and Joseph, of 
Abaye and Raba. There men rehearsed codes and com- 
mentaries and theological treatises of the Gaons of Sura and 
Pumbeditha, who had blazed the path and given direction to 
Jewish life for centuries to come. 


Bo eiethace coos? <8 Sicy, not merely in 
Jewish settlement: eerie “pin the wake of 
| Mohammedan conqucs. | >. foremost com- 
rec d in the capital OF eal eis province (Ifri- 
ity of luxuriant gars: «md: olive groves 
fbn Nafi in 673 ane seer! by hime Kaira- 
Here the ‘Aghiohidhs: eons ruled from 800 
pendence on fit #h<v theresa Whea | 
blished their emis ovr the whole of 
y removed the @< » government to 
turned over meusern proviness (in- 
previously in the boc’ of the Tdpisids) 
asty of the Zirid. | ase HS0 Musiaz the 
quite nomina! stim. iece to thie Abba- 
nstant raids be Wie? * ot ntiee, Ta 1148 
r was extinguisher © y Pawar fot Sicily, 
ay ages vee Tunisian alae. | 
sre drawn to the fiws stieg cugutal ou'ly 
e middle of. the #40") PA SOS AS 
imity v ry mut the ko apie —~Riet 
s of Je noossincrerts ted «Sa aimost 


- course of i ppinias < onal The 
@ spoke of ths ten of Rairawan asa 
and wisdew. fewisly ntaeel wecular leatn- 
“ang ‘The ee maintained 
%, with Spain and 


‘ sce hvicnlar — : 


pans ath EXD OF THE BABYLO 


of sadside i diese ee is a most varied 
ef abilase tical aad cheological anos 
pile, ever follow 4 in after times, that 


aoale. The btcrery worked which . 
Mishnah ant Talmud above all, ¥ 
perio G at remote, [twas necessal 
home vo letter generations by am d 
miccinet, but nevertheless Fs: much. t 
was outstripped by more successtul 
etation; but he had showhit 
fic knew wel bow distingu 
ruling oh ea forte and 2 casual 
be taken Hterafly. He taught his fea 
ance toward me PE When he 
far-off Spas: mnwachiaily lamented £ 
saintly heart, ove resplerident hike 7 
The exniarch Hezekiah, a des i 
Zaccal, took over the Gaonate. Bu 


were in the process. of formationy 
Babylonian Jewry-was done. Teg) 
as a lege ie io the communities of 
learning of ne rihern. Africa and E 
discussions of 3 tah and Samuel, of, 
Abaye and Reba. There, men fehem 
nientaries and Theological treatises of 
Pannts ditha, whe had blazed the oe 
Jewish ide for centuries to. cumigy 


CHAPTER XLII 
THE KAIRAWAN COMMUNITY 


(700-1050) 


LL along the northern coast of Africa, not merely in 
A Egypt, Jewish settlements sprang up in the wake of 
the Mohammedan conquest. The foremost com- 
munity gathered in the capital of the eastern province (Ifri- 
kiya), in the city of luxuriant gardens and olive groves 
founded by Ukba Ibn Nafi in 673 and named by him Kaira- 
wan (The Camp). Here the Aghlabid princes ruled from 800 
to 908 in nominal dependence on the Abbasid caliphs. When 
the Fatimites established their empire over the whole of 
North Africa, they removed the seat of government to 
Egypt. In 972, they turned over the western provinces (in- 
cluding Maghreb, previously in the hands of the Idrisids) 
to the native dynasty of the Zirids. About 1050 Muizz the 
Zirid transferred his quite nominal allegiance to the Abba- 
sids, thus inviting constant raids from the Fatimites. In 1148 
the Zirid dynasty was extinguished by Roger I. of Sicily, 
who established his authority over all the Tunisian coast. 
Jewish settlers were drawn to the flourishing capital early 
in its history. By the middle of the eighth century there was 
an organized community very much alive to spiritual inter- 
ests. From the times of Jehudai Gaon (760-764) on, almost 
every Gaon of eminence, whether of Sura or of Pumbeditha, 
was consulted by this African community on a variety of 
subjects, mostly of course of a religious character. The 
Babylonian masters spoke of the men of Kairawan as-a 
group in whom Torah and wisdom, Jewish and secular learn- 
ing were singularly blended. The community maintained 
relations also with Egypt and Palestine, with Spain and 
Italy. Pious gifts were forwarded to the Babylonian schools 
as well as to those in the Holy Land. 


277 


278 | THE KAIRAWAN COMMUNITY [917-936 


At the head of the community stood a lay dignitary, who 
had the title of Nagid (princely leader) and who, in addition 
to supervising the internal affairs, acted as his people’s 
spokesman at court. Such a one, in the first half of the 
eleventh century, was Abraham son of Nathan Ibn Ata, a 
highly respected physician, -who hailed from Apulia (in 
Italy) and to whom the Gaon Hai addressed a versified 
epistle; during the lifetime of this Gaon another Nagid, 
Jacob son of Amram, presided over the community. The 
spiritual affairs and the higher education were in the hands 
of learned men who achieved fame in their own day and won 
for themselves an abiding place in the forward movement of 
Jewish letters. The high standing of the community induced 
the exilarch Ukba, when he was driven from Bagdad through 
the machinations of the ambitious Gaon of Pumbeditha, 
Cohen-Zedek IT. (917-936), to seek shelter in Kairawan. He 
was received with high honors and a seat was prepared for 
him in the synagogue next to the Ark. 

Some forty years earlier another visitor was entertained 
by the Jews of Kairawan. Eldad son of Mahli the Danite 
alleged that he was a descendant of the tribe of Dan. He 
related that this tribe had emigrated from their Palestinian 
home so as not to take part in the civil war at the time of 
Jeroboam’s secession, and were residing in the land of 
Havilah beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. Three other tribes, 
Naphtali, Gad, and Asher, were with them; these had joined 
them in the times of Sennacherib. Opposite them lived the 
Children of Moses, sprung from those Levites who had muti- 
lated the fingers of their right hand rather than to sing the 
songs of Zion by the rivers of Babylon and had then been 
translated by a cloud to their present abode. His own people, 
so Eldad continued, were able to communicate with them 
only from afar, since they were cut off from one another by 
a waterless torrent which carried masses of sand and rubble 
with such terrific force that it could crush an iron moun- 
tain. This impassable river rested on the sabbath day, when 


it was enveloped in a thick mist; hence the river was 
named Sambation. 


4° ELDAD THE Ta NET® ) 279 


‘were: rade ug 4f mate warriors and, 
be turee tncnths in the jee). each tribe was 
oe en 53 : 
morder to ward off eee aclts, if necessary 
bath, They.were cuted Si « s2omon king and 
f judge; when Ridad tty You hame, the one 
: zziel for Asliel), white vy her was named 
sised Criminal. juriayeicy even when it 
shit. Wher tie dase with warfare, 
ive with the stude#¥.aie Torah. They 
‘of Scriptures barry Sever and La- 
Knew eos of M iat i ot Talmud; 


name of ay Son ot ies wu a he had 
the hands of Moses. Ridad. wahibited a 
y with rhe rides pertaising to the 


trange exprestions. with a aight Arabic 
dad himself proteaed that he knew no 
1 Wy, in wipck send he ‘ernie 


ae cal bien ea ¢ unning gn €AC. hil 
d pos thre urhet remnants ot the tea 


eee 


Ben ie aly eae faac ¥ : tee 


possibly he hed came acrass aadeniated 


: ‘Sura (B82-607 ; “mes appeated ga and the 
but on te whele reasouring, He pointed 


ti > & lapey ot wermory-on the part of the 


% 


et a rita coritiieal perveitheless to be 


food; i wae writter ma Hebrew 


in some eurlyiig « onmher, The Gaon. Zemah 


erences sotgh? ie expected amt that some 


But isaiged he-exhorted the Sete ; 


pe repute in the! ascurandeniy ages. His 


7 


ut 


rs 


a 


a4 


882-887 | ELDAD THE DANITE 279 


The four tribes were made up of brave warriors and, 
alternately for three months in the year, each tribe was 
under arms in order to ward off enemy attacks, if necessary 
also on the sabbath. They were ruled by a common king and 
a common chief judge; when Eldad left his home, the one 
bore the name Uzziel (or Adiel), while the other was named 
Abdon. They exercised criminal jurisdiction even when it 
involved capital punishment. When not busy with warfare, 
they occupied themselves with the study of the Torah. They 
had the entire body of Scriptures barring Esther and La- 
mentations. They knew neither of Mishnah nor of Talmud; 
' but they had a Talmud of their own in which all the laws 
were cited in the name of Joshua son of Nun as he had 
received them at the hands of Moses. Eldad exhibited a 
Ritual dealing mostly with the rules pertaining to the 
killing of animals for food. It was written in a Hebrew 
containing many strange expressions with a slight Arabic 
coloring, though Eldad himself professed that he knew no 
other tongue but Hebrew, in which alone he conversed. 

Eldad was given a hearing in the presence of the spiritual 
and lay leaders of the Kairawan community, and he regaled 
his audience with a weird story of his adventures. He told 
how the boat he traveled on was shipwrecked, how he found 
himself among cannibals and how by cunning he escaped, 
how then he chanced upon the other remnants of the ten 
tribes, until at last he found himself in Egypt. It is probable 
enough that in his narrative much fancy was intermixed 
with reality and that possibly he had come across an isolated 
Jewish settlement in some outlying corner. The Gaon Zemah 
son of Hayim in Sura (882-887) was appealed to and the 
answer was cautious but on the whole reassuring. He pointed 
out that ritual differences might be expected and that some 
should be charged to a lapse of memory on the part of the 
sorely tried traveler. But withal he exhorted the African 
brethren to adhere steadfastly to the traditions of the Baby- 
lonian schools. Eldad’s ritual continued nevertheless to be 
cited by scholars of repute in the subsequent ages. His 


280 THE KAIRAWAN COMMUNITY [903-935 


account of the existence of other tribes of Israel sustained in 
many Jews the hope of a complete restoration. 

In the times of Saadiah (p. 265) his fellow-countryman 
Isaac Israeli was court physician to the Aghlabid prince 
Ziyadat-Allah III. (903-909). In the same capacity Israeli 
ministered to the Fatimite prince Ubaidallah al-Mahdi 
(910-934), when he set himself in the place of the over- 
thrown dynasty, and to his successors. Israeli was present 
at the death-bed of Manzur (935); shortly thereafter he 
passed away himself in extreme old age. He had never mar- 
ried and said once by way of pleasantry that his learned 


works on medicine would keep his memory alive far more . 


effectively than son or daughter. He did not overestimate 
his merits; his treatises on fevers and dietetics were highly 
prized and were made accessible in Europe through Latin 
translations. He was spoken of as a monarch in the realm of 
medicine. Among his disciples one was a Mohammedan, the 
other a coreligionist by the name of Abu Sahl Dunash 
(Adonim) son of Tamim, who hailed from Babylonia. He 
was likewise employed as a physician by Manzur, to whom 
he dedicated a work on astronomy in which principles of 
astrology were refuted. He also wrote a commentary on the 
Book of Creation and a treatise on Hebrew grammar. 
Jacob son of Nissim son of Josiah, to whom Sherira ad- 
dressed his famous Chronicle-Epistle. (p. 274), founded a 
school for talmudic learning and had many disciples. One of 
them, Joseph son of Berechiah, acted as assistant master and 
was highly respected by Hai and his father-in-law Samuel 
son of Hophni, with both of whom he corresponded. Another 
school was founded by Hushiel son of Elhanan. This scholar 
came from Italy and was on his way to Egypt to join a 
friend, Shemariah son of Elhanan, who had formerly studied 
at Pumbeditha and was now presiding over a school at 
Fustat. While waiting for his son to join him, Hushiel 
yielded to the entreaties of the Kairawan community to 
remain with them. Hushiel, it seems, did little writing; at 
any rate no literary remains have come to light. But such 


was his impress upon his generation that his death was pub- 


Cts 


‘é 


HANAN 183 


ae Di ae 
nish COMM a. Samuel na-Na tee 18 


med a hiteware eetrespondence with 
head a tae tOry letter to his 
ary 4 d his dasiver’s i ace. 
teaiiely rituates? tiven the fa ther in 
wm He canuranded still ered ter 
pine sl learned tradition united 
rar, preapaly through the 
markedey deferred, the 
dig ef tiiher, I 


plonian Goo A cilia was 
tis as care “of a tradifion dried up 
ty valued hina most, aitulent that 
sein eather cic bankground. He 
1 Wat sje dian one pues. Ayal was 


€ en aa the comiahiions dis. 
sta nt lotaitica. 
atary an the I Talmud nit verbal 
with a view tn simplifying the 
on 4 arciving at cee cusions 
ac e This work, which he sree eled | i ay 
sof the Babylocian Geonkex, met one ‘ 
; f the tine, fazalii abng 2 sf aie} the 
ading of the Taisnud. ee eved 
be the epene eMnizers vical Siewert. 
ras a rates a = 


ad pratt snag nis af 
f Tabored Jacob's son, ‘Nissim. +e z 
advantage of being taught both A 
father. and was also profoundly ee: 
fe = Gaon Hai. His sound learn- 
ges attracted aruents: from. 


? 


RY pet KARAWAN 


wenres SS ae of ether tri 
ia sae ee, a ee ote cmciel 
CORP Ra ee ae » eeaioh (pe 3, 
jb sere oteme: physiciad: 


. 
ar 
c 
ad 
oF, 
4 


init on We Varina’ 
octet. RG. ae hembolt 
$a his 3 
un Phat Ay iat. cme eS rey ae 
a Sane: ote He ay eet" gtk “eee ch Ae ae 
os ee oR pega dy Sy Way at 
jietes von + ire: eee weep. 
Pe oe 4 : ay pee ee 2 Gaughter? 
sf: Reg aXe — 1th feveeg 
set nal oes aad sci 


Mati.” te Wirt vie valid pin 
ther ) coplagebniat boy: the: aaa 
tomb aon of Tavis whee 
‘i a3 2 heya ti 
o dedionsad a work on, aatrote 
wreaayy wen vefutod. He ey 
hook of (reat and at eat hae on. 
bab son af Nigairn sche aie a 


a 4 ior tubmadst cleat oe a hae 
therm, a seph * Berse ho hh, acted § 
was hrghh toned iy tial and 
son of Hophni, with sath of whom 
schoo! was founder! by Hushiel sea GF 
came from Italy and as on hie way" 
frend, Shemartahk sorn-of Ethan who 


Fustat. While wind tee hu 
Yiekled to the entreaties of the 
remain with them. Hushiel, #t seems) ¢ 
any rate no literary remains hawe come : 
was his impress toon his reneration that : | 


1053] HANANEL 281 


licly mourned in the Spanish communities. Samuel ha-Nagid 
(p. 315), who had maintained a literary correspondence with 
the Kairawan scholar, addressed a consolatory letter to his 
son Hananel, who worthily filled his father’s place. 

The son was more fortunately situated than the father in 
that he possessed great wealth. He commanded still greater 
riches of the spirit. Three streams of learned tradition united 
in him: the eastern or Babylonian, principally through the 
writings of Hai to whose authority he markedly deferred, the 
European in which he was reared by his father, and the 
Palestinian with which the Italians had always been in 
touch. Hananel survived the Babylonian Gaon—he was 
still alive in 1053—and it is as carrier of a tradition dried up 
at its source that posterity valued him most, confident that 
any remark of his rested on an authentic background. He 
wrote in Hebrew; his diction was simple and concise. It was 
known that both he and his father used in their school copies 
of the Talmud which were free from the corruptions dis- 
figuring the text in more distant localities. 

Hananel wrote a commentary on the Talmud with verbal 
explanations, but mainly with a view to simplifying the 
intricate talmudic discussions and arriving at conclusions 
for the guidance of practice. This work, which he modeled 
after the commentaries of the Babylonian Geonim, met one 
of the greatest needs of the time, facilitating as it did the 
study and the understanding of the Talmud. Hananel served 
in this respect as a model for the epitomizers who followed. 
His attitude toward the Haggadah was a rational one, and 
he averred that there was nothing in the Talmud to suggest 
ascription of bodily form to God. Like Saadiah, he relied 
upon a combination of reason, Scripture, and Tradition; his 
explanatory notes on the Bible—on some books he wrote an 
extended commentary—stressed the simple sense. 

Side by side with Hananel labored Jacob’s son, Nissim. 
He had enjoyed the double advantage of being taught both 
by Hushiel and by his own father, and was also profoundly 
influenced by the writings of the Gaon Hai. His sound learn- 
ing was recognized and his school attracted students from 


282 THE KAIRAWAN COMMUNITY 


Spain. Samuel ha- Nagid hailed him as a veritable Gaon; 
the friendship which linked the two men was further ce- 
mented when the Nagid’s son, Joseph, married a daughter of 
Nissim. On the occasion of these nuptials the Kairawan 
master visited Granada and a number of younger scholars 
came under his influence, among them the poet Ibn Gabirol 
(p. 318), who accounted himself a pupil ‘in whose heart the 
master dwelt.’ Nissim, who wrote in Arabic, united secular 
erudition with talmudic learning. His principal work was a 
‘Key to the Talmud’ with a view to assembling parallel 
passages bearing on a given statement and with attention to 
the methodology of talmudic disputation. Like Hananel, he 
had an eye for correct readings. 

Neither Hananel nor Nissim left sons to take their Ace 
The voice of Torah and wisdom was hushed, and the com- 
munity itself soon crumbled away in consequence of Moham- 
medan fanaticism, which ruled that none might enter Kaira- 
wan, the holiest city in Africa, who was not a Moslem. But 
in the eleventh century there were other Jewish communities 
in northwestern Africa beside that in Kairawan. Thus Jews 
lived in Cabes, Tahert, Tlemcen, Fez, Sijilmasa, for the most 
part in organized communities, with courts for internal 
jurisdiction, schools, and men of learning. 

Some, if not all of these communities, had come into exis- 
tence a good deal earlier. Thus Tahert: was the birthplace of 
the grammarian Judah Ibn Kuraish; an older contemporary 
of Saadiah, he had dealings with the fantastic Eldad the 
Danite. In an epistle addressed to the community of Fez, 
among whom he came to dwell, he stressed the importance 
of a knowledge of the Aramaic tongue in which the Targum 
was written. He pointed out the similarity in structure and 
in vocabulary between that language, the Hebrew, and the 
Arabic, thus laying the foundation for fruitful researches in 
the period immediately following and throughout the ensu- 
ing centuries down to our own days. Fez was the birthplace 
of the epitomizer Isaac al-Fasi (p. 322), whose activity, how- 
ever, was chiefly exercised in Spain. Before we trace the his- 


THE LINK WITH THE JEWS OF ITALY 283 


tory of Spanish Jewry, to whom those of northern Africa 
were closely knitted, we may cast a glance at the Italian 
communities, which likewise were drawn into relations with 
Africa at the height of its Jewish life and which, in Europe, 
antedated every other Jewish settlement. 


ad " 
} 
? . 
i y 
x, 
‘ . 
‘ ae 
‘ oo 
. 
4 
. 
’ 
» ‘ 
4 
- 
‘ + 
’ 
s 


as ae 
SEUROPEAN CENTERS TO - 


ee 


PULSION FROM SPAIN 


a 
ia 


1492 


APYER THE CHMISTIAN ERA) 


a 


BOOK III 


THE WEST-EUROPEAN CENTERS TO 
THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN 


(139 BEFORE TO 1492 AFTER THE CHRISTIAN ERA) 


- cHaprer XLITE 
i e ITALY TO THE END OF TRE E qeievinel 
‘ ‘merone—J10 APTER THE CHRISTA ae) 


test Metals settlcrnent in Ltaly wag located in 
eat early as the secon Cosa ‘before the 
neta there were temporary jewish residents 
€ year 139, a number o “i ws, possibly those 
‘team of the embassy weer by Simon the 
ene from Receane ‘was sete 


i sting: vai nay Sabac wth “Gerd « 


ailicly (Sabazius). 
} of expulsion was soon forgotten Certainly 
c 3 of the ae pre- oC Thristian cemeny's ate 


iispatched thiehe Temple ale ke Rak 
¢ Merease in the Jewish pogadgtion was 
‘sei 8 conquest of Jeausis ain (63), 

és were carried to Rome to be led in 
; ion of the victorious — al, Bade ac 


portant group, inhabitiey a quarter across 
wre ‘Here, near the landing: place: of 


x s doing business, with the sailors. 
| tor by party strife, were impressed 


’s Tctereeed - ahd appeat 


= a Phrygian (Thracian) deity ofa narnie 


they rc Roman nitinette: ‘ley soon 
i ships, there resided all the petty 


anid among. the Jewish colony. ° a 


- « 


SHAR LER XCIII 
THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 


(139 BEFORE—410 AFTER THE CHRISTIAN ERA) 


HE earliest Jewish settlement in Italy was located in 

Rome. As early as the second century before the 

Christian era there were temporary Jewish residents 
in the city. In the year 139, a number of Jews, possibly those 
who came in the train of the embassy sent by Simon the 
Maccabee (p. 150), were expelled from Rome. It was reported 
that they had sought to infect the Romans with their own 
cult. So little did the defenders of the Roman religion know 
about Judaism that they confounded Sabaoth (Lord of 
hosts, Almighty) with a Phrygian (Thracian) deity of a name 
sounding somewhat similarly (Sabazius). 

But the decree of expulsion was soon forgotten. Certainly 
in the early decades of the first pre-Christian century a con- 
siderable number of Jews lived in Rome and other cities of 
Italy; annually they dispatched their Temple dues to Jeru- 
salem. A still larger increase in the Jewish population was 
brought about by Pompey’s conquest of Jerusalem (63), 
when numerous captives were carried to Rome to be led in 
the triumphal procession of the victorious general. There 
they were sold into slavery, but soon regained their free- 
dom. Their steadfast cleaving to their ancestral mode of life 
proved inconvenient to their masters, and the older residents 
of their own faith were only too eager to redeem them. As 
freedmen (libertini) they became Roman citizens; they soon 
constituted an important group, inhabiting a quarter across 
the Tiber (Trastevere). Here, near the landing place of 
Phoenician and Greek ships, there resided all the petty 
traders and shopkeepers doing business with the sailors. 

The native Romans, torn by party strife, were impressed 
with the sense of solidarity among the Jewish colony. The 
importance, real or imaginary, which the Jews appeared to 


287 


988 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 


acquire in the popular assemblies, irritated Cicero, the leader 
of the substantial burgesses. When in 59 he defended Flaccus, 
who among other things had diverted to his own use moneys 
collected by the Jews of Asia Minor for the Temple, the 
adroit pleader pretended that he must not speak above a 
whisper lest the enmity of the numerous Jews present should 
be aroused. It was quite natural for these new citizens to 
range themselves on the side of the popular party, and when 
the old constitution gave way under the impact of Caesar, 
the Jews everywhere rallied to his support. 

In the new order of things that was preparing, the Jewish 
element, in consequence of world-wide diffusion, fitted into 
the imperialistic state in which national distinctions were 
leveled so as to make room for a world-embracing humanity. 
The dictator understood the peculiar religious position of 
the Jewish people; at ‘the bidding of Hyrcanus II. (p. 164), 
he guaranteed to the Jews of the empire freedom to form 
religious associations and to forward their contributions to 
the Temple at Jerusalem. They were exempted from military 
service, since they could not bear arms or march on the sab- 
bath, nor was it lawful for them to partake of forbidden 
food. They were not subject to Roman jurisdiction in civil 
suits between one Jew and another. When Caesar was assas- 
sinated on the Ides of March in the year 44, the Jews mourned 
deeply; in Rome they gathered by night to weep over his 
funeral pile. 

The privileges accorded by him, in what has been called 
rightly a veritable ‘Great Charter,’ were confirmed by Augus- 
tus, who otherwise was not favorably disposed toward the 
Jews. At the instigation of Sejanus, the emperor Tiberius 
expelled the Jews from Rome and Italy in the year 19 of the 
Christian era. The occasion was a fraudulent transaction on 
the part of some unscrupulous Jews who had obtained large 
sums of money from a noble proselyte lady under the pre- 
tense that this money would be forwarded as a gift to the 
Temple at Jerusalem. The size of the Roman community 
may be gauged from the fact that four thousand Jews, 
capable of bearing arms, were deported to Sardinia, there to 


a ie 7 4 La’ ‘ 
Re ay AT a a! 
OSELYTISM 289 


a As miusey as refused to do service on 
sey punishments. In 31, when 
rate. he Jews were allowed to 
{)-41). a eubetantial com- 
ain iy Mu cpital, Clawdius (41-54) 
a genera of<0 of telerstion for the 
i of his megh. hewever, vain to dis- 
r Jewish sppesition te the Christian 
! ngs im fue wyr LOQULS Wace forbidden 
many Jews leit Rone, Hat that was 
ure) The-community, Peough again 
y apace in number amd power and 
rty to live its own religious lite, 

was. the attitude of the mteHectuals 
ward the jew ish people, which they 
| toward the 2 Jewish religion, i w'bich 
the very besser rites 


wervance at eek iste and yen 
et g their r accounts of this 


bbivstighes ait main to prop up the 
. ‘Nevers thushess the appeal ot the 


‘ted many converts, Whatever the 
udaismy wae hadged about-—a sub- 
pply owtsi: irs Paloetitiensah the core 


i aed: Tomioki nat onality sind offe red 
Ma without i pie 
w ite strength mainly. liaied the sheer 
A the dre chung to their faith and the 
Aa worship. ¢ Leno: Siether 


anchored in the veneration of the. 


Se +h ye Th the > Pof wpular as sembiies, irri 


the js vats ) very wrt re ra ilied tO lis 


. capable of bearing arms, were 


$05 yuk JEWS OF ITALY 1O THE BND 


¥ = 


eft abstan tial burgesses. When i. 
wae among other sk had diverted tom 
edilected by the Jews of Asia Mino: 
adrait pleader aa chat he m 
whisper lest the er mty of the mame 

he aroused, Tt was 1uite n ratural fo 
ranee themselves on the side of the p 
the old constitution gave way anes 


in the mew or der of things that 
element, ip consequence of workd-p 
the hel en ic state in which p 
leveled so a to Seles room fora ¥ > 
The dictator widerstood the Seen 
the Jewinh | people; at the bidding 
he puarantes “i te the jews of the 
religious aseockations and to for 
the Tempic at Jerusalem. They 
service, since they could not bear @ 


deaply; emi ‘they gathered 
funeral ni ig a 
‘The Miya accorded se bima 
rivhtly a veritable ‘Great Charter, 
tus, who re was not fay 
Jews. At the instigation of Sejan 
expelled the Jews from Rome and 
c vase in era. The occasion was 


sume of money pre: Bia. p 
tense that this money would be 
Temple at Jerusalem. The size 
muy be gauged from the fact 


31-54] JEWISH PROSELYTISM 289 


combat the brigands. As many as refused to do service on 
the sabbath submitted to heavy punishments. In 31, when 
Sejanus was removed from office, the Jews were allowed to 
return; by the time of Caligula (37-41) a substantial com- 
munity had gathered again in the capital. Claudius (41-54) 
began his reign with a general edict of toleration for the 
Jews. Towards the end of his reign, however, owing to dis- 
turbances created by Jewish opposition to the Christian 
propagandists, gatherings in the synagogues were forbidden 
and as a consequence many Jews left Rome. But that was 
only a temporary measure. The community, though again 
and again repressed, grew apace in number and power and 
achieved complete liberty to live its own religious life. 

Contemptuous as was the attitude of the intellectuals 
among the Romans toward the Jewish people, which they 
dubbed execrable, and toward the Jewish religion, in which 
they saw an outlandish superstition, the very Jewish rites 
which they described as bizarre and morose fascinated wide 
circles of Roman society. Writers scorned Jewish abstention 
from pork, the strict observance of the sabbath, and the 
imageless worship of God, embellishing their accounts of this 
strange people with puerile myths and malicious slander. 
The emperors strove with might and main to prop up the 
crumbling pagan religion. Nevertheless the appeal of the 
Jewish system of morals, anchored in the veneration of the 
One and Holy God, attracted many converts. Whatever the 
regulations with which Judaism was hedged about—a sub- 
stantial part did not apply outside Palestine—at the core 
was the prophetic sublimation of the Jewish truth. This 
pointed beyond the confines of Jewish nationality and offered 
itself as a light to those without. 

The propaganda drew its strength mainly from the sheer 
consistency with which the Jews clung to their faith and the 
effect exerted by their pure worship. It gathered further 
potency from the fact that the Jews held it a duty to bring 
the willing outsider under the wings of the Divine Presence. 
From earliest times the synagogues had been visited by - 
Romans. Many attached themselves with varying degrees of 


290 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE [70-235 


intensity, ranging from casual observance of one or the other 
rite to complete fusion with the Jewish community. The 
greater number renounced polytheism and image worship, 
frequented the synagogue, abstained from forbidden food, 
and kept the sabbath. Such were known as ‘they who feared 
God.’ But now and again, either outright or by gradual 
steps, men and women were admitted to full membership 
in the household of Israel by submitting to the prescribed 
initiatory rites and by accepting the whole of Jewish relig- 
‘ous life. These were called ‘proselytes (of righteousness).’ 
Frequently enough a parent remained on the fringe, while — 
the children became full Jews. 

Those who knocked at the doors of Judaism were not all 
of lowly station. Fulvia, in the times of Tiberius, was a 
senator’s wife; the proselyte Flavius Clemens was a nephew 
of the emperor Domitian; the empress Poppea, wife of Nero, 
was favorably disposed toward Judaism and a friend of the 
Jewish people. Often the converts assumed Hebrew names; 
thus Beturia Paulina, who turned Jewess at the age of 
seventy, was renamed Sarah, and such was her zeal for the 
new faith that the title of ‘synagogue mother’ was conferred 
on her. The youthful Aemilius Valens, who died at the age 
of fifteen years a semi-convert, was of the order of knights. 
In many a Roman home were the sabbath lights kindled; 
thus, as Seneca grudgingly admitted, ‘the vanquished im- 
posed their laws upon the victors.’ 

Neither the crushing blow which fell upon the Jewish peo- 
ple in the year 70 nor the cruel severity with which the con- 
vulsions at home and abroad were put down by Trajan (p. 
211) and Hadrian (p. 214) could break the Jewish will to 
live. Jews, outside Palestine, who enjoyed Greek or Roman 
citizenship, continued in their previous status. It was recog- 
nized that Judaism was a matter of birth and that the Jew- 
ish religious organization partook of an ethnic character. 
From the times of Caracalla (p. 224), all distinctions between 
the Jews at home and abroad fell away. Moreover, Alex- 
ander Severus (222-235) emphatically confirmed the Jews in 
their privileges so as to safeguard their separate existence. 


VER. OF JEW ESM SETTLEMENTS 308 


free to live the® own fife, thouyh they were 
mon therscivws and a halt was called upon 
ciated. 
Galling bercianon which rested upon the 
Special pot vax which afl Jews of the empire 
D pay te the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. : 
Place of Mie anual contest of half a 
at hast been tree wont to een co their own 
uisaiem, Not ony was Jewml ereatiment out 
: dndinance, rigetoany enforae, tad to mean 
ape bans of tekirmmers. Theeeeetuges were 
Ne wa (96-98), fig cre tax Higeaed to be 
elinctimaes of thw ¢ hristian eeypeiers, ntl it 
by by Julian the Ajestate (p. 2294 Hiewever, the 
r ted to coliwr aml. forward nie tretytio rs 
moe of the patriaschate in Palgstine 
gewith Rome lewish captives wie eon ee 
were speedily fansomed, The cmmatinity 
stably enlarge, despire the Lavipap sit. of 
missionary: astivity baving faese etre nk ed by 
M "ESS of Cheistisriis The gree thay ers ge- 
community made it neressary Tor eaeiiah ceai- 
iad beyond the crigiua! queray. Paring the 
ian asecond Jewish quarter em: eiwng up 
@olCapena along the Appian War T hae act- 
ed as-far ae the trove of Egeam. rhere the 
pot jews resicedt ducing the tame of the em- 


Rh 


i re to - Paes rite im the Martian Pied and 


ne n¢ and its See - environs, by the begin- 
th stian exa at he | stest, Jews had settled in 
th echiet por for convmetce between ‘Taly and. the 
ipeti: had Jewish ichabitants when in 79 of the 
eat was burie’ oencath the fava and cinders 
un bMestaviue. la into imperial times Jews were 
settled in lower I> xi): ‘hus in the fourth century it 
a inomany iwalities of Apulia and iano 
ne ¢ municipal officers eoyularly aimee the Jews refuse 


~ 


ee noe cares Gk 1p TORE ES 


¢ 


bes eee} FA efiean casual on eee 
shee: dhopeptete: fusion with ihe ae 
rater: Tonaded pene 


ae iaiit Tie satiinath, sport hs were. KI 
5 eee CM te era watn, wither: . 
ohiedvies vee! nd CHE were ata > 
int hes Sebold 0 £ fateh by 
aiceetis it ae: by ac cere it 
wig TRAN: Sige: eee cabbedt ; ‘pros * 


Prarrit ay? : eicragh | parent rema 
i cher recame fal Jews) 


i vee wee kaac lua? at the doors 
af fewlw atation, Fiebess) ip the * 
waater se wile: the asin Flavieed MW 
ce) oP a ee EEE : hsb big ent it 
wat fuNtorabls abagewed toward Jac 


th ane Berana PavahinayA wh 0} pean 
aventy, was renatned Sarah, and 4 
ary Tih: hat re (rele af ‘eynagogt 
on der. The vourkiul aemiifine Ve 
im Aiteen years a Bott Hey wert; wae: 
in many a Reman hae were the 
rhua, us Seneca grudgaagly admits Pe 
a sed their lawn apale thee Aototads 
Neither the criskiog Glime-whpiy 
le wm the year 70 noe the ote Sewee 
vulsions at home and abtoad were 
tit} and Hadrian (p. 214) coeld) pees 
live. Tavs, outside Palescine, veho eng 
éttizenship, sateen ig ther eaten 
nized that Judaism wae a tatters 
ish religious organize tion partook of: 
From the times of Caracalla {pi 228 
the Jews at home and abroad he 
ander Severus (222-235) exaphaticn 
thelr privileges so as to sulegnard) th 


GROWTH OF JEWISH SETTLEMENTS 291 


They were free to live their own life, though they were 
thrown back upon themselves and a halt was called upon 
their missionary activity. 

A far more galling humiliation which rested upon the 
people was the special poll-tax which all Jews of the empire 
were ordered to pay to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 
This took the place of the annual contribution of half a 
shekel which it had been their wont to send to their own 
Temple at Jerusalem. Not only was Jewish sentiment out- 
raged, but the ordinance, rigorously enforced, led to mean 
persecutions at the hands of informers. These outrages were 
stopped by Nerva (96-98), but the tax continued to be 
levied even in the times of the Christian emperors, until it 
was abolished by Julian the Apostate (p. 229). However, the 
Jews were permitted to collect and forward contributions 
for the maintenance of the patriarchate in Palestine. 

After the wars with Rome Jewish captives who escaped 
with their lives were speedily ransomed. The community 
was thus considerably enlarged, despite the falling off of 
proselytes, the missionary activity having been arrested by 
the steady progress of Christianity. The gradual enlarge- 
ment of the community made it necessary for Jewish resi- 
dents to spread beyond the original quarter. During the 
reign of Domitian a second Jewish quarter had sprung up 
outside the gate of Capena along the Appian Way. This set- 
tlement extended as far as the Grove of Egeria. There the 
greater number of Jews resided during the times of the em- 
pire; they were to be found also in the Martian Field and 
in the Subura clear to the Esquiline. 

Outside Rome and its immediate environs, by the begin- 
ning of the Christian era at the latest, Jews had settled in 
Puteoli, the chief port for commerce between Italy and the 
Orient; Pompeii: had Jewish inhabitants when in 79 of the 
Christian era it was buried beneath the lava and cinders 
from Mount Vesuvius. In late imperial times Jews were 
thickly settled in lower Italy; thus in the fourth century it 
was impossible in many localities of Apulia and Calabria 
to fill the municipal offices regularly since the Jews refused 


292 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 


to serve. Jews were to be found in the sixth century at 
Venusia (Venosa, the birthplace of Horace), also in Taren- 
tum, Capua, and Naples, and in all the large cities of Sicily, 
as Syracuse, Palermo, Agrigentum; so also in the larger 
cities of upper Italy, as Ravenna, Aquileia, Bologna, Brescia, 
Milan, Genoa. 

The great mass of the people, especially in the pioneer 
days, lived by petty trade as they hawked their baskets of 
wares through the streets; Jewish women offered to.interpret 
dreams for the smallest of coins. Mendicants thronged about 
the synagogues begging alms of those more fortunately 
placed. There were artisans, butchers and bakers, makers of 
garments, weavers. Others were painters, sculptors, actors 
(Alityrus, Faustina). Jews owned land and tilled the soil. 
Some grew opulent by engaging in the shipping trade, by 
importing grain, by banking, by trafficking in slaves. A 
number of Jews took to soldiering. But when the Christian 
Church became dominant, the vexatious laws and the ani- 
mosity of the clergy made for insecurity of Jewish fortunes; 
Christians were bidden to refrain from patronizing Jewish 
merchants. Jewish energy was sapped or borne down by- 
local persecutions, and the harassed Jew was forced again 
and again to seek newer and safer domiciles. These very 
migrations threw the Jews back upon international com- » 
merce, and the densest Jewish settlements were along the 
frontiers whence they could always pass on to calmer quar- 
ters away from the raging fury of excited mobs. | 

From the start the Jewish mode of life in the capital con- 
trasted very sharply with the ever growing luxuriousness 
and moral decadence of the native Romans. The Jews were 
industrious, moderate in eating and drinking, charitable, 
peaceable. The family life was pure, excesses were rare and 
touched only the fringe; husbands and wives, parents and 
children, brothers and sisters loved each other ardently. 
Girls were married off quite young—at the age of fifteen or 
so. Widows frequently remarried; a woman was prized when 
she had passed her life in single marriage and was lamented 
by the husband of her youth. | 


i. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 293 


the Nietied anc Meade which they 
th:them were not suffered to lip away en- 
1¢8 found on tumular inscriptions are for the 
Sor Latin, very few are Hebrew. or dis- 
sometises Jewish children. were given two 
ish and the ot) at Roman. Often father and 
di lughter went by the same name;a adaughter 
& mame corresponding to thet of the father 
@fswering to that of the mother; generally, 
sous were named afver their grandfathers. 
‘conti of the: : es was an ras mai t of as- 


yi 


i Bibi See i a group of < chiding wi: tne bite 


se ites’ tithe,’ ikcite as theiy fathers had 
with the pilea of produce. The ceremonial 
y observed, the: salsbath rest and the Sietary 
isly kept; the prescribed fast» were re- 
iMaswere occasion mg of joy, and im the poor- 
dishes were serveri. On ibe ntyinds i the 


aS ab SD iesaiert shcotding - the prescriptions 
din Temple times; though the scholars in Palestine 
ie custom, iitroduced by Theudas, a teacher 
ning and piety , remained ui forde 
}muMmierous synagogues in the sity. the new- 
y clung to tects is mmediate Grches; neverthe- 
ny Becnrred that @ person held geen hership m 
wogues. These syrugogues were named after 
er other distinguicher! Romans to wivem the com- 
v e indebied for agaceous acts of benevolence. 
agoK 2, nse sfrer the pee: se sapiens 


‘usalerr el i tiae seediovil times. Other syna- 
ed their appeliations from the locality in which 


f which they called.‘the priests’ heave’ and 


D 


ye pam pews ov ran Py He ae 


he ere: Jews were to be foal 
Vesela (Veduss, the birthplace of A 
tote, Capua. aad Naples, ant bah | 
as Syiecuse, Palersia, Agere : 
<itiew of woper Traly. 2s Ravenna 
Millan, Genoa | ae 
‘The yreat mash of the cexpile ex 
days, lived by petty tence aad 
Wares < shirous =of ) Ee TRPAERS., Jewels ne 
dreams for che onmiker atl eM 
Te SPRAY, UES large rg oline ot 
placed. There were aoa, put 
SueTINeN tw, ayer tr Baer = were 
(Autyrus, Palmar) tows ow a 
Some grew cpio’ try ang ag Ke 
Puporting grat, Er bund ings : 
number of Loewe teak to enki 
Church berate dotnet, Ties 
mosity of the ehieay made we 
Christians were tidden tn eetpahil 
merchants. jregh energy wae 
lool pe TMT, and the bag 
and agein wu ses newer aad si 
migrations Gere the jews baile 
meroe, and che densest Jewish ae 
froutiers whence they gould alway Di 
ters away Freese tie & epi fury oe 
‘From thes ae he jewish mode’ 
trasted very sharpiv with the el 
and moral decadence of the native: 
industrious, mocdernte ia eating 
gwaaceable. The family ile was pinte, 
touched only the rine’ huoshandia® . 
children, brothers and sisteng loved 
(Sivie were married off qtite youtig-—a 
sa. Widews frequently remarried {a 
she had passed her life in single Marte 
by the husband nf her youth. 


RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 293 


The language spoken by the Jews was Greek and at a later 
period Latin, though the Hebrew and Aramaic which they 
had brought with them were not suffered to slip away en- 
tirely. The names found on tumular inscriptions are for the 
most part Greek or Latin, very few are Hebrew or dis- 
tinctly Jewish; sometimes Jewish children were given two 
names, one Jewish and the other Roman. Often father and 
son, mother and daughter went by the same name; a daughter 
would be given a name corresponding to that of the father 
and a son one answering to that of the mother; generally, 
however, grandsons were named after their grandfathers. 

The religious training of the children was an object of as- 
siduous care. When in the year 95 the patriarch Gamaliel (p. 
207) and three other scholars visited Rome, they encountered 
on the way from the port a group of children playing with 
sandpiles, one of which they called ‘the priests’ heave’ and 
the other ‘the Levites’ tithe,’ exactly as their fathers had 
done in Judea with the piles of produce. The ceremonial 
laws were strictly observed, the sabbath rest and the dietary 
injunctions rigorously kept; the prescribed fasts were re- 
spected; the festivals were occasions of joy, and in the poor- 
est home savory dishes were served. On the night of the 
Passover it was the custom of the Jews in Rome to partake 
of a roast lamb prepared according to the prescriptions 
observed in Temple times; though the scholars in Palestine 
demurred, the custom, introduced by Theudas, a teacher 
noted for learning and piety, remained in force. 

There were numerous synagogues in the city; the new- 
comers naturally clung to their immediate circles; neverthe- 
less it frequently occurred that a person held membership in. 
several synagogues. These synagogues were named after 
emperors or other distinguished Romans to whom the com- 
munities were indebted for gracious acts of benevolence. 
One such synagogue, named after the emperor Alexander 
Severus, had a Torah scroll which was prized as having come 
from Jerusalem down to late medieval times. Other syna- 
gogues received their appellations from the locality in which 
they were situated; still others marked off their membership 


294. THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 


as Hebrew speaking, or native, or recruited from a certain 
craft (as for example the synagogue of the lime burners). 
The fiscal administration of each synagogue was in the hands 
of executive officers (archons, gabbaim) each of whom had 
charge of a distinct branch (the treasury, the care of the 
poor, and so on) and served as a rule from year to year. 
Sometimes they held office for life and the position tended 
more and more to become hereditary. The archons were 
chosen from the body of elders, the trusted leaders in each 
congregation, presided over by a chief (parnas). The person 
who supervised the service and often preached on sabbaths 
was known as the ‘head of the synagogue’ (archisynagogus, 
rosh ha-keneseth); an attendant (hazzan) performed the 
subordinate tasks. 

The communities maintained scribes (sopherim) who 
wrote out the scrolls and such legal documents as deeds of 
sale, marriage contracts, bills of divorcement, and the like. 
These men were held in high honor and often belonged to 
the best families; frequently the son followed his father in 
this profession. There were schools for higher learning, and 
the disciples listened eagerly to addresses by visiting schol- 
ars; there were also distinguished native teachers spoken of 
as rabbis. The founder of Jewish learning in Rome was 
apparently Matthiah son of Heresh who emigrated from 
Palestine at the onset of the Hadrianic persecution. As he 
landed on Italian soil, he rent his garments and shed tears at 
the remembrance of the Holy Land which he reluctantly 
forsook. His residence in Rome led to the establishment of a 
communal court of justice to deal with internal disputes, and 
he labored zealously to advance the religious conditions in 
his new home by teaching and by preaching. 

Beside the synagogues, other communal institutions were 
maintained. Public baths were kept up for ritual purification 
in accordance with prescribed regulations. Each community 
had its own place for burial. These cemeteries, some of them 
recently discovered, were constructed under ground (cata- 
combs). A deep shaft would be sunk and then galleries 
opened with recesses for the entombment of the dead. As a 


. - ae iM 
ou : 
. ieee: » CULTIVEM. LITE ie oe 


ie ry 


f'h 


tina another emit third were opened stilf 
we The tombs wer chwed with slabs of stone, 
pice, iNseriptions am? émneanental representations. 
Were Composed in (#reek or Latin, with an occa- 
AW Phrase (as ‘Peace te upon Israel”): the latter 
+ senepaniag of fewish symbels, such as the 
Pare nentick, pane beanghar, the aie ane 


Y for family ; graves were 5 donee ue oe 
Sige ao in whic " even oy paren form 


he: feeiconment, 8G much se ha itt bedicating 
death of their departed they made nse of the 
idar. Ever after it remained a mark of the upper 
n Jewry that. they were orthodox Jews and 
} at the same time. . 
the times of Ang Tis tus a iatinds ctl in} Rome, 


inate of ST sibarnant US oa balonied to,.the 
ts who affected puicivin in diction after the 
M the classical period (‘Atticists’). A far, more 
. man of le¢ters wong the Roman Jews was 
{ e have followed his career at noine 1 in Pp ores 


| yn Te cared | his me it remains to 
accompanied Titus to Rome and there basked 


tiled in an imperiat palace; in gratitude to the 
emperors he surnamed himself Flavius. Dur- 
fe years of ample leisure he gave himeelf to 
by which he resdored a sigwal service io his 
‘Wars of the jews,’ it is true, he strove to flat- 
rt _ ar and cold- -hloodedly narrated the triumphal! 
ich he witness}. But at least he thought that 
g the Jewish peopie by shifting the blame for 
er. eo area In this view he 


t of imperial favor. He acc epted a pension - 


4 Fie, pews OF Peal 70 THE ee 


a Waite yoveting, or native 
pose see teat pase gat the @ 
Tie Royal ce in of ac a 
db dawhce Gren Saachons yg 
‘aise Gu “ont a agave bysprich the 
€ peas - sae? sand gerwedd : ae a Pe | 
Reeiaak sale 1 fe ue teeta. othe for pee if ; 
eatis-. tied yt: 1S imum 3 ary 
hots teow hee henty cit res 
cinta tem, Keamded over ange 
ty se, Ghar ah eA ORT lai hanebine am f 
ape kee Ate at ee ee Gf the ay 
cigs ieginberemrennt tal; Ue) ee 
he eee we ok A Rivets? at oe ite 
Tha conto ie naintained ne: 
wrote oer the senile antheuch Inge 
. , Teac Sea teRetS, ‘bills of 
, hee eT! RESTS betel i high h 
the beet Leertlive: feeanently the 
Ouse pte scat. ‘y bere were schcrahy 
the cianpies hate ned eagerly to &e 
we; there wee nis distinguished # 
as rabbis, The th sirens wf Jowieh: 
apparenity ¥ ative h 40n of ies 
Palestine 2i the onet of the Fadel 
laucted on tralian weil, he rent hig 


m4 tye 


the remembrance of the Moby bag 
forsook. His residence in Romededs 


vommnunal court of partice todeal w 
he labored zealously to sbvarice chew 
hie new homie by teaching and we pate 

Beside the synagogues, other cae 
mainiained. Pubhe baths were Demy: 
if accordance with prescarbed: regulag * 
had ite own place for burial. These cen 
recentiy discovered, were constructed ¥ P 
combs). A deep shaft would began 


ee ee ee eee ae ee ee | ee ee, ee ee 


CULTURAL LIFE 295 


gallery was filled, another and a third were opened still 
further below. The tombs were closed with slabs of stone, 
marked with inscriptions and ornamental representations. 
The former were composed in Greek or Latin, with an occa- 
sional Hebrew phrase (as ‘Peace be upon Israel’); the latter 
consisted of reproductions of Jewish symbols, such as the 
seven-branched candlestick, palm branches, the Ark, and 
the like, but also of all sorts of animal figures. The chambers 
which served for family graves were decorated with paint- 
ings of mythological figures in which even the human form 
was not absent. Thus the Jews of Rome had absorbed the 
culture of their environment, so much so that in indicating 
the time of death of their departed they made use of the 
Roman calendar. Ever after it remained a mark of the upper 
class of Italian Jewry that they were orthodox Jews and 
cultured men at the same time. 

As early as the times of Augustus a rhetorician in Rome, 
Caecilius, was reputed to be of Jewish descent; together with 
his friend Dionysius of Halicarnassus he belonged to the 
earliest stylists who affected purism in diction after the 
manner of the classical period (‘Atticists’). A far more 
prominent man of letters among the Roman Jews was 
Josephus. We have followed his career at home in Palestine 
as far as the termination of the war with Rome (66-70) in 
which he ignominiously betrayed his people. It remains to 
tell that he accompanied Titus to Rome and there basked 
in the sunshine of imperial favor. He accepted a pension 
and was domiciled in an imperial palace; in gratitude to the 
three Flavian emperors he surnamed himself Flavius. Dur- 
ing thirty or more years of ample leisure he gave himself to 
literary work, by which he rendered a signal service to his 
people. In his ‘Wars of the Jews,’ it is true, he strove to flat- 
ter the conqueror and cold-bloodedly narrated the triumphal 
procession which he witnessed. But at least he thought that 
he was serving the Jewish people by shifting the blame for 
the catastrophe to irresponsible fanatics. In ‘this view he 
knew himself at one with Agrippa and other Jewish digni- 
taries who espoused the victorious cause. 


196 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE END OF THE EMPIRE 


More effectively did Josephus defend the Jewish name 
against the slanders of the Alexandrian schoolmaster Apion 
and his coterie of Jew-baiters. He was truest to Jewish senti- 
ment, which neither the veneer of Greek learning nor his 
Roman prepossessions could stifle, in the ‘Antiquities of the 
Jews,’ in which work he invested the long history of his 
people, from the first to the last, with a halo of veneration. 
Such weaknesses as this historical work contains must be 
judged by the standards of the time. There is no need to 
quarrel with his rhetorical embellishments of the biblical 
history nor with his practice of excerpting his predecessors. 
He had a wide range of information, and but for him a 
good part of the Jewish history nearer his own day would 
remain unknown. Certainly the historical work of his rival, 
Justus of Tiberias, who appears to have presented the 
Jewish side in the contest with Rome, would have stood us 
in better stead had it only been preserved; apparently it 
was not to the liking of the Roman world nor of the Christian 
monks who found in the detached Josephus a more kindred 
spirit. Altogether, Josephus was rooted in the broad cosmo- 
politan ideas of the Dispersion. 


acer al 
e 
se of the Ls rardhe whieh had hees carried 


ache deka. #7 ty ¥ city im the year 410. 
the Temple weer was taken te Carthage 
yhen. they ia sian Roe im 455. 
¢ Odoacer Say fee Ut «fig the western 
ithe tutelage of the emperor of tha east hie 
got italy. Hig reyes ene of short decstion | 


Of the Ostrogoth= Mweunaily the kingdom 
supremacy gf We PER peror ‘ot Canstan- 
goths, howe. tr Jaaiw Arian, wire iier- 
é issued in, S00, Theowiors cantiersedt 4 the 
mcient privileges ec’ granted them intemal 
civil suits, chau wily che hing profented the 
; "encroachment by the 
a fell rie hg ne onslaught of Justin- 
, Belisarius and Nurses. The Jews of Naples 
city bravely, sidie by ude with their Gothic 


oe 
bon 
+] 
ig 
ied 
cS 
a 
e 
e3 
yl 
a, 


t (exarch} Was tetaitished at a wero apd 
cial ities were aid A by Greek es eub- 
The Code ai Jocrinian wae poeammalgated 
erientins © LP at ot Thea This code, 


¢ land Bad's ro vine aad of Sicity sire aa 
ion and greath: attecied the legal status of the 


a 


1 a the Mile Ages . The rule of the Lonibards 


27 


mom. was wrested ios. bis hands Mm. 499 by ~ 


th all Italy » a wonquered (3 SS): anime 


ey eins wae ri ' 
ma iegvorsiaa. 
STG Ay J 


S 


UA Ge A 


THE JEWS OF ITALY DOWN TO THE 
TWELFTH CENTURY 


(410-1140) 


P Aue treasures of the Temple which had been carried 

to Rome fell into the hands of Alaric, when with 

his Visigoths he sacked the city in the year 410. 
What remained of the Temple vessels was taken to Carthage 
by the Vandals when they in turn sacked Rome in 455. 
Twenty years later Odoacer put an end to the western 
empire. Under the tutelage of the emperor of the east he 
made himself king of Italy. His reign was of short duration; 
the Italian kingdom was wrested from his hands in 489 by 
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Nominally the kingdom 
acknowledged the supremacy of the emperor at Constan- 
tinople. The Ostrogoths, however, being Arian, were toler- 
ant. In an edict, issued in 500, Theodoric confirmed the 
Jews in their ancient privileges and granted them internal 
jurisdiction in civil suits. Repeatedly the king protected the 
Jews and their synagogues against encroachments by the 
Catholic clergy and from mob violence. 

The Gothic kingdom fell before the onslaught of Justin- 
ian’s generals, Belisarius and Narses. The Jews of Naples 
defended the city bravely, side by side with their Gothic 
neighbors. At length all Italy was conquered (555); an im- 
perial lieutenant (exarch) was established at Ravenna and 
the chief provincial cities were ruled by Greek dukes sub- 
ordinate to him. The Code of Justinian was promulgated 
throughout Italy, supplanting that of Theodoric. This code, 
with all its severities toward the Jews, remained in force in 
all parts of the land and on the island of Sicily until the 
Saracen invasion and greatly affected the legal status of the 
Jews all through the Middle Ages. The rule of the Lombards 
(566-774), at first Arian, later converted to orthodoxy, was 
at no time complete; large parts of the country remained 


297 


298 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE TWELFTH CENTURY [590-604 


unsubdued. With the emperor too far away to offer assis- 
tance, there ensued a general political break-up in which 
many cities attained a degree of independence. The con- 
ditions were favorable for the bishops of Rome to rear the 
stupendous structure of spiritual supremacy in western 
Europe and of temporal power in Rome and gradually also 
in certain other parts of Italy. 

Gregory I., surnamed the Great (590-604), ‘the real father 
of the medieval papacy,’ typified in his treatment of the 
Jews that attitude which on the whole marked the policy 
of his successors in the seat of St. Peter. He had no liking 
for Judaism, which meant to him ‘Jewish depravity; the 
Jewish method of understanding Scripture in its literalness 
was a ‘perverse’ one; the Jewish arguments against Chris- 
tianity were ‘nonsense.’ The Jews should be won over to 
Christianity by reason and gentle persuasion; willing con- 
verts were to be offered inducements and protected against 
molestation by their former coreligionists. Forcible measures 
must not be used, for he who is thus led to baptism will at 
the first opportunity revert to his earlier ‘superstitious’ 
beliefs. The Jews should therefore be suffered to practise 
their own religion and live in accordance with the rights _ 
granted to them by the Roman Law. But under no circum- 
stances should they be permitted to acquire and keep Chris- 
tian slaves or Christian employees; such slaves as were held 
by them on their estates might remain as tenants bound to 
the soil. A certain Jew, by the name of Basilius, who had 
his sons baptized, that they might claim his Christian slaves 
as their own, was strictly enjoined that these must under 
no circumstances live in his house. They might minister to 
him, however, to the extent that his sons were bound by 
their filial duty to attend on him. Not that Gregory frowned 
upon the institution of slavery as such, for he himself had 
Anglo-Saxon slaves purchased in the market for ecclesiastical 
service. He merely thought it unseemly that Jews should 
bear rule over Christians. 

The see of Rome acquired new authority through the 
compact with the Frankish kings whom the popes called 


AN INTENSER jewish sper 299 


Lamia just as the latter had Setohmiaty 
against the Greeks, The compact was sealed 
tion: Caf. Charlemagne at Rome im 800. The . 
‘however, continued uncler Bygagtine rule. In 
Wecupied by the Saracens, and they held the 
With certain dommsinns acrost the straits 
two Centuries. In 98? Mohammedan Sicily 
ay emperor Otto Ii. fr ie reported that when 
ad Jost his horse, was in danger of capture 
a faithful Jew bade him mouwst bis own 
§ life; the emperor evcaped. The Saracen 
ed. in 1061 when Roger |. took Messina; 
he island was his. His successor, Rayer II. 
d thereto the dominions on the masdand 
brother, Robert Guiseard. In 1130 Roger 
of Sicily and Italy by the authawity of the - 
, of the Pierleoni fanuiy, This taaily 
| extrac m, and this circumstance igd oo che 
ead legend i of a Jew on the pape ihrone, 

ith century on a more iiivnce Jewish spirit 
Italian communities. Or the tombsieme 
and Latin gradually, eave way to Hebrew 
sk was expressed in Hatrew letters: the 
i d as time went on frea: the destruction 
r the creation of the worid TT ue Communities 
ba men (rabbis); at Vera a collegiate 
bah) was presided over by “-athan en of 
in 646). Fresh impulses were coming from 
S Babylonian schools. f yx inily did Pee 
st themselves in soutbers truly? front Bari 
law, and the word of the Lert from Gtranto.’ 
Aarén of Bagdad is supposed to have taught 
teries of the Cabala and to have wrought 
g his disciples in ether pars of Italy is said 
sen Calonymus of Lucca, whose descendants car- 
naster Ig teachings to Shaan thus planting in 
sh provinces the seer of learning which bore rich 


are bi Y 
th or ‘2 ae 


A ras mes Of TUSAEY TH TBE SHE 


© he at ae 

sipetubatitect CVieh. Se pace two 
tans, Yieers Ye eet A Fee ral ‘peli 
mes - ’ t 7% whee 3 Q sheng pree oft 


or abr ae  Aneee'’ - 

aa ad “ 

, | 

Ee Te \ Py}, : 

| ned « ‘ 

i Lee es Lh , ha sph in Fi 


ae 


it; i er Ge ca eT as per ts 2 tM: gabste 


et 
y 
a 
me 
we 
- 
. 
a8 
+” 


re f 9 = 
{ees ‘ a Ss ae 
é 
a8: See: ‘eres hy 


? 4 . wats Rie ine ary 
fay tat, Waa yeh ary | 


puiabe Pet as 


ne ned toting 
Praapeedy a baer ty iAew orrtier: corvtl 


s+ € hp ethar ote saphiyeetd 
iy LEN ate “eer dba > e age 
the acl. A cectai Pee) A Cee ee 

mart theese lan 


thes Rita cut 
“pou the inst 
Ameio- Saxony Pr eBT pere cand taal 
service, Pie merely thiaght 4 
bear rule over Christians, UF a j 
; The eee of ROme ad coated ew. 
compact with the Frankish ice 


846] AN INTENSER JEWISH SPIRIT 299 


in against the Lombards, just as the latter had previously 
been played off against the Greeks. The compact was sealed 
by the coronation of Charlemagne at Rome in 800. The 
south of Italy, however, continued under Byzantine rule. In 
827 Sicily was occupied by the Saracens, and they held the 
island together with certain dominions across the straits 
for more than two centuries. In 982 Mohammedan Sicily 
was threatened by emperor Otto II. It is reported that when 
the emperor, who had lost his horse, was in danger of capture 
by the Saracens, a faithful Jew bade him mount his own 
horse and flee for his life; the emperor escaped. The Saracen 
rule was terminated in 1061 when Roger I. took Messina; 
soon the whole of the island was his. His successor, Roger II. 
(1101-1154), joined thereto the dominions on the mainland 
acquired by his brother, Robert Guiscard. In 1130 Roger 
was crowned king of Sicily and Italy by the authority of the 
anti-pope Anacletus, of the Pierleoni family. This family 
was of Jewish extraction, and this circumstance led to the 
widely spread legend of a Jew on the papal throne. 

From the fifth century on a more intense Jewish spirit 
developed in the Italian communities. On the tombstone 
inscriptions Greek and Latin gradually gave way to Hebrew 
outright, or the Greek was expressed in Hebrew letters; the 
years were counted as time went on from the destruction 
of the Temple or the creation of the world. The communities 
were led by learned men (rabbis); at Venosa a collegiate 
institution (yeshibah) was presided over by Nathan son of 
Ephraim (died in 846). Fresh impulses were coming from 
Palestine and the Babylonian schools. Especially did these 
influences manifest themselves in southern Italy: ‘from Bari 
went forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Otranto.’ 
It is here that Aaron of Bagdad is supposed to have taught 
the occult mysteries of the Cabala and to have wrought 
miracles. Among his disciples in other parts of Italy is said 
to have been Calonymus of Lucca, whose descendants car- 
ried the master’s teachings to Mayence, thus planting in 
the Rhenish provinces the seed of learning which bore rich 
fruit in after times. 


300 THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE TWELFTH CENTURY [913-982 


Not less of a wonder-worker was another of Aaron’s pupils, 
Shephatiah son of Amittai at Oria. He had shown early his 
gifts as an exorcist when he restored to sanity a daughter of 
the emperor Basil I. (867-886). The empress presented him 
with some of her own jewels. The grateful emperor, more- 
over, was ready to bestow on him cities and provinces. The 
healer, however, only begged that the cruel edict forbidding 
Jewish worship through the provinces of the empire might be 
revoked. Though the emperor could not be induced to take 
this step, Shephatiah secured at least for his own native city 
the freedom to practise Judaism. On this occasion he com- 
posed a penitential poem. ‘Israel,’ thus cried the poet, ‘that 
was saved by the Lord with an everlasting salvation, may 
they be saved this day also at Thy word, O Thou that 
dwellest on high!’ His son Amittai likewise wrote poems, 
on occasions of joy and of sorrow, as well as for the public 
service. A daughter, Cassia, was married to her cousin 
Hasadiah, who, together with nine other pious and scholarly 
members of the community, lost his life at the hands of the 
Saracens when in 923 they captured Oria. 

Among his kindred was Sabbatai son of Abraham Donnolo 
(913-982), widely traveled and a student of astronomy and 
physics. His practice of medicine brought him into friendly 
relations with Saint Nilus and the prefect Eupraxius. He 
was the first European Jewish author known to us by name; 
he wrote a commentary on the ‘Book of Creation’ and a 
medical treatise. Around the same time an unknown Italian 
Jew wrote, in fluent Hebrew, under the name of Josippon, or 
Little Josephus, a digest of the history by Josephus brought 
up to date. It was read with great avidity by the generations 
that came after; for nearly one thousand years, almost all 
the information the Jews had concerning the events from 
Nehemiah to the destruction of the Second Temple was 
derived from that book. A great grandson of Hasadiah, 
Samuel son of Hananel (died in 1008), was collector of rev- 
enues and director of the mint at Capua; he erected syn- 
agogues and lavished benefactions upon his coreligionists. 


é 


i = 7 ‘ ; 
: me — vagaaaaal SON OF JEMLEL. 301 


2 eminence. rose his cousin Paltiel; the Fat- 
13-975), the conquetor of Sicily, made him 

capacity he aided his royal master in the 
ty and when the caliph died be commended 
ger, whom the Moharsiwdans | knew by the 
"et his son and succwescr Aziz (975-996), 
, did not long survive hes mastery his body 
this son Samuel for burial to /erusalem. Both 
: de pious donations with oriicely Rberality 
nes we 2 held in veneration be their edreligion- 
~and abroad. The record @& ei remarkable 
till fresh in 1054 when a gramicm of Paltiel’s 
Z, Z, penned the account of ifs ‘ilihdieibieists 


il Setieins of homilies by the lkagei» of unknown 
oduced in Italy during oe cwried. Sitimted — 
Jewish comimunities were beteoxo Palestine, 
ements in Africa, and.those i “he north of 
was the opportunity for eae ge and fake 
sespions. Schools for the studs .* se Talrud 
re, nOtably in Rome, and such sere the hieh 
the masters that the far momdarn commop- 
them forinformation. Tn thee reath century 
t Rome was presided oyer by jek Bite of Abra- 
was. ably assisted by his three eet. ‘the three 
fof the house of Jehbiel.’ Of these, chen rose to 
ime. Taught by his father, he also wt of the feet of 
Tha al-Bazak i in Sicily who had atience:! ‘ke courses 
m Hai at Bagdad. At Narhwonee ivi Peano: 
s instructed by Moses the Preacher (p. 356) who 
he wide range of ancien! Donsihesten! (hag- 
Ly | | 
1 @ death of his father (saat 1070), Nathan con- 
h bi brothers took over the Headship of the 
eg » Here he eeroree “i His Peohany a great wore 


1101] NATHAN SON OF JEHIEL 301 


To still higher eminence rose his cousin Paltiel; the Fat- 
imite Muizz (953-975), the conqueror of Sicily, made him 
his vizir. In this capacity he aided his royal master in the 
seizure of Egypt, and when the caliph died he commended 
his faithful adviser, whom the Mohammedans knew by the 
name of Jauhar, to his son and successor Aziz (975-996). 
Paltiel, however, did not long survive his master; his body 
was taken by his son Samuel for burial to Jerusalem. Both 
father and son made pious donations with princely liberality 
and their names were held in veneration by their coreligion- 
ists at home and abroad. The record of this remarkable 
family was still fresh in 1054 when a grandson of Paltiel’s 
cousin, Ahimaaz, penned the account of its achievements 
during two centuries. 

Several compilations of homilies by the hands of unknown 
authors were produced in Italy during that period. Situated 
as the Italian Jewish communities were between Palestine, 
the Jewish settlements in Africa, and those to the north of 
the Alps, there was the opportunity for much give and take 
in spiritual possessions. Schools for the study of the Talmud 
arose everywhere, notably in Rome, and such were the high 
attainments of the masters that the far northern commu- 
nities turned to them for information. In the eleventh century 
the school at Rome was presided over by Jehiel son of Abra- 
ham, who was ably assisted by his three sons, ‘the three 
excellencies of the house of Jehiel.’ Of these, Nathan rose to 
greatest fame. Taught by his father, he also sat at the feet of 
Mazliah Ibn al-Bazak in Sicily who had attended the courses 
of the Gaon Hai at Bagdad. At Narbonne in Provence 
Nathan was instructed by Moses the Preacher (p. 356) who 
commanded the wide range of ancient homiletical (hag- 
gadic) material. 

Upon the death of his father (about 1070), Nathan con- 
jointly with his brothers took over the headship of the 
Roman college. Here he completed in 1101 a great work 
which even to this day is prized highly by Semitic scholars. 
Until the nineteenth century it was virtually the only work 
of its kind. What al-Fasi in Spain (p. 322) did for epitomiz- 


302. THE JEWS OF ITALY TO THE TWELFTH CENTURY 


ing the legal matter of the Talmud, what Rashi in northern 
France (p. 357) accomplished for its elucidation, Nathan, the 
contemporary of both, achieved on the side of lexicography 
by his dictionary, to which he gave the name ‘Aruk,’ ‘Set in 
order.’ In this work he stored the entire linguistic material 
of Mishnah and Midrash, of the Talmuds and the Targums, 
in fact all of the Hebrew and Aramaic that had been written 
by Jews since the close of the Scriptures. What renders 
Nathan’s effort worthy of the scholar’s attention even now 
is the circumstance that behind the definitions there stands 
4 tradition brought together from many sources, not the 
least among them being the responsa of the Geonim, the 
commentaries of Hananel of Kairawan (p. 281), and the 
works of the school of Gershom of Mayence (p. 354). 

In the same year in which Nathan finished his Dictionary, 
a synagogue erected by himself and his younger brother was 
completed. Their nephew Solomon took Nathan’s place as 
head of the college which still went by the grandfather’s 
name. Solomon’s colleague in the rabbinate was Menahem 
son of Judah, who together with his son Moses befriended 
Abraham Ibn Ezra when in 1140 he visited Rome. Thus 
Rome came into contact with Spanish Jewry. | 


7 ae 
Ranie 
es 


i romantic charm whi mteetany to >Spain, 


at t the Seine canine railed Sancta, 
harad, a hiblical nase (Obadiah 20) 
| Sardis in Asia Miver. base narie was 


\ the Jand.' . Proud Jewish families. 
1, imagined themselves of «oval Davidic 
oa ; tic stories that Anite My phir rota 


i Ehis tomb had been found Lt ‘thas dite ti-$. 


cr aC their. pedigree to a ale Jew, whose 
lestine had been to weave the voile tov the 
+ bidding of tte Romas governan, be i 
rsent by Titus to Spain, whuenme hg gotkites 
sta, Emerita). It is certain tet, Jee. ayce 
st about 300, before the irrupeaw'et the 
associates (409) and vhear diochsventent 
vay 


; by their own hariels of by employing 
ineyards and olive pantatiews, carried on 
ce. Jewish merchawis shipped their wares 
rican coast. As-fieemen they enjoyed the 


503 


forthe jews. where sea ee onbe princes | 


ati rested content wish « leas amate 


ities and on n the soen Sci They buittie 


si ae other Reman provincials, and no — 
ation sh, up a barrier between them nis 


dy ‘ad Pia aa 


se Sik sees OF TRALY tO TH 


Ligne a, See matter of the Teleamd, 
Piindaccts SSP} ac complished for ity 

grants pegetrary a beth, achieved: . 
tee Taw chee — m which he gam 

cay ses m ark he stored pene 
od Gite Pi vu Midrash, of the 
ei Wank oil cob thet Hebrew and i: 


A a ay es oe ‘ wth ot ae 
se grouse that behaved: 


ty Sachin’ einen together. § 
“ “teu on 5 a the ayy being the 


oeapecwise oh Marranel of. 
eh PER tf (ie ie of Cones 
ame sae your ta which Naat 

Seg, Apne tial -« ated by hisswelltl 
upagheress. + hebr sephew sire? 


tae Maen Et itl cage in 
meh ree 238 tah. Whe hopetier 

Arg teer [eat Ker when je 
RY Fs) UPAR OER cach with 


Pe PEER NL V 


THE JEWS OF SPAIN UNDER ROMANS, GOTHS, 
AND MOHAMMEDANS 


(300-990) 


HE peculiar romantic charm which attaches to Spain, 

the land and the people, geographically and histori- 

cally, is also characteristic of Jewish history in the 
Iberian peninsula. What the Mohammedans called Andalus, 
the Jews called Sepharad, a biblical name (Obadiah 20) 
originally designating Sardis in Asia Minor. This name was 
quite early transferred to the far western domicile, the land 
‘where, ere we were plucked out in anger and in wrath, 
thrones were set for the Jews, where they rose to be princes 
and counselors of the land.’ Proud Jewish families, 
rooted in the land, imagined themselves of royal Davidic 
blood. They told fantastic stories that Adoniram, Solomon’s 
master of the levy (p. 62), had died while collecting revenue 
in Spain, and that his tomb had been found in that country. 
Others, like the Albalias, rested content with a less remote 
ancestry. They traced their pedigree to a noble Jew, whose 
occupation in Palestine had been to weave the veils for the 
sanctuary. At the bidding of the Roman governor, he was 
said to have been sent by Titus to Spain, where he settled 
at Merida (Augusta Emerita). It is certain that Jews were 
in Spain, at the latest about 300, before the irruption of the 
Vandals and their associates (409) and their displacement 
by the Visigoths (412). 

Jews lived in the cities and on the open land. They culti- 
vated the soil either by their own hands or by employing 
slaves, possessed vineyards and olive plantations, carried on 
trade and commerce. Jewish merchants shipped their wares 
to the adjacent African coast. As freemen they enjoyed the 
rights of citizenship like other Roman provincials, and no 
irksome legal discrimination set up a barrier between them 


303 


304 THE JEWS OF SPAIN [589 - 


and the rest of the population. Such of ‘the natives as had 
become Christians lived in amity with their Jewish neigh- 
bors, and many a peasant, unable to distinguish between 
the mother religion and its daughter, saw no reason why his 
field might not be blessed just as well by a pious Jew as bya . 
cleric of his own. Intermarriages between Jews and their 
neighbors occurred likewise. The oldest record of Spanish 
Christianity (the canons of the Council of Elvira, 313) wit- 
nesses to a determined effort on the part of the bishops to 
break down this peaceful intercourse. At this early period 
there came to light the double picture characteristic of 
Spanish Christianity of all times, gross worldliness among 
the laity and fanatical severity among the higher clergy. 

The Visigoths, being Germans and Christians of the Arian 
creed, looked upon the Catholics as Romans; they suffered 
them, as well as the Romanized pagans, to live in accordance 
with the Roman system of jurisprudence. Similarly the Jews 
were left in their previous status, regulated by Roman 
enactments made before the invasion. Alaric II. (485-507) 
enforced the restrictions against the Jews imposed by the 
Code of Theodosius the Great (379-395), ‘the first Christian 
Inquisitor,’ but on the whole in a spirit free from acrimony 
and with toleration toward the Jewish religion. There was 
mutual trust between the Gothic masters and their Jewish 
subjects; the Jews at the foot of the Pyrenees guarded effec- 
tively the frontier against the repeated invasions of the 
Frankish neighbor in the north. | 

The kings were not only harassed from without; within, 
the nobles were untractable, ever on the alert to keep the 
throne elective. The Catholic metropolitans were not slow to 
improve their opportunity, as the Crown leaned more and 
more for support on the rulers of the Church who in all but 
name came to be the sovereigns of the realm. The astute and 
masterful Leander, bishop of Seville, plotted against Leo- 
vigild (568-586) and lent his powerful support to the prince 
Hermenegild on his renouncing Arianism. At the Third 
Council of Toledo (589), presided over by Leander, King 
Reccared I. (586-601) formally announced his conversion to 


aie meant for the suhsexpuent fortunes of 
h people, the effect of the change on the Jews was 
iat s The Council set itsell against infermarriages 
eafewe and Christians: the offspring of such wiions 
ore! rcibly brought to baptism. No Christian slaves 
ek ‘by Jews; Jews should be excluded from any 
bs in” urying their dead, they must refrain from 
ims publicly. {n vain did the slave-owning Jews 
ert the blow which spelt ruin for them as farmers. 
was Obdurate; he spurned 4 large offer of 
was commended by pope Gregory [. for his 
. Suill the people, and especialty the wobies who 
erful within their domains, ett, rather well- 
rard the Jews, and under Recearet + inaeediate- 
the severe measures largely fell inte abevence. 
Fetnacted and ruthlessly executet Sy Srebur 
iO); Who, moreover, saw fo it that in m 
NET baptized by forte. Thousands fied the realm to 
d Africa, but ‘matiy were they who stumbled" and 
on itianity, unwilking to abandon the possessions 
the ens their fathers ‘had held for generations. 
; Seville, the learned brother afd successor of 
aith “quite inimical to Jews and Judaism, 
ed of the forcible conversions, since the. 


shout be brought to the Christian truth by 


=e ag; 2 . s swe 
Ried Ce CSS 


Piatitest under the mild and just Swinthila 
“Catholic Leovigild.’ The exiled Jews returned 
es and those who had submitted te baptiem 
) the fold. But when rae Get was everthrown 
(631-636), this bishops’ man gave sanciion to 
faconic enactments of the Fourth Council of Toledo 
-In principle, compulsory baptisms were discounte- 
but those Jews who had reveived baptism, no matter 
‘eenditions, w were to stav Christians. Backsliding 

‘and converts were enjoined to avoid the 


“oe 


me ThE pai 


aur’ he rey oe tee ak ura sore, 


: 


edwie € laristi<n tet on ie 

hee, atid man & Gane, ee 
tise sevot her PVLICit eek $8 Clie 
felci on sari t eat et blero pont re 2 


“t Sere ¢ st } ey ay t4 irate aieinis . 


. HeRnges (6 a Ae ar7nEne ‘, t fort oat 
break down The yranced trl sat TH . 
there canie ta hen: te dauiile 
Soar isi C herbaths amaty ol ai Sa 
the Isgitv and an atica) severely amt 
‘The Visigothy, betag Ge obser 
erwed, looked upon tie Cathotes, 
them: as well as the Roemuanive 
Roman svete of Ain 
were left in ther previowsa 
enactments made tf cone the! 


7 
ertforcea the reat rie =tont 


Los | 


onaaea! > pee an the + whole 
and with talevathm toward the 
mutual trust bebween the Ht 
subjects; the jews atthe foot of € 
tively the frontier agaimet thie: . 
Frankish neighbor in the northy 3 
The kings were not onby har 
the nobles were intractable, ey 
throne elective. ‘The Catholic aehiagamm 
improve thetr eco as the € “e : : | 


hp. 
i; 


more hg support on the Bites: " 


mas tethe) ! anidn hehe of 
vigil (308-386) and 


j 
a rivera ee on his 


633] UNDER THE CATHOLIC GOTHS 305 


the Catholic faith and established Catholicism as the religion 
of the state. 

Whatever the step meant for the subsequent fortunes of 
the Spanish people, the effect of the change on the Jews-was 
immediate. The Council set itself against intermarriages 
between Jews and Christians; the offspring of such unions 
were to be forcibly brought to baptism. No Christian slaves 
might be held by Jews; Jews should be excluded from any 
public office; in burying their dead, they must refrain from 
intoning psalms publicly. In vain did the slave-owning Jews 
strive to avert the blow which spelt ruin for them as farmers. 
The monarch was obdurate; he spurned a large offer of 
money and was commended by pope Gregory I. for his 
steadfastness. Still the people, and especially the nobles who 
were all-powerful within their domains, were rather well- 
disposed tuward the Jews, and under Reccared’s immediate 
successors the severe measures largely fell into abeyance. 
They were reénacted and ruthlessly executed by Sisebut 
(612-620), who, moreover, saw to it that in numerous cases 
Jews were baptized by force. Thousands fled the realm to 
France and Africa, but ‘many were they who stumbled’ and 
accepted Christianity, unwilling to abandon the possessions 
which they and their fathers had held for generations. 
Tsidore of Seville, the learned brother and successor of 
Leander, although quite inimical to Jews and Judaism, 
strongly disapproved of the forcible conversions, since the 
unbelievers should be brought to the Christian truth by 
reason. 

Persecution abated under the mild and just Swinthila 
(621-631), the ‘Catholic Leovigild.’ The exiled Jews returned 
to their homes and those who had submitted to baptism 
returned to the fold. But when Swinthila was overthrown 
by Sisinand (631-636), this bishops’ man gave sanction to 
the draconic enactments of the Fourth Council of Toledo 
(633). In principle, compulsory baptisms were discounte- 
nanced ; but those Jews who had received baptism, no matter 
under what conditions, were to stay Christians. Backsliding 
entailed ‘correction’ and converts were enjoined to avoid the 


306 THE JEWS OF SPAIN [638-701 


society of their former coreligionists under pain of forfeiting 
their personal freedom. Moreover, the children of suspects 
were to be separated by force from their parents and brought 
up in convents or in orthodox Christian homes. Connivance 
on the part of the lower clergy, who were propitiated by 
gifts, led to the drastic decree at the Sixth Council (638), 
convoked by Chintila (636-640), that none but Catholics 
might reside in the realm. Receswinth (649-672), the pro- 
mulgator of a new code which did away with all previous 
digests, and Euric (680-687) placed the converted Jews 
under the special control of the bishops and the ecclesiastical 
courts. The Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) was presided 
over by the commanding metropolitan Julian, whose Jewish 
parents had been converted to Christianity. The son, nur- 
tured in the bosom of Catholicism, believed that it was the 
good right of truly Christian kings to keep down unbe- 
lievers, and he made mock of the Jews who, without a king- 
dom of their own or altar or priesthood, vainly calculated 
the date of the advent of the Messiah, whereas Christ reigned 
supreme. Jews were still to be found in Spain, of both sorts, 
in communion with the Church and outside. Frequently 
despoiled, they nevertheless were opulent; they sought their 
salvation in abetting pretenders who held out the promise 
of more lenient treatment, and just as often found them- 
selves on the losing side. It was rumored that they were 
conspiring with their brethren beyond the sea, and even with 
the Saracens, already in Africa. 

King Egica (687-701) still more viciously turned against 
the Jews, whom a hundred years of ruthless persecution 
had converted from law-abiding citizens into a discontented 
and discordant element in the state. All the Jews of Spain 
were declared slaves in perpetuity, their goods confiscated, 
and they themselves uprooted from their homes and scat- 
tered through the provinces. The exercise of the rites of the 
Jewish religion was strictly forbidden. Moreover, the chil- 
dren from seven years and upwards were taken away from 
their parents and brought up in Christian homes so as to be 
united in wedlock with Christian men and women. Little 


THE UMMAIVAD RULERS ' 307 


bs a to the et ae ON ~ a of Witiza 


ia neta dominion, ileus ~d bye aner: dissen- 
s, the decay of martial prowess, am! the aseenclancy of 
priests, crumbled away before a smut} host @f Berber and 


| by hi ties certain that the Jews lent active nae 
1 the early period of the invasion. Heginning with 


. foot on the rock now bearing his eaene (Gi raitar). 

victory at Xerez de la Frontera (jsi'y, 71), |, within 

: iod of four years, practically the wheelie country 
ha ands of the wsyccrsenine fhe bows penuh 


| oe) raitsictet. If Jews were withers s oy tive according 
Ov ; 1 laws and to practise freely their ; als Hmon, 0 were 
stians. Property tights were on the wh-se respected, 
f poll-tax, which, in accordance wi) the laws of 
p unbelievers were obliged to pay © ‘‘e treasury, 
Jews and Christians alike. Certer iy the altered 
brought to the Jews beeen ge awl May rose 
Yet, we hear nowhere that, j in heh ited won 


| tant secslty which visengety ifora + peut sg 
oe from the first Abdarratinan (755- 
e of the eincniet by far Ce spe ste gh sacra 


. “ and mosques. Nor was the aplencor entirely 

eria | kind. The court atixacted ad patronized 
phers; men of letter and sientists. The 
nm ded with alacrity; thes: threw themselves with 


ei aie: The flickering fglt of Jewish learning n 
T east was rekindled in the west. When at the last 

jnian center crumbled away, the leading position 
'to Spanish Jewry, to be maintained: for half a 


: previous year, it developed inte an & eins 2% m ani | 


“ culture, with its basins ist rio its glit- 


al cuiture and drew from it the inspiration to 


4 , FS) 
‘4 : é ree: 
; ‘ FS 
; : Bs A. IME bs 4 | 

; ye whieh did aw 
r ’ ! ‘ a \ 3 ¢ . e pla 
a | : 
- ¢ 

. ewer iy Tt 
: ” + it : ° 
Has dom of their ean er altar or pri 
F ” 

the Saracens, already m Afrigan 

ee - Vewn Oe en - 

ININE se. FiCa (687-701) aw i 
ae 
the Jews, whom 2a hundred yeans | 

: had converted fromiaw -abiding itt 
ane Pet. orctiagt eloment wi the. : ! 

POP EY Fe BERS KS Oe xe ha é 
were declared slaves in perpehnty, i 
wel : GECiared 8) Se ik ft Crperityy, 
and tei themselves Panaiiey : bab 


ae 


rey relis a was strict! ly io 
dren from seven years.and pw 
their parents and bro aght ap in 


Pe TE eS, HT, Pee ng 
THted inh Ww edlock Wh 


788] THE UMMAIYAD RULERS 307 


relief came to the hapless people during the reign of Witiza 
(701-710), much as he strove to check the absolute power 
of the bishops. But the hour of deliverance struck in 711, 
when the Visigothic dominion, enfeebled by inner dissen- 
sions, the decay of martial prowess, and the ascendancy of 
the priests, crumbled away before a small host of Berber and 
Arab invaders. 

It is by no means certain that the Jews lent active assis- 
tance in the early period of the invasion. Beginning with a 
foray the previous year, it developed into an expedition when 
Tarik set foot on the rock now bearing his name (Gibraltar). 
After the victory at Xerez de la Frontera (July, 711), within 
the short period of four years, practically the whole country 
fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. The Jews naturally 
rejoiced; nor were they the only ones who were benefited by 
the change of masters. If Jews were suffered to live according 
to their own laws and to practise freely their religion, so were 
the Christians. Property rights were on the whole respected, 
and the poll-tax, which, in accordance with the laws of 
Omar, the unbelievers were obliged to pay to the treasury, 
fell upon Jews and Christians alike. Certainly the altered 
conditions brought to the Jews prosperity, and many rose 
to power. Yet, we hear nowhere that, in their newly won 
freedom, they in any wise oppressed their former persecutors. 

The brilliant activity which emanated from the court of 
the Ummaiyad rulers, from the first Abdarrahman (755— 
788) down, made of the kingdom by far the most enlightened 
country in Europe: The capital Cordova became a mag- 
nificent seat of culture, with its basins and parks, its glit- 
tering palaces and mosques. Nor was the splendor entirely 
of the material kind. The court attracted and patronized 
poets and philosophers, men of letters and scientists. The 
Jews responded with alacrity; they threw themselves with 
zest into general culture and drew from it the inspiration to 
revive their own. The flickering light of Jewish learning in 
the far-off east was rekindled in the west. When at the last 
the Babylonian center crumbled away, the leading position 
passed on to Spanish Jewry, to be maintained for half a 


308 THE JEWS OF SPAIN [955 


millennium. The crowning epoch, however, lasted only three 
centuries, from the tenth to the twelfth. It was ushered in 
by a commanding person, typifying in himself the happy 
combination of high worldly station and the love of learning, 
of true humanism and fervent Judaism, which marked the 
leaders of Jewish thought in Mohammedan Spain. 

Hasdai son of Isaac Ibn Shaprut of Jaen served under 
Abdarrahman III. (912-961) and his successor Hakam II. 
(961-976) in the double capacity of physician and inspector- 
general of customs. To all practical purposes he was the 
diplomatic adviser of these two caliphs. His mastery of the 
Latin tongue and his knowledge of affairs stood him in good 
stead on more than one occasion. The caliphate was bor- 
dered on the north by a number of Christian kingdoms; fre- 
quent incursions into the Arab domain led to sanguinary 
battles. Ramiro II., king of Leon (930-950), had routed 
Abdarrahman’s hosts; but upon the king’s death, civil war 
broke out over the succession to the Leonese crown. Hasdai, 
along with a Mohammedan emissary, made an advantageous 
compact with Ordofio III., who was beset by his brother 
Sancho (955); two years later Ordofio died and Sancho suc- 
ceeded him, but he was unseated by a fresh plot. The unfor- 
tunate king, who had not one powerful friend in his late 
kingdom, was received by his loving grandmother, Tota, the 
queen-regent of Navarre. He suffered. from excessive corpu- 
lence, which made of him a laughing-stock. Tota swallowed — 
her pride and appealed to the caliph, who dispatched Hasdai_ 
to the court of Navarre. Hasdai cured the king’s malady and 
won his confidence so that he obtained for Abdarrahman 
favorable terms in return for armed help against the rebels. 
With still greater adroitness the Jewish statesman prevailed 
upon the haughty lady and her luckless grandson -to present 
themselves in person at the caliph’s palace in Cordova. It 
was a spectacle gratifying to the national pride of the 
Moslems, sweeter still to the Jews, since a man of their own - 
faith had brought it about. . | 

Not long before, an ambassador, sent from the court of 
the German emperor Otto I. (936-973), had declared that 


pay maspat IBN. SHAPRUT | SS. | 


. 7 stwith a subtler dipitoms at than was this Jew 
Another ‘occasion, the Byzantine emperor 
1, (959-963) courted the faver of the western 
1 gifts, among which was 4 copy of a medical 
by Dioscorides. Hasdai, on betial! of tis mas- 
1 n the eastern monarc b the — tch one a 


nslation, the jews sides d by Mi me eiriedinn 
aa8 en Arabic rendition, ¢ . the denght of the 
least satisfied was Hasdit tensed, who was 
BU n pharmacology. He ig eand torhnve been 
lisco ver a certain drug useful sa preparing the 

Was theriac. His connectors with the 
Jed him to enter into correspon dence on his 
pete: ruler, # aaah ri i be 


\ 


e araessty ila at the toc, by Christians 
ans alike, that ‘the scepter was departed 
‘that the chosen people had been rejected 
“bik Jnekipeth was galling to th e home less 


Sebkraing an idee. ndent fewish state 
Eldad’s fantastic story (p. 278) appealed . 
mation. Rumors of a Jewish king in the 
oated to Spain in Visigothic times, ae 
peevishly gave therm the Tie. Bus aoy 
ed Hasdai that a Jewish king war eoelly 
ma of the Chazars {p. $26). fiasiies dis- 
messenger, Isaac son of Nintieare yo Con- 
fhence he was to set out tur she” bear capital. 
officials, Howe wee, suéreeient: as to Hasdai’s 
t eager to/assist. the denlesury on his journey, 
.. to Spain having failed of his pur- 
até that in the train of the embassy sent 
there were two Jews, Saul and Joseph. On 
aa’s ‘disappointment over the failure of the. 
Chazar king,’ they advised that the fetter 


it a 


och, howe 
rwelfth 


, hy 
¥* . 
~ 
fe 4 Ae 
tit 
? ! 
re: - & % 
tar 
er ee ‘ ree ee 
> Ng , 
My, 
Kee 
ys 
" & 
é : : f 
& a woe: 
: 
“ 
-- : ok 2 
a: i 7 
¥ n - «3 ¥ 
A " >: 
. 
, 3 =" 
r } x Be) 1 =m a ik | 
z . “ : 
7 , lope i 
a - Pt 
ey | 4 si i) 
} : . i > 


ao 


os 
« 


eA eee d C Masiee vets bed 
te: 2 re eae bie. ies . Bes ‘ 
a ' iN et Dore, 42m AMOASERAS 


pam ng fee 


963] HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT 309 


he had never met with a subtler diplomat than was this Jew 
Hasdai. On another occasion, the Byzantine emperor 
Romanus II. (959-963) courted the favor of the western 
caliph by rich gifts, among which was a copy of a medical 
work in Greek by Dioscorides. Hasdai, on behalf of his mas- 
ter, requested from the eastern monarch the dispatch of a 
monk learned in Greek and Latin. As the Greek read off the 
work in Latin translation, the Jew, aided by Mohammedan 
scholars, prepared an Arabic rendition, to the delight of the 
court. Not the least satisfied was Hasdai himself, who was 
greatly interested in pharmacology. He is said to have been 
the first to discover a certain drug useful in preparing the 
compound known as theriac. His connections with the 
Byzantine court led him to enter into correspondence on his 
own account with another ruler, a Jewish monarch. The 
Hebrew missives exchanged were of immediate concern -to 
Jewry. | 
The taunt was frequently hurled at the Jews, by Christians 
and Mohammedans alike, that ‘the scepter was departed 
from Judah’ and that the chosen people had been rejected 
by God for ever. This assertion was galling to the homeless 
wanderers. It is for this reason that the Jews listened with 
avidity to any tale concerning an independent Jewish state 
anywhere, and that Eldad’s fantastic story (p. 278) appealed 
to the Jewish imagination. Rumors of a Jewish king in the 
extreme East had floated to Spain in Visigothic times, and 
Isidore of Seville peevishly gave them the lie. But now 
definite news reached Hasdai that a Jewish king was actually 
reigning in the land of the Chazars (p. 526). Hasdai dis- 
patched a trusted messenger, Isaac son of Nathan, to Con- 
stantinople, whence he was to set out for the Chazar capital. 
The Byzantine officials, however, suspicious as to Hasdai’s 
designs, were not eager to assist the emissary on his journey, 
and at length he returned to Spain having failed of his pur- 
pose. It was fortunate that in the train of the embassy sent 
by emperor Otto there were two Jews, Saul and Joseph. On 
learning of Hasdai’s disappointment over the failure of the 
mission to the Chazar king, they advised that the letter 


310 THE JEWS OF SPAIN [970 


should be sent over Germany by the hands of Jews traveling 
to Hungary, whence it would be forwarded through Russia 
and Bulgaria to its destination. As a matter of fact, a Ger- 
man Jew, by the name of Isaac son of Eliezer, conveyed the 
carefully prepared epistle and placed it in the hands of the 
Chazar king. It told of the turn in the fortunes of Spanish 
Jewry wrought by the coming of the Mohammedans, of the 
ereatness of the western caliph, of Hasdai’s station at court 
and his great longing to learn every detail of the rise and 
present condition of the Jewish kingdom. . 

The two rulers whom Hasdai served were distinguished by 
their culture and zeal for learning. Hakam himself was no 
mean scholar, employing agents all through the East to 
copy or buy up ancient and modern manuscripts. Authors 
from afar sent him copies of their works with dedicatory 
poems; scholars, drawn by his liberality, flocked to his court. 
At the university of Cordova all branches of learning were 
cultivated, and some of the most eminent writers on Arabic 
grammar taught there. In like manner Hasdai held court 
among his own people. He surrounded himself with men 
proficient in Hebrew learning, who vied with one another to 
win and to hold his favor. His father had likewise befriended 
writers of elegant Hebrew. 

One of these was Menahem son of Saruk of Tortosa (c. 
910-970). When the elder Shaprut, an opulent and charita- 
ble man, had a synagogue erected, it was Menahem’s pen 
that composed the laudatory inscription which was engraved 
upon a memorial tablet. His services were sought by Hasdai, 
both on the occasion of his mother’s death and later when 
his father passed away, to write suitable elegies for recital 
during the days of mourning. At Cordova, whither Hasdai 
bade him come, Menahem was maintained in comfort and 
attached to the household of the statesman. Menahem had 
charge of Hasdai’s Hebrew correspondence (thus the letter 
addressed to the Chazar king was largely of his composi- 
tion), and acted as a teacher of the holy tongue. | 

In these years of freedom from care, Menahem occupied — 
himself with producing a dictionary of biblical Hebrew and 


Ps 


ad Gtself cat orice, ty 3 its Cgneise. de easton 
ig of meanings under classes, duty illustrated 
: | from the Seriptures. Since it was 
ithe Hebrew language, it becanité wunediately 
yone | the Pyrenees, in France and in Maly. Mena- 
y aimed at an understanding of the Scrip- 
bilary from the Scriptures (heinselves without 
to extraneous aid, such ax a comparison of 
bie tongue. might have provided, Notable 


SS Cl 


! snakes in utter misconceptidn of the true 
ith 6 docks criti¢ in the pation of 
the bidding of Hasdai. Criticism waa: his 
is oa his Babylonien master no less 
ainst the Spanish lexicograpiier, nor was the 


his nde. ‘Over and. above the Sasi points 


: mally divided, ere was a ere 
Sean the subject of ne heres acttonious 


gt to the ee and Arabic sii a 


| n this respect. Dunash was most true to 


was upon his at aa Menahem was 


son of Labrat (c.920-990, who at Bagdad | 
by Saadiah and later on reamed tram Fez > 


th century. Dunes: streseed the 


ied of aise! derstanding. the 


ditions, and he looked dewn somewhat —_ 
native wisdom of Spain. = an 1G Rai 


fe i 


A bite 
ee Sera 
- » 
y 
a & 
1 aod 
rt Fr ™ pe Lee te : as 
4 & J 
r A Wy 
: as 
2 %: by 
ed + ss Ne 
p- pat Fa Ma 


i Gia rae 2 ihe 


os eh 


990] MENAHEM AND DUNASH 311 


Aramaic. It was practically the first complete work of its 
kind; it commended itself at once by its concise definitions 
and the grouping of meanings under classes, duly illustrated 
by suitable quotations from the Scriptures. Since it was 
written in the Hebrew language, it became immediately 
popular beyond the Pyrenees, in France and in Italy. Mena- 
hem clearly aimed at an understanding of the Scrip- 
tural vocabulary from the Scriptures themselves without 
avowed recourse to extraneous aid, such as a comparison of 
the cognate Arabic tongue might have provided. Notable 
as the advance was upon his predecessors, Menahem was 
misled by a faulty theory, in utter misconception of the true 
structure of the language. 

Menahem met with a doughty critic in the person of 
Dunash (Adonim) son of Labrat (c.920-990), who at Bagdad 
had been taught by Saadiah and later on removed from Fez 
to Cordova at the bidding of Hasdai. Criticism was his 
métier; he exercised it against his Babylonian master no less 
harshly than against the Spanish lexicographer, nor was the 
right always on his side. Over and above the specific points 
of word meaning and interpretation, on some of which 
modern students are equally divided, there was a basic 
difference which again was the subject of no less acrimonious 
contention in the nineteenth century. Dunash stressed the 
importance of looking to the Aramaic and Arabic tongues 
for the elucidation of obscure Hebrew words and of consult- 
ing that ancient depository of Scriptural understanding, the 
Aramaic Targum. In this respect Dunash was most true to 
his Babylonian traditions, and he looked down somewhat 
superciliously on the native wisdom of Spain. 

It was an unedifying literary feud between the two gram- 
marians, carried on in verse and in prose. Their contempo- 
raries enjoyed it as an entertaining intellectual tournament. 
It answered entirely to the manners of the time and place 
that the opponents did not shrink from personal abuse calcu- 
lated to do material harm. The prize was the good-will of the 
patron; for a time Menahem was eclipsed, he was even set 
upon by the magnate’s too zealous retainers and evicted 


312 THE JEWS OF SPAIN 


from his dwelling on a sabbath day. Both rivals wrote verses; 
there was a novelty about those of Dunash that they were 
composed in regular meter, in exact accordance with the 
rules of Arab versification. In the memory of posterity this 
innovation remained connected with the lifetime of the 
patron-inspirer (‘in the days of Hasdai they began to chirp’). 
At first it was looked at askance, but it took root. The older 
verse of the piyut genre, abstruse in matter and unseemly in 
form, was discarded, and in its stead a new poetry was 
developed, at once graceful and pleasing to the ear, pure in 
diction and diversified in content, dealing with themes 
secular as well as sacred. As the Scriptural language was - 
made to live once more on the lips of the singers, as they 
artfully (sometimes, it is true, in a labored fashion) applied 
the ancient expressions to the immediate purposes of the 
occasion, they deepened at the same time an understanding 
of the Scriptures. One and all devoted themselves to Bible 
study and painstakingly strove to penetrate to the original 
intent of the sacred word, freed from the age-long fancies of 
preachers and homilists (haggadists). The process of perfect- 
ing the new song and the new Bible interpretation was a 
lengthy one and many and varied minds exercised them- / 
selves therein; but the beginnings date from the times of 
Hasdai, who thus became the inaugurator of a new era. 


(993-1069) ; ay 


tthe patronage of Hasdai falmucdlic strcties like. 

took on new life. The felmud had of course 
Pknown in Spain for a long Yee. A more pene- 
thoroughgoiny method of inet<ticn-came with 
Of Moses son of Enoch. He # a. « Babylonian ; 
which he set sail with his wite oad youn g Bon 
“Abdarrahinan’ s admiral, Iby Rewnahis. The 
‘dishonor, cast herself inte Ue sea; the boy 
‘were taken captive and brought em Cordova, 

r epee “id the Tewieh COEF 123 mity r. The 


uphs were iets to see ‘hal Jen wins icutitec! ra 
eastern tutelage and no longer sending moneys 
their enemies, me taliphs of the East. it: was 


IZ LIES, whuield undertake the riigiiins ould 
5 ‘Accordingly, through the instrumentality 

e Hasdai, Moses was installed as spiritual 
iepread, and from all Spain ane North Africa 
to the first higher diet gue’ ciilleee in Spat. 


. 


procured from the distin cma tig an 


iy peel well'afford to maintain waster rand 
nified manner, considering thet it counted 
} families that vied with the Mohamme- 
ice. Rich Jews might be gen appareled in 

0 1s turbans on their heals, viding in gorgeous 
mun fated on horseback i ete knightly fashion. 
eof their wealth was the trade in slaves; they 
ns with inmates and with eunuchs to guard 


ais 


ve, “ 1 a eee 
C26 i a A.A, a, 


at ee iy bry tees chy rs Hidety e 


An < 
Te 

we yo: 
‘Cae. | 


»yawt theseql a 


Fone, teh AR 


be ames: 


vs 


¢ 
* 
ra 


CHAPTER XLVI 
SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 


(993-1069) 
| NDER the patronage of Hasdai talmudic studies like- 


wise took on new life. The Talmud had of course 

been known in Spain for a long time. A more pene- 
trating and thoroughgoing method of instruction came with 
the advent of Moses son of Enoch. He was a Babylonian; 
the vessel on which he set sail with his wife and young son 
was seized by Abdarrahman’s admiral, Ibn Rumahis. The 
mother, fearing dishonor, cast herself into the sea; the boy 
and his father were taken captive and brought to Cordova, 
where they were ransomed by the Jewish community. The 
teacher from the distant East came at an opportune moment. 
The western caliphs were eager to see their Jewish subjects 
detached from eastern tutelage and no longer sending moneys 
to the land of their enemies, the caliphs of the East. It was 
gratifying that a man of the caliber of Moses, the peer of his 
Babylonian colleagues, should undertake the religious guid- 
ance of the West. Accordingly, through the instrumentality 
of the far-seeing Hasdai, Moses was installed as spiritual 
head. His fame spread, and from all Spain and North Africa 
students flocked to the first higher Jewish college in Spain. 
For use in this school, the bountiful magnate had correct 
copies of the Talmud procured from the disintegrating acad- 
emy of Sura. 

The community could well afford to maintain master and 
students in a dignified manner, considering that it counted 
numerous wealthy families that vied with the Mohamme- 
dans in magnificence. Rich Jews might be seen appareled in 
silks, with precious turbans on their heads, riding in gorgeous 
carriages or mounted on horseback in true knightly fashion. 
The chief source of their wealth was the trade in slaves; they 
supplied the harems with inmates and with eunuchs to guard 


313 


314. SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL [1014 


them, and the army with recruits. Thus large numbers of 
Slavs—taken in warfare by Germanic nations and then sold 
to the Saracens; the name came to be applied to other 
Europeans, and even Africans, similarly acquired—were im- 
ported, and whole regiments as well as the caliph’s body- 
guard were formed of them. As these mercenaries rose to 
power, they precipitated many an uprising; they and the > 
Berbers between them brought about the disintegration of 
Moslem power in Spain and the fall of the Cordova caliphate. 
At the death of Moses (c. 965), the community was divided 
as regards the succession. An influential part favored the 
native Joseph son of Isaac Ibn Abithor, who had been taught 
by Moses and was gifted as a liturgical poet. But others gave © 
the preference to Moses’ son, Enoch. Hasdai declared for the © 
latter, and he remained in undisputed tenure so long as the — 
statesman was alive. The question was reopened after the © 
death of Hasdai, Abithor being supported by his own kins- ~ 
men and by the two brothers Ibn Jau, wealthy silk manufac- — 
turers and purveyors of military banners. However, the ~ 
caliph Hakam sustained Enoch; his rival was placed under ~ 
the ban and practically banished from Spain. } 
With the accession of Hisham II. (976-1013) and the reign ) 
of his all-powerful minister Ibn Abi Amir (called Almanzur), © 
the elder of the two Ibn Jau brothers, Jacob, recetved the ~ 
appointment as prince and chief judge over all the Jewish © 
communities on both sides of the straits, from Sijilmasa in ~ 
Africa to the Duero in Spain. Enoch was deposed, and steps — 
were taken to recall his rival from exile. Abithor, however, ~ 
declined the honor, and upbraided the community for ill- — 
treating so worthy a man as Enoch. The exile continued his q 
wanderings as far as the Orient; the Gaon Hai refused to see : 
the excommunicated rabbi, and at length his life came to an — 
end in Damascus. Enoch lived to witness the decline of © 
Cordova and died on the concluding day of Tabernacles in © 
the year 1014, when the pulpit in the synagogue which he ~ 
had ascended collapsed. Z 
With the sack of Cordova by the Berbers in 1012 and ue 4 
ensuing dissolution of the caliphate, Moslem Spain broke up 


Pet oe ee ee a a a on ee 


) © SAMUEL MADE VIZIR ; 315 


x of petty Ba gdecos. The Haramudites, though 
ia aakce over al} Arab Spain, actu tally possessed 
hig ee and its territory; at Granada, thei: 
a ; Zawi and his nephew anc successor 
90-1038), feigned, and in 1055 Badis (1038+ 
d@ Malaga to his reali. tu this ascendancy of 
‘of Granada a distinguished! [ew bad his part 
ito, the exalted position of vier. Samuct ha-Levi 
ah. {bn Naghdela) was bore in 983 at Cordova, 

' rhad removed fram Mevvix He underwent 


if'in the study of syetlat # geanemar by assid. 
P the treatises of fucioh Sheyyuj, the “first 
Jater Henerations called! hus. By dint of his 
ioic @Granunar, Hayy} had iaid the founda- 
erstanding of the structure of the Hebrew 
the year 1000). | 
h-versed in the mathematical sciences end 
spoke and wrote seven laneudnes; his sti: 
epee and literature was cenmpiete and he 
anship—something prized in those viave~ 
To these latter accomplishments fie «wed 
ttton. Both at Cordoya and afterwards at 


ated iMlsterate esaset ea, ovation 


Thus ee was ‘ieee t Smiehiie: 


ming in ‘Talmud at tie shout of Enoch; he 


cede of ‘ies vizir-of Ki ng Wablens. The: 


Peem ‘of the minister by tie palitical in- 
advice upon matters of state. On his: 
st se commended Sanuel © the king, 
had no scruples about appointing the 
his Oa: This position Sanmel filled with. 

ae ee at his ease in 


$14, .SAMUGL THE NAGID AND SO 


al talent in warfare by Ce 
to the Saracests; the nai 
Furopeans, ani ever a 
ported, and whole os 
guard were formed of them, 
mower, they precipitated im 
Berbers bereven then. brot 
Moslem power in Spath and 
At the death of Monee te 
ag regayds the succes@iig: 
aative joseph son of isaagy 
by Moses ad was gifted ahaa 
che preference to Moses’ Sonne 
latter. and he remaitedap 
Stateariin. War alive. "The | 
death of basal Abithor! 
men aid by the. iwo beet : mf 
turers and parveyr@ 
é alipb Hakan aus tained £ 5 


ee baa @ ang iy La t# cally ban 


ihe ¢icer of the we Ton J 
apjointment as priact aie 
oui nities on’ both sales: 
Africa to the Duero in: Spat 
were taken t recall hie oy 
declined the honor, and sagt 
treating so worthy a wh am 
nderings ae far as the Ont | 
he excommaniic sien rabbi, 
aa in Dara . Enoch ity 
Cordova and died pe conchudung « 
tha year 1014, when the nal nthe 
hac asmenced collapsed. ae a 
With the sack of Cordova ee b 
ensuing dissolution of the caliph 


SAMUEL MADE VIZIR 315 


into a number of petty kingdoms. The Hammudites, though 
they claimed rights over all Arab Spain, actually possessed 
only the city of Malaga and its territory; at Granada, their 
powerful vassals, Zawi and his nephew and _ successor 
Habbus (1019-1038), reigned, and in 1055 Badis (1038— 
1073) annexed Malaga to his realm. In this ascendancy of 
the principality of Granada a distinguished Jew had his part 
and rose to the exalted position of vizir. Samuel ha-Levi 
son of Joseph (Ibn Naghdela) was born in 993 at Cordova, 
whither his father had removed from Merida. He underwent 
a thorough training in Talmud at the school of Enoch; he 
perfected himself in the study of Hebrew grammar by assid- 
uous perusal of the treatises of Judah Hayyuj, the ‘first 


.grammarian,’ as later generations called him. By dint of his 


knowledge of Arabic grammar, Hayyuj had laid the founda- 
tion for an understanding of the structure of the Hebrew 
language (about the year 1000). 

Samuel was well versed in the mathematical sciences and 
philosophy. He spoke and wrote seven languages; his mas- 
tery of the Arab speech and literature was complete and he 
excelled in penmanship—something prized in those days— 
and composition. To these latter accomplishments he owed 
his rise to distinction. Both at Cordova and afterwards at 
Malaga, whither he betook himself after the capture of his 
native city, he kept a small shop in which he sold spices. 
Close by was the castle of the vizir of King Habbus. The 
inmates of the palace, being illiterate themselves, availed 
themselves again and again of the services of the Jewish 
shopkeeper to write their letters to their master. The vizir, 
enchanted by the beautiful handwriting as well as by the 
style, sought out the writer and prevailed upon him to 
become his secretary. Thus Samuel was taken to Granada; 
there he won the esteem of the minister by his political in- 
sight and his sound advice upon matters of state. On his 
death-bed, the minister commended Samuel to the king, 
who, as a Berber, had no scruples about appointing the 
Jew outright as his vizir. This position Samuel filled with 
dignity and singular discretion. Completely at his ease in 


316 SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL [1038 


the halls of the splendid Alhambra, tactful and urbane in 
his demeanor, an entertaining conversationalist, he was 
quite devoid of arrogant self- assertion, and the candor 
with which he spoke of his former lowly estate silenced his 
very detractors. 

Granada had a large and influential body of Jews. By way 
of exaggeration, the city was spoken of as “The Jews’ City.’ 
When Habbus died (in 1038), Jews and Berbers alike were 
divided, a portion wishing to confer the throne on a younger 
son, while others, among them Samuel, favored the elder 
Badis. When the younger brother renounced his candida- 
ture, his-Jewish supporters—like Joseph Ibn Megas, Isaac 
son of Leon, Nehemiah Escafa—fled to Seville, whose prince 
was none too friendly to the king of Granada. Samuel’s . 
espousal of the cause of Badis was rewarded in that he was 
retained by the grateful monarch as his minister. It was no 
small task to serve this bloodthirsty tyrant, who after his 
drinking bouts was unamenable to reason or suasion. So 
wisely did the Jewish minister govern that the land, in its 
enjoyment of security and of an administration free from 
irregularities, soon ranked foremost among the Spanish 
principalities. Samuel’s life was full of activity; again and 
again he personally directed military operations from his 
quarters close to the battlefields, and on several occasions he. 
narrowly escaped death. He lived to see the downfall and. 
violent death of a number of his enemies, like the arrogant 
Arab vizir in the Slav state of Almeria, who detested Jews 
and Berbers alike, and the Berber minister at the court. of 
Malaga. Both were balked by the policies of the all-powerful 
and sagacious Jewish adviser of Badis and both vainly 
plotted to overthrow him by calumnies. 

For some thirty years this statesman shed lustre upon the 
Jewish community of Granada, which at an early date be- 
stowed upon him the title of Nagid, or Prince in Israel. His 
bounty extended to poor Jewish scholars, not only in Spain, 
but also in Africa, in Sicily, at Jerusalem, at Bagdad. He 
had copies made of the Mishnah and the Talmud and pre- 
sented them to needy students; he also imported copies from 


dem 9) latbated by aupp! ying the © synagogues in 
Ci “yeat by year with olive-oil from his ‘own 
ihe maintained friend! y reletiong with celeb- 
hand abroad; so with the (;eon Hai, with the 
ial ay: with Daniel, head af a schoul et Jer rti- 
ishiel, the father of saké ang), and with Jacob 
: m, both at Katrawan. A daisabter r of the latter 
wife of jis son and successor, fe sage, 

resi Hed-over a college of bis oes: his mastery of 
Bis shown in two works of which thoatly fre ag: 


h, eal itive hat tat digas 
ammar andthe interpretation of the Seriptures - 
d by His contemporary jonah Ibn jJanah (985- 
isa, the author of a complete grammar and 
the biblical Hebrew, who deepened the studies 
With him the Nagid carried on a literary con- 
Samuel also wrote a work, called “The Book o 
: was a full unseninbs of the on ical etree 


ssa sete nothing anid Peal mige gramnia- 
fmmentators cited the Nagid with deference, and 
Skdispstions he anticipated discoveries nearer 
Still ta this field he lacked the genius, if net 
hoof Ibn Janah, ‘the greatest of medieval 
As a poet, the Nagid ranks below his friend and 
¥, Ibn Gabirol. Though the Hebrew language 
1 by the Nagid with great skili, tig poems. were 
Hiallusions, baffling even to elindars, and lacked 
mg. Samuel died in old age ‘sume fime after 
iueed anoumed by ail Jewry. The most eminent 
id poets evilogized him in verse, ancl the historians 
mthat he wore four crowns: the crown of the 
pero of a station, the: crown of Levitical 


FE OE Re Te A Se Ogee TS ee en 
* 


1056] SAMUEL’S SCHOLARSHIP 317 


the defunct academy at Sura and was the possessor of a 
large collection of books. His fondness for the land of the 
fathers was demonstrated by supplying the synagogues in 
the Holy City year by year with olive-oil from his own 
plantations. He maintained friendly relations with celeb- 
rities at home and abroad; so with the Gaon Hai, with the 
exilarch Hezekiah, with Daniel, head of a school at Jeru- 
salem, with Hushiel, the father of Hananel, and with Jacob 


son of Nissim, both at Kairawan. A daughter of the latter 


became the wife of his son and successor, Joseph. 


' Samuel presided over a college of his own; his mastery of 
‘talmudic learning is shown in two works of which only frag- 


ments have come dewn to us: one an Introduction to the 
Talmud dealing with its methodology, and another, named 
‘Mighty Halakoth,’ a compendium anticipating that of Isaac 
al-Fasi. In grammar and the interpretation of the Scriptures 
he was excelled by his contemporary Jonah Ibn Janah (985— 
1040) at Saragossa, the author of a complete grammar and 
dictionary of the biblical Hebrew, who deepened the studies 
of Hayyuj. With him the Nagid carried on a literary con- 
troversy. Samuel also wrote a work, called ‘The Book of 
Riches,’ which was a full dictionary of the biblical Hebrew 
in which all that bore on the meaning of words was presented 
in a manner to leave nothing unsaid. Succeeding gramma- 
rians and commentators cited the Nagid with deference, and 
in some of his observations he anticipated discoveries nearer 
our own time. Still in this field he lacked the genius, if not 
the erudition, of Ibn Janah, ‘the greatest of medieval 
Hebraists.’ As a poet, the Nagid ranks below his friend and 
contemporary, Ibn Gabirol. Though the Hebrew language 


was handled by the Nagid with great skill, his poems were 
weighted with allusions, baffling even to scholars, and lacked 


depth of feeling. Samuel died in old age (some time after 
1056) and was mourned by all Jewry. The most eminent 
scholars and poets eulogized him in verse, and the historians 
said of him that he wore four crowns: the crown of the 
Torah, the crown of high station, the crown of Levitical 
descent, and, above all, the crown of good deeds. 


318 SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL [1069 


Solomon son of Judah Ibn Gabirol (1021-1069) was born 
at Malaga, whither his father had removed from Cordova 
during the unfortunate upheaval of 1012. There had been 
versifiers before Gabirol; there were poets in his own day; 
but in the estimate of critics he surpassed them all as the 
Knight of Style, his nation’s King of Songs, and the poet 
Heine in the nineteenth century named this eleventh cen- 
tury singer the Nightingale of Piety. At Saragossa Jekuthiel 
Ibn Hasan befriended the forlorn youth, supplying him with 
material means, but also compelling a mind innately intro- 
spective to look out upon a world in which there was beauty 
and joys to delight a sensitive poetic nature. The young 
poet’s gratitude was expressed in eulggizing his benefactor 
both in life and in death. The loss of his friend enhanced Ibn 
Gabirol’s bitter contempt for the Jewish community of Sara- 
gossa who neglected the holy tongue, half of.them speaking 
the language of Edom (Spanish) and half the obscure tongue 
of Kedar (Arabic). After wandering about the peninsula, he 
found a refuge with the congenial Nagid of Granada. 

Ibn Gabirol sang of wine when a miser forbore to serve 
it to his guests and offered water instead. Woman had no 
attraction for him, and he seems to have remained unmar- 
ried. His love was for things divine, for the truth which he 
spent his life to search out. The language of the Scriptures 
became fluid at his touch; acrostic, meter, and rhyme pre- 
sented themselves as if without labor. Integral passages from 
the Book were woven into his verse to round off a stanza, 
adding piquancy by the very unwonted yet suitable use to 
which they were put. It was a feat when at the age of nine- 
teen he gave poetic form, in four hundred verses, to a subject — 
so unpoetic as the rules of Hebrew grammar; one of his 
earliest efforts was a versification of the six hundred and 
thirteen Commandments, which is still recited insynagogues 
of the Sephardic ritual. Many more of Gabirol’s poems 
passed into the liturgy, composed as they were for that very 
purpose. In these the poet expressed, on the one hand, the 
deep longing of Israel, crushed by the bear (Edom) and pur- 
sued by the wild ass (Ishmael), for redemption, and, on the 


, the lhusresi: icy? (ed by the sin- 
ipatinin iter with: its Maker. 
le hytanee is thse & wrath the poet 
gl Crown ile oe bated alike by 
nand thie. viii > he eemgbht. What 
Hic view i Meum. theves along 
acai the Sas ciciee eames, The place 


ces, likewie Si .08> od the human 
e alter death, bhawrase tan: A Platonic 


a8 God is spoken 69) -.< «1 gticable to 


to the core tae te ff eet ina. 


5 His is the most mech agen naffting 
human imaginateny ae ‘3 tip aly true 
rt grandeur of Cea vate te hetle- 
ily prophetic, ides ae Pe one Piast 
His the insistenepuige facie SP portrait, OF 
Ja ape of man Sess Bot tee ae Oe PETE 


‘s ‘< by all siaampty nik sate dif- 
is: reiterated Gr >) xt ie most 
A8Thow art Comins s le lpaadiad 
‘and worshipers: +9 aaa » ep prey dist 
“those that worse Wee ave pore tat for 
em all js w atiabe Gee f° * 


ses 
bia 


' Nations browse pat he “ys uetaar sy liy near 


m ares » oss We uevealed 
p pee hae CRARAL ae ce, : eo rs te 


Revrngtly Lek lar 
‘Fixwitain ERE dies + itoh, -with- 


all 


partici | bie fed 


ti Hacw he trarthes 


THE RAG RIE eu bere SEB 


j a the sphere Gelgage ssf anal-resplen~ 


of the sens 7 2 aint which is 


muttered by a yn a tiehachd that 


| orm fa whick apa saci cant his 
FHS stions ok ie: aaa i ay ine, which: 
ie. But when we Pee ee ae the form. 


This tie cmt cies ts 1 eis 


ie 2 wate Ate Wires. ee saving 
if ee ‘tee primal 


4 a 
2g vo sie # 
me ae a ites t 


ume 


FSi Rea tay Rl 


hed bbe: 


THE ‘ROYAL CROWN’ 319 


other, the anguish of the human soul defiled by the sin- 
fulness of the body and yearning for reunion with its Maker. 

The best known of his hymns is the one to which the poet 
gave the name of ‘Royal Crown.’ One is enchanted alike by 
the beauty of its diction and the depth of its thought. What 
there is in it of a scientific view of the universe, moves along 
lines made obsolete by the Copernican system. The place 
assigned to Reason in the sphere nearest to God and resplen- 
dent with pure intelligences, likewise the home of the human 
soul to which it returns after death, is ultimately of Platonic 
origin. But the sublimity of the monotheistic idea, which is 
impaired as soon as God is spoken of in terms applicable to 
man only, is Jewish to the core. God is One, but not in a 
numerical sense; His is the most perfect Oneness, baffling 
definition, above human imagination. God is the only true 
Existence; with the grandeur of God is contrasted the little- 
ness of man—a truly prophetic, Isaianic, conception. Just 
as surely prophetic is the insistence on the divine grace of 
Forgiveness and the ascent of man through a contrite return 
to God. The conviction uttered by the prophet Malachi that 
the One God is worshiped by all mankind though under dif- 
ferent appellations, is reiterated by Gabirol in the most 
unmistakable manner. “Thou art God, and all things created 
are Thy servants and worshipers; nor is Thy glory dimin- 
ished by reason of those that worship aught beside Thee, for 
the intention of them all is to attain unto Thee.’ 

The very poetic form in which this philosopher cast his 
metaphysical speculations brought them necessarily near 
the Jewish, biblical, conceptions of God and the world, which 
are essentially poetic. But when we abstract from the form 
and penetrate to the essence of the thought there is revealed 
an originality which perhaps cannot be expressed in terms 
strictly Jewish. This the poet-philosopher appears to have 
felt, for he wrote a thoroughly philosophical work, in Arabic, 
which he called ‘The Fountain of Life’ and in which, with- 
out so much as quoting a verse of the Scriptures or a saying 
of the rabbis, he outlined his full system. Here he teaches 
universality of matter, emanating from God as the primal 


320 SAMUEL THE NAGID AND SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 


substance, and universality of form proceeding from the 
will of God as a creative aspect. Gabirol was influenced by 
Neo-Platonic speculations; but he was also indebted to the 
‘Book of Creation.’ Substantially he expressed the basic 
thought of his philosophy in a Hebrew couplet in which he 
traced the origin of universal matter to the All-containing 
God: Matter is a semblance of existence, longing to become 
true existence through form, as a lover longs for the beloved. 
Ibn Gabirol’s philosophical treatise was translated into 
Latin in 1150; it was much studied by the scholastics with 
whom the author’s name underwent all sorts of corruptions 
(Avencebrol, Avicebron, etc.), and for a long time, down to 
the nineteenth century, students believed the ‘Fountain of 
Life’ to be the work of some Christian philosopher. 

Ibn Gabirol wrote two other works in Arabic: one on 
Ethics (‘The Improvement of the Moral Qualities’) and the 
other, a collection of sententious sayings, known as “The 
Choice of Pearls.’ Truly, this gifted man, who sang songs to 
make the soul rejoice and deliver the heart from sorrow, had 
reason to speak of wisdom as his mother and his sister, who 
chose him of all men as theirs. 

A contemporary of the grammarian Ibn Janah and the 
poet-philosopher Ibn Gabirol was Bahye son of Joseph Ibn 
Bakuda, of whose circumstances little is known except that 
he had the office of assistant rabbi (dayyan, judge) some- 
where in Spain, possibly at Saragossa. He is also spoken of 
as the Saint (hasid). He was the author of a work in Arabic 
which at an early period was translated into Hebrew and to 
this day is eagerly read by pious laymen. It is essentially a 
moralistic book. Its tendency, as the title ‘Duties of the 
Heart’ indicates, is to elevate spirituality and inward piety 
above formalism in religion, love of God and complete trust 
in Him above ‘the actions performed by the parts of the 
body’ and consisting in mere outward observance. There is a 
distinct preference for asceticism and withdrawal from the 
world, reminiscent of similar contemporary movements in 
the Mohammedan world which led to Sufism and the mystic- 
ism of the somewhat later Ghazali. . 


z' “omar dot as eed a ihe sewiah 
He had received a princely Gaining and 


| fe live ved Lin a marble palace, and when he 
ea ‘the monarch ia camagnificent 


a tives: orother coreligionista ta pulblic 
¢ Penvy of Berbers and Arabs. Goaded 

hey spread-abroad false rumors about 
hing many crimes. It wasa mere pre- 
of the hated jew, who dominated 
letely. Qn « sabbath the peiaes. in 
a wttacked. The minister heb himgelf 
whe blackesed himself 26.4 Aisguice; 
re Sat to death, and fastener ty a ormes. 

’ ose fo MASERENG oat weber sens 


lll 


a Megas, one of shige whe had been 


of al-Ma% ai (1082 4069) at iSevitle. 


a’: 


of wd family, the protégé of Samuel 
ne Fila'son omits, managed to escape the mas- 
anada. Ar Cordova he won the favor of the 


on 0 ‘the throne of Seville aes the surname al- 
hems a ee 5 i 321 


Jew wish Jore, But unlike Kie-father, he © 


ywoand his predilection for 


ae suflered no debtinw ia the 


tadir (1047-1081) had for: hia vieir Has- | 
t Joseph tie Hasdai. Isiae son of Baruch’ 


+ Abo-l-Kasim’ Mohammed, who, upon his 


CHAPTER XLVII 
AL-FASI AND HIS SCHOOL 


(1013-1141) 


\ GRANADA, Joseph succeeded his father Samuel both 


as the king’s minister and as head of the Jewish 

community. He had received a princely training and 
was well grounded in Jewish lore. But unlike his father, he 
loved ostentation. He lived in a marble palace, and when he 
rode beside Badis he rivaled the monarch in magnificent 
apparel. His arrogant demeanor and his predilection for 
advancing his own relatives or other coreligionists to public 
positions aroused the envy of Berbers and Arabs. Goaded 
on by a jealous poet, they spread abroad false rumors about 
him and imputed to him many crimes. It was a mere pre- 
text to rid themselves of the hated Jew, who dominated 
his royal master completely. On a sabbath the palace in 
which Joseph dwelt was attacked. The minister hid himself 
in a charcoal cellar where he blackened himself as a disguise; 
but he was discovered, put to death, and fastened to a cross. 
The Granadans then proceeded to massacre the other Jews 
and pillage their dwellings. Nearly four thousand Jews fell 
victims to the fanatical hatred of the populace (December 
30, 1066). 

Nevertheless Jewish prestige suffered no decline in the 
rest of Spain. Joseph Ibn Megas, one of those who had been 
banished when Badis mounted the throne, occupied a high 
position in the service of al-Mu'tadid (1042-1069) at Seville. 
At Saragossa, Muktadir (1047-1081) had for his vizir Has- 
dai, son of the poet Joseph Ibn Hasdai. Isaac son of Baruch 
Ibn al-Balia, of a distinguished family, the protégé of Samuel 
the Nagid and his son Joseph, managed to escape the mas- 
sacre of Granada. At Cordova he won the favor of the 
Abbadid prince Abu-l-Kasim Mohammed, who, upon his 
accession to the throne of Seville under the surname al- 


a 


322 AL-FASI AND HIS SCHOOL [1103 


Mu‘tamid (1069), summoned his favorite as his court astrol- 
oger and adviser. In this capacity he served his royal master 
for twenty years. Ibn al-Balia was a student of astronomy 
and wrote a work on the calendar. His talmudical learning 
commended him to the Jews of the kingdom of Seville, who 
made him their chief rabbi and protector (nasi). 

Talmudic learning was now in the ascendant, and the 
Spanish teachers were looked up to with deference abroad. 
An authority of the first order was Isaac son of Jacob al-Fasi 
(1013-1103). He was born in the vicinity of Fez. His fame 
had been established, before he migrated to Spain, by his 
compendium of the Talmud which eliminated all irrelevant 
discussion and formulated clear-cut decisions in all matters 
of law applicable also outside the Holy Land. At Lucena he 
became the spiritual head of the community, succeeding 
Isaac son of Judah Ibn Ghayyath (died 1089), distinguished 
alike by his talmudic erudition and liturgical productions. 
There had been some angry discussions between al-Fasi and 
Ibn Ghayyath. Another disputant was Ibn al-Balia, who, 
however, on his death-bed, sought reconciliation with his 
opponent, and al-Fasi proved a true friend and a second 
father to his former adversary’s son. Both Ibn Ghayyath 
and al-Fasi left a host of disciples, and the influences that 
emanated from both these teachers were instrumental in 
producing the zenith of Spanish Jewish culture. When al- 
Fasi died, two outstanding poets vied with one another in 
celebrating him in verse: Moses Ibn Ezra, a pupil of Ibn 
Ghayyath, and Judah ha-Levi, taught in al-Fasi’s own 
school. The elegy composed by the latter was chosen for an 
epitaph on the master’s tomb. The pupil’s admiration was 
expressed somewhat extravagantly in such words as these: 

‘It was for thee that the mountains 
shook on the day of Sinai; 

For the angels of God met thee. 

And wrote the Torah on the tables of 
thy heart: 

They set the finest of its crowns upon 
thy head.’ 


vats OF: TOLEDO | +.) ee 


4 gulls iapaed the ; 

he north. oi tisunttex themselves, te 
SSO sich: @s a Vigorowt MANarch was 
rated empire Such a rider was found 

1065) and stil! more #o ie his son 

9). With the three hive ~—Cas- 

a his hand», Alnhoowe preaced upon 

Andalusias pincelings tcdstain a 

€, Mu tamnetct Bimeelf way Hempelled 


Ser ‘ tis th cocsve Mab antaal 
1 by a i ‘Ataran am of emer ibn 

the Jew in ‘demersing pure gabe jan tesa 

Y which was aflered that dw hwensed — 
hire scabies hide frequently: acted. 

we it te renee antl # Meostaiie, 


ns on ated by Ronn: jews “aed Mohar. 
i on a footing af “yistivy with Chis- 
) despite “the adeinitions of pope 
8 S} toithe hing te urevent Jews from 
strams. Tolede SPE SOT slered i in i085 and 
of Christian Spm Phe Jews were left 
the liberties thos ihey had enjoyed 
po The last Mohesenedan king, the ute 
§ permitted te servic to Valencia; he had. 
mpanion a jex »o remained faithful 
bile his nearest ‘ribesmen betrayed 


i ireatly meeed the Mohammedan 
| They, teruiewe, invited the, aid of 
fi Pins of the Avroravides; a Berber tribe 
ca ho had been = comatly Converted to Islam 
Pres SGN. casteon tite from the Seneyal 


> a ay 


i. (ee > Sat STE ato sD 
: : } 
ea 
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2 i: 2 } 4 va » é« 4 
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+. t. "ben _— $ Tere 
i . E " : yi ic 5M ie eg *% an BB 2 EH} * ee 
a a 
Oe % mee » 4, ee or ae ae eo 
ie a ; Cpata pir OU the masters & 


ba 
ood 
Pi 
a 
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wy 
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or 
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oc om an migels of ee 


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34 
es 
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ae | ae thy heat . 
Thev set the aac a 


2. 
a 


i ~*. 
oe 
gat 


thy head.’ 27 


1085] THE FALL OF TOLEDO B20 


The feuds between Badis and Mu'‘tamid, and in general 
between the several Mohammedan princes, roused the 
Christian states in the north, long disunited themselves, to 
an organized reconquest so soon as a vigorous monarch was 
able to set up a concentrated empire. Such a ruler was found 
in Ferdinand I. (1027-1065) and still more so in his son 
Alphonso VI. (1065-1109). With the three kingdoms—Cas- 
tile, Leon, and Galicia—in his hands, Alphonso pressed upon 
Toledo and forced the Andalusian princelings to obtain a 
respite by paying tribute. Mu‘tamid himself was compelled 
to submit to a recognition of Christian suzerainty. On one 
occasion the embassy, sent to Seville to receive the annual 
tribute, was headed by a Jew, Amram son of Isaac Ibn 
Shalbib. So firm was the Jew in demanding pure gold instead 
of the debased money which was offered that the incensed 
Mu‘tamid ordered him to be crucified. Jews frequently acted 
as intermediaries between Christians and Moslems. 

Another Jew in the services of Alphonso was one named 
Cidellus. Jews met with fair treatment in the domains of this 
Christian king. The old Visigothic discriminations had fallen 
into disuse and, according to the common law which had 
developed and was confirmed by Alphonso, Jews and Moham- 
medans were placed on a footing of equality with Chris- 
tians before the law, despite the admonitions of pope 
Gregory VII. (1073-1085) to the king to prevent Jews from 
bearing rule over Christians. Toledo surrendered in 1085 and 
was made the capital of Christian Spain. The Jews were left 
~ in the possession of all the liberties which they had enjoyed 
during Moslem rule. The last Mohammedan king, the un- 
fortunate Kadir, was permitted to retire to Valencia; he had 
for his intimate companion a Jew, who remained faithful 
to him after his death while his nearest tribesmen betrayed 
him. 

The fall of Toledo greatly shocked the Mohammedan 
princes of Andalusia. They, therefore, invited the aid of 
Yusuf Ibn Tashufin, king of the Almoravides, a Berber tribe 
of North Africa who had been recently converted to Islam 
and had founded a mighty empire extending from the Senegal 


324 AL-FASI AND HIS SCHOOL | [1108 


to Algiers. It was rather a dangerous step to call in these 
barbarous and fanatical warriors; but, as Mu‘tamid put it, 
he would rather be a ‘camel-driver in Africa than a swine- 
herd in Castile.’ The Christians were worsted for the time 
being. In both camps, the Christian and the Mohammedan, 
Jews fought side by side with their countrymen. 

The Almoravides made themselves at home in Andalusia. 
They suppressed all the petty monarchs and made of Moslem 
Spain a province of the African empire. The fakihs (orthodox 
teachers of religion) had full sway and Christians (Mozarabs) 
and Jews suffered greatly. A Cordovan fakih came forward 
with the discovery of a tradition that the Jews had promised 
Mohammed that at the end of the fifth centuryafter the 
hijra, if the expected Messiah had not by that time made his 
appearance, they would become Moslems. Yusuf proceeded 
to Lucena, a town almost exclusively Jewish, and demanded 
that the Jews should redeem the pledge of their ancestors 
and embrace Islam. There was great consternation in the 
community, and at last the king was bought off by an 
enormous sum, which was really what he aimed at. As illegal 
taxes were done away with, the Jews were made to supply 
the deficiencies in the Moslem treasury. Yet on the whole 
the Jews were left in peace. 

Under the second Almoravide ruler, Ali (1106-1143), Jews 
were entrusted with gathering the poll-tax from Jews and 
Christians, and a few distinguished men rose to eminent 
positions at court. Thus Solomon al-Muallem of Seville 
served as Ali’s court-physician. Another was Abraham son 
of Meir Ibn Kamnial of Saragossa, whom the poets cele- 
brated as ‘his people’s protector, dwelling in Spain, but 
reaching out with his generosity to Babylonia and the land 
of Egypt.’ The poets likewise sang the praises of Abu Ishak 
Ibn Muhajar and of Solomon Ibn Farusal. The latter seems 
to have been in the employ of a Christian prince; he was sent 
on a mission to the court of Murcia. Shortly before the battle 
of Ucles, where the Moslems once more defeated the Chris- 
tians, this princely man was assassinated (1108). The poet 
Judah ha-Levi was just making ready to receive him, on his 


4 zim (jose TaN Mae 325 


iportant heer. we). & inudlatory poem 
WS arrived many Am why: athe turned into a 
Nigh position at y.¢ oa Wide courts was 
Abraham on GP Peg CE -F156) who seems 
| ch rec aegee nel wie exuphh works (all in 
m bey age wlaeeon ethics: 


ology and fight ou, Moat the Messiah 


egprtont ate HSAs th astinine ei os ht ters. Jewish 
Bh cnn well eatablichwe fe me. oad the scholar 

t anid indepwiirieise 6. ope mage of the 

jenitial. mateo i: od api ie kag rivalries 

‘Wt asdgayor and 
Wal: ‘amity. The pene ke was at all 
| Fett {sek personal. 


ose ophy, Bie Tey, spa he nilaaryghers 
i ir interest it hernia rd 4 ED CAE) 
: earning. Prevtd beds’ seve pes A Bi eel 
4 bn Muhajar. wR EPA bi Bat SP apa. we hers 
to write OM Eraiieear: Pa y\: .. $ Srticnan 
ht at Seville, weak Le tes % . fred 
the friend of Siecgy Pix t shahea§ 
son of aeaae tte. wet Bat» 


being Pais hintinian wba 0 Dupes 
cet in or peony st Milorsy ia Brees te 
Me iia CHF THD AAS he eh Rife: nat ud 
ded al-Fast te thy: Sy anos sale coat 
p aah of al: ag wok oh il es: i slibiaid 
“ ah his place afin ’ oa esate Setongte the 
behind him an erie gos: oF hisiige, Th ie true, 

ers of the ireiensge ese Bettie Ag the suc- 


7 the: es au : od Me: Tyde. praine other 
megs iactghen the 
“hy 


. a? Pita ae Maimonides, eX 
ch the mawter o-ucle pon tbe father wor iat 


Wtabnedical en i ‘ype WS hand at 


ag aonnd pig aa ae eenesemorated 


La a 
= He ae ei 
4 \ a t pie 
ry ia 2 
ey 


waa | * Ab-PAST AD HIS St ¥ 
od AaRvEES. it was rion a dangero 
parva and fart ‘ab war TOTS}: bu ; 
be gad rathey it ak camel-driver, inf 
herd in facto, The <, hristians ver 


gee 


beni Lie Secpt ht cere, the “bristian 
lows fuuglst aide, by ede with then 
Mien A en vepacte themselve 


4 hey OTe Set keds ail the petty mona 
Snain » pretreat tive Aficen em 
teachers of neigion} hed full away, 4 
| Ses vertfarest, sis atly, A-Cort 
with che dtorery of 2a? ‘aditiola 
Mohatame? thet atthe end of-aam 
bisen, y the Ox pert oct Messiah had OS 
oearanct, They Wie id bec ‘one M 
oy Lcetin, tO abeaost vexchusi 
that the jews should redeent ¢hi 
and. embeace islam. “a wre Was 
COU uate L last the ‘A 
STLOTIAUS SAME, peer h was realhes 
fares WET? die Awray wit h, the ti 
the deficrencieacin the Mosivam 4 
the Jews were teit in peace, “ach 

Under the second Almoravades 
were entrusted pith gathering £ 
Christians, and a few. distingn 
positions at court. Thus Solon 
served as Ali's court-physictan. 2 
of Meir oe Kamnial of Saragose 
brated as ‘his people's, protectot at 
reaching out with his generosity 
of Egypt.’ The poets likewise sang 
Ibn Muhajar and‘of Salomon Thm, 
to have been in the employ of ae 


tians, this princely man was as 
Judah ha-Levi was just -making: 


1077-1141] JOSEPH IBN MEGAS 325 


return from his important mission, with a laudatory poem 
when the sad news arrived and the song was turned into a 
lament. A high position at one of the Moslem courts was 
also held by Abraham son of Hiya (1065-1136) who seems 
to have been chief of police. He wrote several works (all in 
Hebrew) on mathematics and astronomy, but also on ethics; 
he believed in astrology and figured out that the Messiah 
would. appear in 1358. | 

The period was rich in eminent men of letters. Jewish 
learning had been well established in Spain and the scholar 
was self-sufficient and independent of the patronage of the 
wealthy and influential. Moreover, the contentious rivalries 
of.the previous age had given place to unity of endeavor and 
a spirit of mutual amity. The Spanish scholar was at all 
times many-sided; he was a balanced, harmonious personal- 
ity. The rabbi and talmudical student tried his hand at 
poetry or philosophy, and the poets and philosophers 
blended with their interest in human culture a deep concern 
for strictly Jewish learning. Prominent disciples of al-Fasi 
were David Ibn Muhajar, associate rabbi at Granada, who 
found leisure to write on grammar; Eleazar son of Nahman 
Ibn Azhar, rabbi at Seville, wealthy, highly reputed, and 
poetically gifted, the friend of Moses Ibn Ezra and Judah 
ha-Levi; Baruch son of Isaac Ibn al-Balia of Cordova (1077— 
1124), who raised many disciples, the one who acquired most 
lasting fame being the historian Abraham Ibn Daud (p. 332). 

Surpassing all these in talmudical learning was Joseph son 
of Meir Ibn Megas ha-Levi (1077-1141), who at the age of 
twenty-six succeeded al-Fasi in the rabbinate of Lucena. 
It was the express wish of al-Fasi that this distinguished 
disciple should fill his place after his death, although the 
master left behind him an erudite son of his own. It is true, 
certain members of the community demurred at the suc- 
cession, but Joseph won, and the victory was commemorated 
by Judah ha-Levi; the poet devoted to his praise other 
poems besides. Of the large number of Joseph’s disciples the 
best known is Maimun, the father of Maimonides. The 
impression which the master made upon the father was put 


326 AL-FASI AND HIS SCHOOL [1139 


by the son in these words: ‘The talmudical learning of this 
man amazes every one who understands his words and the 
depth of his speculative spirit; so that it may almost be said 
of him that his equal has never existed.’ 

To the genre of essayistic literature, known as ‘culture’ 
(adab), belongs the treatise in Arabic, entitled “Causeries 
and Notes,’ a sort of Hebrew ‘Ars Poetica,’ quite unique in 
Jewish literature. The author, Moses son of Jacob Ibn Ezra 
(died about 1139), was the most distinguished of four gifted 
brothers, of aristocratic birth, wealthy, cultured. Their 
father had held office under the Nagid at Granada. Moses 
was taught by his eldest brother Isaac and also sat at the 
feet of ibn Ghayyath at Lucena. He fell in love with his 
niece, and though the affection was reciprocated, the father 
gave her in marriage to another uncle. Disconsolate, 
Moses left his home at Granada and wandered to Portugal 
and Castile. Here he sang of the pain of his own unrealized 
love. But he had also his more cheerful moods. The beauty 
of nature evoked many a lovely stanza. Thenumerous friend- 
ships which he made were celebrated in eulogistic poems. 
He recognized early the poetic greatness of his contemporary 
Judah ha-Levi, and no spirit of envy marred the relations of 
these two poets. Moses wrote more than three hundred 
Hebrew poems on all sorts of secular occasions and approxi- 
mately two hundred liturgical pieces which have’ spread. 
through all the Jewries under Arab dominion. Together with 
Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-Levi, the singer ‘pure and fault- 
lessly true,’ Moses Ibn Ezra was reckoned among the three 
‘fathers of song, whese sun rose in the west.’ 


JUD. 5 HALLE A AND ABRAHAM UN BZRA 
ie aie (1086. ue) 


ae at aa it pt witial @ eh-Pasi, 
al-Balia. By profession a physiciat, he found 
m poetry He won early the achnaaen of 


are and iiod was of bition ae Ar Cor- 


re Ja ations with the celebrities of the age. He sang 
; uice which his lips Gratned until his friends 
awine-bibber ; of love emikiniied at the sight 
i graceful as a doe; of Miendivhin : of the spring 
e earth with golden beds aod causing the flowers 
Nor like a blushing maiden vat at the touch of 
p iit the elemental fury o! a sea-storm making 
Ss like a drunken man. The beauties of nature 
is Occasions in his own life or in the life ef his 
d-his harp; with his were he gladdened the 
why wed; the elevation « a friend to a sat of 
ortec him with : joy, just as the death ofa Sewing 
ed tones of tender sadiexs. ‘ 
ted in the Toral: and the duties it ineradeeiect : 
‘the synagogue he enriched with hetiineds of 
‘songs of prayer aud penitence vie with the 
pth of emotion and loftiness of divtice. He is 
é kesman of the htumnan soul before ita Maker and 
Jewish community before the God of lersel. How he 
his people, driven fo and fre, a prey to the fury 
ecutor. How he dwells incessantly on the longing: 
Jew for the end to the provracted exile. Proudly he 


327 


had for his schooimates Joseph Iba Mezas , 


ihysician-poet spent the greater gark vf his 
O ie ed by a circie of friends: thence also he: 


. 4 4 > : Bs 
re a ; 
Fs : L-FASIT AND 
‘ a 
; ; “Ty 
ite , £ae < wh eer. e 
; 
os ‘ > ; & Wities i 
a ee ae, ee sw yuLY Ati A ak 
he i , e 
, 5 eta iy MLA TESS SIT. 
4 a ¥ 
: t len chat his ecpual has ne vt exieta 
x ie the mre OF €ssayisnc 
: 4 
F Pi i> * . ‘ ‘. ats 1} 
» 4% wi F » 
¥ : pint i: WF, eight 
vee | : i @2enrew 
a ae > ea ry 
Tesi erature, 1 ie antnor, 
tot abot 1149), wee the Most disti 
‘ ' + 
brothers, of arstocratic | arth, 4 


oa was tancht by hie eldest beother _ 


4 - f i 2 . a oo t Na 
mtney G2) BO Cae. BI : Babs 


feet oo fi xt ayyath atl k, ces 
4 4 
Tht , * righ ; 
: post er tr 


{ hee ’ +) 4 7 res 
< + a +s +f ae 
Se 
ay — P 
; 
¥ a ‘ i ” ‘ 
, , v4 


P $ ) 7 . 
iove. Bul Ae NHacd.aiso Ms raore 4 %e 


of nature evoked many & love ly $ 


ships which he madé were celebt 
ve ide ‘koe th. é d arty eh re th etic gre: 
i: BR ek eee 
: - Judah ha-Levi, qn} no spirit ‘oe 


‘fathers of SOF, pie Sin vehi yf 


CHAPTER XLVIII 
JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA 
(1086-1167) 


UDAH son of Samuel ha-Levi was born at Toledo about 
J 1086 and educated at Lucena in the school of al-Fasi, 

where he had for his schoolmates Joseph Ibn Megas 
and Baruch Ibn al-Balia. By profession a physician, he found 
his vocation in poetry. He won early the admiration of 
Moses Ibn Ezra who was charmed by the beauty of Judah’s 
verse, whose ‘warp and woof was of silken speech.’ At Cor- 
dova, where the physician-poet spent the greater part of his 
life, he was surrounded by a circle of friends; thence also he 
entered into relations with the celebrities of the age. He sang 
of the sweet juice which his lips drained until his friends 
thought him a wine-bibber; of love enkindled at the sight 
of a maiden graceful as a doe; of friendship; of the spring 
covering the earth with golden beds and causing the flowers 
to change color like a blushing maiden rapt at the touch of 
her lover’s lips; of the elemental fury of a sea-storm making 
the craft to toss like a drunken man. The beauties of nature 
and the joyous occasions in his own life or in the life of his 
friends stirred his harp; with his verse he gladdened the 
hearts of the newly wed; the elevation of a friend to a seat of 
honor transported him with joy, just as the death of a Jewish 
worthy evoked tones of tender sadness. 

Judah exulted in the Torah and the duties it inculcated; 
the liturgy of the synagogue he enriched with hundreds of 
hymns. His songs of prayer and penitence vie with the 
Psalms in depth of emotion and loftiness of diction. He is 
alike the spokesman of the human soul before its Maker and 
of the Jewish community before the God of Israel. How he 
groans with his people, driven to and fro, a prey to the fury 
of the persecutor. How he dwells incessantly on the longing 
of the Jew for the end to the protracted exile. Proudly he 


327 


328 JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA 


glories in the Jew’s resistance to the enticing voice of Chris- 
tianity, in his steadfastness in the face of the insults of 
Ishmael. The singer holds his head high because his people 
will not bend down before the idols made by men. 

This pride was born of the poet’s view concerning the 
worth of Judaism and its peculiar character, which runs like 
a thread through all his verses and which in particular he 
elaborated in his theological work, the ‘Kozari.’ This classical 
defense of Judaism was written in the Arabic tongue. It was 
cast in the form of a dialogue between the king of the 
Chazars, ready to relinquish paganism, and the Jewish 
teacher, whom he summons because of his dissatisfaction 
with unemotional philosophy and upon the discovery that 
both Christians and Mohammedans rest their appeal ulti- 
mately upon the Jewish Scriptures. This disdain of philo- 
sophy Judah ha-Levi shared with his age, which, as exem- 
plified in Ghazali, had grown sceptical of rationalism and 
recoiled to mystic absorption in the Deity. 

Judah ha-Levi, however, was far from being a mystic. 
Having broken with Greek wisdom, ‘which has no fruit, but 
only flowers,’ which leads men astray on devious paths away 
from the main road, he, quite realistically, envisaged Juda- 
ism as a revealed religion, its evidence resting in the histor- 
ical fact of the concourse at the foot of Sinai. There Israel, 
howbeit only for a moment, saw God and heard His voice, 
by virtue of the prophetic exaltation which was the natural 
endowment of the seed of Abraham, feebly realized pre- 
viously in Adam and Noah and Shem. This prophetic gift 
was an abiding motive force in the formative period of the 
nation through biblical times. In each prophet it was the 
spark from the fire which burned in the nation’s soul, the 
innate power of the race brought to reality. 

The election of Israel is with the poet- lilseea hie the 
cardinal dogma of Judaism. It was a second creation, as 
miraculous as the first when God created heaven and earth. 
By a process of selection He fashioned Israel as the instru- 
ment for working out His world plan to be consummated 
in Messianic times. What of the present-day ignoble con- 


Tap ‘Kozan’ 329 


wom takes ro nen! ehastisement 


i Breovery the lars SICTANS die in Salado 
y he comes to life again. 

Me of the exile; like Fzekicl, fuxts> ha-Levi 
al resurrection; like Isaigh the ade of Amoz, 
“once more like Ezekiel, he bellenes in the 
and the national restoration te the Holy 
mind of Moses; the election «# terael is 
he election of the tard. «incited eutt by tood, 
‘glory dwelt aforetinws, and where He will 


mney ts pes iaaeniighesronen 


scat besiple to the — vt restoration on 
for it daily, yet are Kish be ech iad their 
& The teacher bar shtatmeormwAves to exper 
{settle in ae amnesty) fois. 
sf, Immediately 

fot the cea, : ise pine ready ta filid 

: uttered through the woiech of thee fewish 
. ng, mushed for 2 tree; as atce mere ay Hits 
frdien, reiterated with jeic: Varain, wasn 
Zion. In those stirring daxn. whem th: Latin 
wrested the Holy Lami rooms the Fatiite 
wi p at home . hstets ict 4 eile wee (omurine 
etMohammedan kagelom. Juwiek GeLen 
‘of the downfali .( {atmart. wham he 


it on to anticipate “+ resterabion Gi the 
is ancient cult of aacrifiew ood grajwe. Mis heart 
fj though his bode oan the wtiermost west. 
pay his vows, «hey: 2m wer hele in the iron 
jan Edom and wre AP te the fetters of Arab- 
lalusta? The weiti of ali Spatn he would 
ith, only to behor? with his eyes the dust of 


| people? Israel is the sefiering Servant - 


the fourth beast we the oeheer “f Daniel.’ 


lories in the Jew's resistanie t9 ee 

iene, in his ste di ae tress ith the 

. tahinacl. The «ever holds his head? 

; witli nat bend dewn -hedore te idols j 

1% wrisec Wes bear of the pa . 

wenth of fuciawent ane es pe? aliar 
y tepeud theough ail hia VErRed. 


Inhwrated 14 his theological wortky 
ieee of fuchadn was witha 
ast tthe form ve e dialogue 
‘hwo, beady 26 neha: 
teaches, viene Tp seine ILS. he 


anth aromotesal ohitiesophy aii 


em 4 miner ing 
. The pee wes: wernt ie 


Sy | Pa 7 un hie Pa ‘esarials Os 
ptah he Lard share 


Fisch ahi teed oh ge eEmever, wast 
i in he yee BPE {reek wis¢ 
1. Speco. whook deads en 
pate fe dein rod: ie, quite: a 
ue » eewnniod cohvion, its eel 


wc oone Poe & ceonerity saw bs 

sey here ok Oe prophetic e exalts t 
dlassncat af the seed of Albeah 
coast) in Acus end: Noak and. 


y 


fwliow thowegh biblical times 


« nlecton of f ae a ab. 


Oy pt 2p She's Ys « at 
Stal EELS Ss De TEES 


-- 
oe 
—, 
a 
=~ 
_ 
ne 
> 
7% 
” 
at 
a 
= 
a 
~« 


* erciog os Ue a 
in Mesmanic tloves. What of thes 


THE ‘KOZARI’ 329 


dition of the Jewish people? Israel is the suffering Servant 
of the Lord, who willingly takes upon himself chastisement 
that through him the world may be healed. Israel is the very 
heart of human kind—like the heart in the body, feeling pain 
most keenly, and most robust in health. Israel, to-day, is like 
a sick man, of whose recovery the physicians are in despair; 
but as by a miracle, he comes to life again. 

Like the prophet of the exile, like Ezekiel, Judah ha-Levi 
looks for national resurrection; like Isaiah the son of Amoz, 
like Jeremiah, and once more like Ezekiel, he believes in the 
eternity of Israel and the national restoration to the Holy 
Land. As in the mind of Moses, the election of Israel is 
bound up with the election of the land, singled out by God, 
where alone His glory dwelt aforetimes, and where He will 
reveal Himself anew to a prophet or to the whole people. 
The Chazar king taunts the Jewish teacher with the lip 
devotion of the Jewish people to the future restoration on 
Zion. They pray for it daily, yet are loath to relinquish their 
possessions in exile. The teacher in shame resolves to expa- 
triate himself and settle in the ancestral home. 

Judah ha-Levi practised what he preached. Immediately 
upon his completion of the ‘Kozari,’ he made ready to fulfil 
the vow he had uttered through the mouth of the Jewish 
teacher. The song, hushed for a time, was once more on his 
lip, and the burden, reiterated with infinite variation, was 
the longing for Zion. In those stirring days, when the Latin 
Kingdom had wrested the Holy Land from the Fatimite 
Moslems and when at home Christian Castile was bearing 
down upon the Mohammedan kingdom, Judah ha-Levi 
dreamt the vision of the downfall of Ishmael, whom he 
identified with the fourth beast in the prophecy of Daniel. 
His dream went on to anticipate the restoration of the 
Temple with its ancient cult of sacrifice and praise. His heart 
was in the east, though his body was in the uttermost west. 
How was he to pay his vows, when Zion was held in the iron 
grasp of Christian Edom and himself in the fetters of Arab- 
speaking Andalusia? The wealth of all Spain he would 
readily part with, only to behold with his eyes the dust of 


330 JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA (1141 


the sanctuary laid waste. Would that he had the wings of a 
dove, that he might fly, leave behind north and south and 
inhale the air of Zion! | 

At last (about 1141) he set out for his journey. His passage 
through Spain was like a triumphal procession. Cordova 
and Granada vied with each other to speed him on his 
travels with presents and laudatory poems. With ample 
means of his own, and in the company of faithful friends, 
he embarked for Egypt. It was a stormy voyage, but though 
the sea raged, his soul within him exulted at the prospect of 
drawing near unto the sanctuary of God. Finally he set foot 
in Alexandria, resolved to tarry but a short time. But at the 
importunate invitation of the chief rabbi and physician 
Aaron Benzion Ibn Alamani, a wealthy man and a composer 
of liturgical hymns, he stayed on for three months, enjoying 
unlimited hospitality and recovering his health. He tore 
himself away at last and reached the port of Damietta, 
where he found his friend Abu Said son of Halfon ha-Levi, 
whom he had known of and esteemed at a distance. 

Again the journey was interrupted, for an invitation 
awaited him from the Jewish Nagid at Fustat, Samuel son of 
Hananiah Abu Manzur, to visit him. With much reluctance 
the poet yielded. He was charmed with the Nagid and his 
household, and he made a friend of the principal of the 
Fustat college, Nathan son of Samuel. Equipped with letters 
of introduction—he would accept nothing else, and what 
hospitality he received he paid back with glowing verses— 
he once more found himself in Damietta. Though entreated 
to abide in Egypt, the erstwhile home of Israel and the scene 
of the first redemption, he begged to be permitted to go to 
his Master, that he might lodge where his fathers once 
lodged, fearful lest peradventure an untoward incident 
should befall him. The untoward incident did befall him; 
so at least according to the legend which narrates that, as he 
was pouring out his soul in stirring verses before the Temple 
mount, he was trodden under foot and stabbed to death by 
an Arab horseman. The same legend locates his burial place 
in the Holy Land. 


: by ‘THE ‘ZIONIDE’ aS) 331 

10 he found his test in the sacred soil— 
, Saddened hy tie sight of Christian 
red forth to Type and Damascus—his 
ing elegy known as the ‘Zionide’ 


d = ihe hills of the Holy tnd, the 
es and dust he woul fondly cherish, 
pss. to walk barelow aver the wastes 


and of his fathers, he rive eo the heger that. 
bof the idols will diesel Pat ee envy 


© concludes, is he that wei wait aa the 
er 1 the light will once more see on Fine and 
x, when the elect people ws. exult te the joy 
te her youthful state. Jai). ha-Lewi gave 
a ion to the deepest hope: of has pebrie, just 
ol his time and unique in fio entire Hiewory of 
1 Bib € times, he penetrates ince the imeer core 
prepared an understand it: ol 1 whirl calied 
nr faithfulness even umn death. As if 
, seeing the calamity the: ultimately befell 
| , he pointed the way %} Cdgitmatration 
. it soil. | . 
oravides, j enfeebled by enjoytm mnt and ceanpletely 
cae crhows by an imelrreotiay in Africa, 
n This former pupil of the myatic G Shazali 
mie the Mahdi, the ©:+t-appéinted religious 
ded the sect of the Aiswhades holding to a 
ion of the Unity of God (tawhid). In a brief 
mohades mace. themselves masters of the Mos- 
ons, to the south and ts the north of the Straits 
ar. Morocco fell into’ their hands in 1146. The Jews 


Lt vat 


oe “ es of Israel te oxic day te recited on. | 
di; y commemorati« Pog the destruction 


BAL. a vt AND 


Hit mater Pe ee we. macs: 
Gite, ther De eg k We, leave be 


ale 


ad eegte- eat PhS a heb : 
be a ats howe 
yice ewes EM Hhke i DDE 


trate wot: sores iN has 
ber irs udr kent Sor Age , wae a 
ie ta Tage fis nea witha 


Y eaeyoeyl hve, Be ig! me! ca 
ebtisi rig tact hemp italy ead ) 
hiswmd waney af leat tered ieee 
where he iogad hip iden Ae 
it be aud Recart of and este 
Aguic the doereey wee at 


- 


startin dae tren the Jewish Nagi 
laratiak Ane Alen Lene, &o wisit 

the poet vopidel, Me qee chagt 

Ses! ge is se “it a" Athan DO af ces 


surah Ais ele —— 


¥ 
te, 
% 


6 abide im Tune; the seria Ng 
| Fabs cecemmption, he begged 
hia Master. that he might lodge: 
lodged, dearful lest peradveritene 
should befall bim. The untoward i 
#0 at least according to thé legend ¥ 
fas pouring out his soul in stirring: 
leah he was t meine under foot. 


a 
mn 
jee 
ee 
+S 
ais 


int the Hat ER 


1146] THE ‘ZIONIDE’ 331 


But whether or not he found his rest in the sacred soil— 
it seems rather that, saddened by the sight of Christian 
occupation, he wandered forth to Tyre and Damascus—his 
swansong was the crowning elegy known as the ‘Zionide’ 
which through the confines of Israel to this day is recited on 
the ninth of Ab, the day commemorative of the destruction 
of the Temple. The poet sends to Zion the greetings of the 
captive nation and of himself, held captive by longing, pour- 
ing forth his tears like the dew of Hermon. He yearns that 
his tears may descend upon the hills of the Holy Land, the 
land whose very stones and dust he would fondly cherish, 
where it were sweetness to walk barefoot over the wastes 
that were once the sanctuary of God and whose very air is 
the breath of life. Saddened at the sight of the hardships of 
the Jew in the land of his fathers, he rises to the hope that 
all the kingdoms of the idols will pass away, but that Zion, 
the elect seat of the divine Glory, will outlast them all. 
Happy, the singer concludes, is he that will wait until the 
time comes when the light will once more arise on Zion and 
her dawn break, when the elect people will exult in the joy 
of Zion restored to her youthful state. Judah ha-Levi gave 
immortal expression to the deepest hope of his people, just 
as, far ahead of his time and unique in the entire history of 
the Jews since Bible times, he penetrated into the inner core 
of Judaism and prepared an understanding of it which called 
for steadfastness and faithfulness even unto death. As if 
prophetically foreseeing the calamity that ultimately befell 
the Spanish center, he pointed the way to concentration 
upon the ancient soil. 

The Almoravides, enfeebled by enjoyment and completely 
demoralized, were overthrown by an insurrection in Africa, 
led by Ibn Tumart. This former pupil of the mystic Ghazali 
gave himself out for the Mahdi, the God-appointed religious 
leader, and founded the sect of the Almohades holding to a 
strict conception of the Unity of God (tawhid). In a brief 
period the Almohades made themselves masters of the Mos- 
lem possessions, to the south and to the north of the Straits 
of Gibraltar. Morocco fell into their hands in 1146. The Jews 


332 JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA [1148 


were given the choice of emigration or of conversion to 
Islam. Those who chose to remain embraced Mohammedan- 
ism in appearance, but secretly practised their own religion. 
Men like Judah ha-Cohen Ibn Shoshan of Fez, who would 
not yield, died as martyrs. 

The same fate befell the Jews in Spain when in 1148 Cor- 
dova, and a year later the whole of Andalusia, was con- 
quered by the fanatical Almohades. The Jewish seats of 
learning at Seville and Lucena were closed. Many Jews made 
a pretense of accepting Islam; others, like Meir, the son and 
successor of Ibn Megas, fled to Christian Toledo, where the 
emperor Alphonso VII. (1126-1157) granted them a refuge. 
Henceforth the Christian capital grew to be an important 
center of Jewish activity and learning. Alphonso availed 
himself of the services of Judah Ibn Ezra, a nephew of the 
poet Moses. The Jewish favorite was appointed governor of 
Calatrava, the frontier fortress between Toledo and Cor- 
dova, and later onimperial majordomo. He was given supreme 
jurisdiction over the Jews of Castile with the title of Nasi 
(Prince) ; thanks to his efforts, his coreligionists who fled from 
the fanatical Almohades were able to secure a foothold in 
the territory of his Christian master. A school for the study 
of the Talmud, under the headship of Mew Ibn Megas, was 
opened in Toledo. 

Two eminent scholars in Toledo, quite disparate in expe- 
riences and theoretical views, shed lustre on that age. 
Abraham Ibn Daud (c. 1110-1180), the younger of the two, 
is best known as a historian. His concise chronicle, “The 
Order of Tradition,’ was principally directed against the 
Karaites; it furnishes valuable information on the Spanish 
period. He also wrote a philosophical work, “The Sublime 
Faith.’ The fame of Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092-1167) rests 
mainly on his grammatical and exegetical labors. He was 
also a poet of no mean distinction, and his hymns found a 
place in the liturgy of the synagogue. As a philosopher, he 
inclined to Neo-Platonic speculations. He was a many-sided 
man, roving over divers fields of knowledge, even as in his 
restlessness he encompassed many lands. 


SRATIONALISTIC EXEGHSIS 333 


i would never set: Wherever he set foot, lie 
sple by his learning. anc his actwnen. He pro- 
Hmipression' which in seane locatitiew was kept 
long after his death. Fiverywhere he made 
ved encouragement from wealthy patrons. | 

, Or for the benefit of such pupils a& he cared 
jared in literary activity At Remwe, in 1140, 
y grammar and commeasiaries onthe Five 
0k of Job. At Lucca, im 1145, be wlohe a 
. ee against the exita:ioms of Dunash 
nmentary on Isaiah ati or a part of the 
bpeiiie year, at Manis, i sects ae 
| work; at Béziers, i i : Me he wrote on- 
. The next vears fow? Yo at Dreux im 
h commeritaries on Lyanet, oe » Twelve 
, and the remainder of the A entateuch, In 
he wrote a theological work, “The Founde- 
his ‘Epistle on the cikaih b.’ Once misee ta 
e he came i in contact, with the two besthers. 
| | Samuel (p. 364), grandsons of Kivi tis 
h iyeradpa an pappecttieas wea fe: Re, 


, 


n vere were written in Hehiats ike 
x m | Hebrew Perr ~ , for ee P pan 


vec phat a, Toles obs me our was 
derstanding af Holy: a; ~ Se xX 
fide especially fhe Janah, on 


e 


iat 


onde > 


FI i ee oS 
yer gene ii che ie of Hriugrat 
. x 
Pome who chose to pean eae 


gem aepenrance, but secretly pra 

os ; oy = 
th gan tebe: paar ha-Cohen Ton “Sit 
Hi = Sh tF gitect a mart ‘ iy cer 


v4, aod a year . faner: ihe pes 


daunted Uy the fanatical iN: 
ean at — ain Lucena % 
itenaue of accepting slams 

mroeacror ff Thin Megas, fled bat 


Fah ee {inkwaso WH, (1126-42 
teoeetert the Christan capital: 


Pp tos t 
sf 7 ‘ ~% * 

+ : £ ey : 

TREE AwEA : 4. ec Cea Mt ; udah 

poet Kiewen. The lewis faved 


Calatrave, the froiter foraniad 
dova, and tater animpert alenake 
jarisdiction over the Jews 
i Prince), thanks to hiseffortay 
the fanatical Almohades wer 
the territory of his ‘Che isthe rn 
opened in Toledo, . 

‘wo ernivent scholars in Tal 
riences and theoretical 
Abraham Pon Daud: (c. 1119 

best known as a historiany | 
Order af Tradition, was pring 
Waraites} it Peplase: ane valuable 
period. He also wrote. a phy 
Faith.” The fame of Abraham 
mainty on his granymatical am 
also a poet of no meat distine 
place in the liturgy of the sviy 
inclined to Neo-Platonie specula 
man, roving over divers feldg 


| 
J 
} 
; 
5 
: 
. 
; 


bn . —_ 


1160] RATIONALISTIC EXEGESIS 333 


Ibn Ezra was not encumbered with worldly possessions; 
he was very poor. Wit that he was, he said of himself that 
were he to deal in shrouds none would die, and were he to 
sell candles the sun would never set. Wherever he set foot, he 
astounded the people by his learning and his acumen. He pro- 
duced a profound impression which in some localities was kept 
in remembrance long after his death. Everywhere he made 
friends and received encouragement from wealthy patrons. 
To please these, or for the benefit of such pupils as he cared 
to take, he engaged in literary activity. At Rome, in 1140, 
he wrote a Hebrew grammar and commentaries on the Five 
Scrolls and the Book of Job. At Lucca, in 1145, he wrote a 
defense of the Gaon Saadiah against the criticisms of Dunash 
Ibn Labrat, a commentary on Isaiah and on a part of the 
Pentateuch. In the same year, at Mantua, he produced an- 
other grammatical work; at Béziers, in 1155, he wrote on 
the Divine Name. The next years found him at Dreux in 
France busy with commentaries on Daniel, the Twelve 
Prophets, Exodus, and the remainder of the Pentateuch. In 
London, in 1158, he wrote a theological work, ‘The Founda- 
tion of Fear,’ and his ‘Epistle on the Sabbath.’ Once more in 
northern France he came in contact with the two brothers, 
Jacob (Tam) and Samuel (p. 364), grandsons of Rashi. In 
1160, at Narbonne, he translated an astronomical work from 
the Arabic. 

All the works of Ibn Ezra were written in Hebrew; it may 
be said that he created Hebrew prose style for scientific pur- 
poses. To the Jews north of the Pyrenees he brought the 
sum of the lore of his native country. He was a thorough 
rationalist and believed that a knowledge of grammar was 
indispensable for an understanding of Holy Writ. He ex- 
cerpted his predecessors freely, especially Ibn Janah, on 
whom he was unduly severe for his pointing out corrupt 
readings in the received form of the Scriptural text. He 
had freer notions himself as to the exilic origin of the 
Second Isaiah (an opinion, as he tells us, advanced by 
Moses Ibn Chiquitilla) and the post-Mosaic date of pas- 


334 JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA [1214 


sages in the Pentateuch. These views he presented guardedly, 
almost enigmatically. | 

His exposition of the Scriptures, stimulating throughout, 
scintillating with keen wit, was prized by the scholars ever 
after. It remains to this day a source which students of the 
Bible resort to for useful information and many a telling 
hint. As if overcome with longing for his native home, the 
wanderer breathed his last at Calahorra, on the boundary 
between Navarre and Old Castile. On his death-bed he is 
said to have applied to himself the Scriptural verse (Genesis 
12, 4): ‘And Abraham was seventy and five years old when 
he departed out of the world’s wrath (haron for haran, 
Haran).’ 

With the center of Jewish life shifted northward, Jewish 
communities were spread over the five Christian kingdoms: 
Castile, Leon, Aragon, Portugal, and Navarre. The out- 
standing community, counting more than twelve thousand 
members, was in Toledo. It boasted of several magnificent 
synagogues. Many of its Jews were men of wealth and cul- 
ture. They were also distinguished by bravery and were 
accustomed to the use of weapons; the Jewish youth cul- 
tivated the art of fencing and gave themselves a knightly 
appearance. Alphonso VIII. (1158-1214) employed gifted 
Jews in the service of the state. Two men stood in partic- 
ularly high favor at the court of this king (it is narrated that 
he had a love affair with a beautiful Jewish maiden, Rachel, 
also called Formosa): Joseph son of Solomon Ibn Shoshan 
and Abraham Ibn al-Fakhar, the latter of whom was en- 
trusted with a diplomatic mission to the court of the Almo- 
hade prince at Morocco. Both were looked up to by their 
coreligionists; they were lavish in erecting houses of worship 
and, being scholarly men themselves, in patronizing poor 
scholars. : 

Despite the activity of Meir Ibn Megas and his namesake 
cousin, the Toledans did not take to the study of the Tal- 
mud. Philosophic speculation and playing at poetry was 
more to the liking of these intellectuals. Judah son of Solomon 
al-Harizi (died about 1230) was a much traveled man and 


, ie Le ae 
Ty 


Bi er ASD TUDELA oe. 


n a romance modeied nites the famous work 
1oOreov e sarin. translating into Hebrew). 


1 hee weighty aie tien are aiensind: with 
vk skill. One of the Logeah i eesti in 


Castile shared the vicissitucss of Desisiuis's 
the Almohades. Whee . ee the i-fated 
1195). the king shut dew up in his 
ee with the C saat pha ue fois 


ms across ota ren ra re nce thei 
thie territory. In this Carey » the meet 
y Bible. manuscript of $ pals. which went 
lleli and served asa eutnad ard ior copyisis, 
's harids (1197). The Jews of Aragon foryend? 
Alphonso IT. (1162-1196), himiself a patews 
olars. The capital Saragossa had long tees 
tri ing Jewish community. At this tee: 
Barcelona, which, pene of its idlieath 
e sea, tended to attract mat of enters ai in 
ar tits. At the head of the " Beniiaaes: Le 
rincely men of high station, sta? Saecheth 
bin 1195). A prince @ ocean? a physi- 


* 


land like Ibn Naghdelah was the anaes and 
fish scholars. - 


a, he was employed in « {iplormatie eervices . 


- of Tudela, a small town om the Ebro, the 


yw oan a F * By sage ais oe af 
ie ee ae ew yt SN ety pan eee eg se, 


334 JUDAH BA-LEVE AND ABRABS 


wages inthe Pentateuch. ‘These views h 
ainioet enigmatically ie 
His expositi nah & ine Scriptures, s 
apetivating with keen wit, was pri 
alter Et renwal ins bo this | day a sour 
Mile resort to for useful informag 
hint. As if overcome with ‘orgie ‘0 
wanderer breathed bis last at (al 
between Navarre and Old Castiie. 
said to have apphed te himself, the = 
12, 4): ‘And Abrahan? was seventy 

he depat tefl out of the world's 
biar an). 
With the center of Jewish life. A 
communities were spread: over the 
Castile, Leon, Aragon, Portage 
standing community, counting ® 
members, was in Toledo. It Bas 
synagogties. Many: of its Jews 
ture. They were also disting 
accustomed to the use of yee 
tivated the art of fencing and 
appearance, Alphonse VIL? 
Jews in the service of the states 
ularly high faver at the court of 
he had a love affair with a beauwtit 
also called Formosa): Joseph son 
and Abraham Ibn al-Fakhar, the ligee 
trusted with a diplomatic mission® t . 
hade prince at Mordeco. Both’ 
coreligionists: they were te 
and, being se holarly men. thet 


a a 
SO rOars. 


oy. 


cousin, the Toledans did not take. 

mud. Phitos Op shi: speciiatibel siete 
more to the kking of these intellectu 
al-Harizi (died about 1230) wens 


1210] BARCELONA AND TUDELA 335 


given to observation of men and manners. He gathered up 
his experiences in a romance, modeled after the famous work 
of Hariri (which, moreover, Harizi translated into Hebrew). 
In rhymed prose, interspersed with measured verses, the 
most trivial and the most weighty matters are discussed with 
astounding stylistic skill. One of the poems is composed in 
three languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic. The whole 
of the “Tahkemoni’—‘Wise Instructor’—was meant to enter- 
tain rather than to instruct. Nevertheless the author evinces 
much critical judgment in appraising the Hebrew poets of 
Spain. 

The Jews of Castile shared the vicissitudes of Alphonso’s 
campaigns against the Almohades. When after the ill-fated 
battle of Alarcos (1195) the king shut himself up in his 
capital, the Jews vied with the Christian citizens in™stub- 
bornly defending the city. The enemy at length retreated 
before the combined onslaught of Castile and Aragon. The 
allied armies, marching across the kingdom of Leon, did 
much damage to this territory. In this campaign the most 
celebrated Hebrew Bible manuscript of Spain, which went 
by the name of Hilleli and served as a standard for copyists, 
fell into the enemy’s hands (1197). The Jews of Aragon fared 
well under King Alphonso II. (1162-1196), himself a patron 
of poets and scholars. The capital Saragossa had long been 
the seat of a flourishing Jewish community. At this time it 
was eclipsed by Barcelona, which, because of its favorable 
situation near the sea, tended to attract men of enterprise in 
mercantile pursuits. At the head of the Barcelona com- 
munity, rich in princely men of high station, stood Shesheth 
Benveniste (died in 1195). A prince of princes, a physi- 
cian and statesman, he was employed in diplomatic services 
by his king, and like Ibn Naghdelah was the friend and 
patron of Jewish scholars. 

The community of Tudela, a small town on the Ebro, the 
possession of which was contested by Aragon and Navarre 
on two occasions, secured for themselves by their manly 
stand parity of treatment with Christians and Moslems. For 
their protection the Jews had a citadel of their own. This 


336 JUDAH HA-LEVI AND ABRAHAM IBN EZRA [1173 


community produced a scholarly traveler, Benjamin son of 
Jonah of Tudela. From 1160 to 1173 he traversed southern 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and his Itinerary is replete with 
interesting statistics and facts bearing not only on Jewish, 
but also on universal history. The small community of 
Gerona on the river Ter in Catalonia was the birthplace 
of several talmudic scholars. Yet none of these communities 
could attain to such eminence of position as had character- 
ized the southern seats of Jewry, like Cordova, Granada, 
Seville, and Lucena, before the Almohade conquest. 


ins ‘CHAPTER XLIX 
_ MOSES MAIMONIDES 
bape 1138-1204) 


yn Of the Jews in Mysiem Sp ait WAS DOW a 
@ one. For the inovt part they accepted 
f appearance sake, aici although im secret 
tacl hed to Judaism, a fruitiul Jewith activity 
estion. The best and staunchest had fier. 
the adjunct rabbi, Maimun, desceried 
ich for eight gener Rese counted devoted 
He was a pupil of Joseph Ibn Megs. 
1 s home, Maimun be k his family to Pez. 
confronted with a growing weariness of the 


) were making Fase to hah over sen hae ede 
. hings of Moses, and the sere inifilawet of 


n met with a Sind reception at ore Sich of 
sea and its cai Jap heth son re E ee 


et Holy City dwelt ne in a Comer below the 


us: alem. When in Ls 7 ’ Sagaiiba the bates 
5 dynasty in Egypt, reconquered Palestine 
s, the Jews reiurned towthe Holy City. 


337 


of Judaism on the part of a number of his. 


himself determined to seck treediom in the 


Gerona on the river Ter ta Ge 


Rete 
* 


336 JUDAR A-LEVE AND ABRA! 


community podaced a scholarly t1 
Jonah of Trnicla, From $160 to (17S 
Europe, Asis, and Alrica, amdist 


interesting statiatics and facts 4 
bat alse on universal hestory | 


of several talmudic scholars) Wet ng 
could atta to such eminence-af 7 
ized the southern seats of Jewry 
Seville, and Lucena, bedore the) 


| 


CHAPTER XLIX 
MOSES MAIMONIDES 


(1135-1204) 


. AHE condition of the Jews in Moslem Spain was now a 
; lamentable one. For the most part they accepted 
. Islam for appearance sake, and although in secret 

they remained attached to Judaism, a fruitful Jewish activity 

was out of the question. The best and staunchest had fled. 
_ Among them was the adjunct rabbi, Maimun, descended 
_ from a family which for eight generations counted devoted 
talmudic scholars. He was a pupil of Joseph Ibn Megas. 
_ Uprooted from his home, Maimun took his family to Fez. 
There he was confronted with a growing weariness of the 
secret practice of Judaism on the part of a number of his 
coreligionists, who were making ready to go over completely 
to Mohammedanism. Maimun sought to sustain them. In a 
consolatory epistle (1160) he urged the faint-hearted to 
hold fast to the belief in the election of Israel, the supreme 
worth of the teachings of Moses, and the sure fulfilment of 
the divine promises. 

Yet Maimun himself determined to seek freedom in the 
East. In 1165 the family landed in Acco, where the emi- 
grants from Spain met with a kind reception at the hands of 
the Jewish community and its rabbi, Japheth son of Elijah. 
The whole of Palestine, which was in Christian hands, 
counted scarcely more than a thousand Jewish families. In 
some localities there lived from one or three to twenty 
families; Tiberias had fifty, and Jerusalem some three hun- 
dred. The Jews of the Holy City dwelt in a corner below the 
Tower of David; the dyeing industry was concentrated in 
their hands. But after a while all but one of these Jews were 
driven out of Jerusalem. When in 1187 Saladin, the founder 
of the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt, reconquered Palestine 
from the Latins, the Jews returned toxthe Holy City. 


37 


338 MOSES MAIMONIDES [1168 


Maimun remained but three days in Jerusalem; one day the 
family spent at Hebron in devotion at the graves of the 
patriarchs; the conditions were altogether unfavorable for 
a permanent settlement in the Holy Land, and so they 
proceeded to Egypt. Maimun died soon after his arrival in 
that country; there his eldest son achieved that fame which 
marked him out as the unquestioned spiritual leader 
of Jewry during his lifetime and as the greatest authority for 
all future ages. 

Moses son of Maimun, or, as he is usually called, Mai- 
monides (Maimuni), belonged to Spain by birth and early 
education. Cordova, where he was born March 30, 1135, in 
our own day has shown itself proud of this distinction by 
naming one of its streets after the Jewish philosopher. Care- 
fully nurtured by his father in talmudical learning, and early 
brought in contact with universal knowledge, he shared the 
vicissitudes of his family. While yet in Spain, at the age of 
three and twenty years, he began work on the ‘Luminary,’ a 
truly illuminating commentary on the Mishnah in Arabic. 
Uninterruptedly he kept at it during the family’s migra- 
tions, laboring under great difficulties, with no adequate 
material at hand; but such was his mastery of the Talmud 
that he could rely on his memory. 

The work was completed in Egypt in 1168. It was the first 
of his masterly productions, distinguished by clear and 
methodical systematization. It was not a running com- 
mentary in the manner of the French schools. The talmudic 
discussions, in so far as they bear on an understanding of the 
Mishnah, are condensed. Often enough the author goes his 
own way independently of the Talmud. The reader is pre- 
pared for what is to come by summary prefatory remarks 
which bring out salient points; larger introductions of a sys- 
tematic character precede the single tractates or Orders. At 
the head of the whole work there is a lengthy introduction, 
in which it is taught that only those statements of law are 
authoritative upon which there is no divergent opinion. 
With particular predilection those points in the Mishnah 
are gone into which partake of a scientific character, and the 


Sy 


THE CREED | 339 


iy enemy, physics, anatomy, ethics, or 


_s t yon the ethical arwet of the Mishnah, ‘The 
the Fate has a pitta ai eight chapters, in 


i y transplanted On Rwisk soil. Maimonides 
De taced that the Her teeieins, the Jewish 
¢, were equally true. 4G ae a igical mind and 


7 vith Ek ploophic! speculatiqus agtguee them a foot- 

essentially leva! normed! me pod ricnal Code. 
| of the tenth chapter in “wadedirs, in which 
ecludes from participatiuwy Si Pie Vee of the 
) certain classes of unbeliewetny pchecee Maj- 


se d d. A denial of any one of these ayers tithe ear t at 


f itself excommunication freak Con Pewsst 
s of these articles have since: tenn gecer- 


pets sole chaien i Sesame * ~ pane 


> Dvevadeiie: a panes ing he iy 
th wick the fertuer # whyent of the 


was that the Gace qsment to ite quntdtnal 


the : ver y statu ec der aetiel. %% ree incl niehagie 
% ont y on Jewish life as tt m.urteoret itself in a multitude 

‘Of religious acts, but om Gorm.’ “ehel as well. 

ation of the. weawiey Creed was directed against 

ical. atheist aoc Uo : philosophical materialist, 

th polythelst and (9. comitarian, against the anti- 

all times wis: ciugh* the abrogation of the Torah, 


ws on his funti.of keowledge, whether it 


A ethics, as undeeeiuewl by the Arab philo- 


‘of view was intellecduaiee. sus he freely 
ity to formulate thirtees wtels of he 
ty and immutability, His Eternity aud Pre- > 


mection of the Ge What as tenia tke 


jammed whe s% himself up as the seal of the 


t 
ri 
* 


SES MAIMONLDERS) 


al 


2 but three days in Je 
Hebron in tev 
onditians were altoget 

Peet wp the Holy at 
“i. Marmun died soon 

rune hes eldest son’ aye 


, (3 whe Lise af pr 
Hy its et saseiuns aft BS ene: 


Sep eee baanty years, a began 


erial at hand: but such was: 


he work wes Con ime edd m1 e : 

his magtenta produc tions, di 
methca lina! watecaatioatl wn. Tt 
inentary in the manner of the Fre 
discussions, in a0 faras they beara 
dishnah, af¢@ @6n densed, Often a 
Own way ck pendently af the 
pared for what i to come by au 
which bring out salient pointes lar 
tematic character precede the singh 
tho head of the whole work there. 
in which itis te ck that only © 
authoritative upon which there 
V4 TP particular predilecti Onl ‘aie 9 


are gone into which partake of a sch 


+ 


| i 
Ae 
lee’ i 
ra 
“ 
x es Nate 
. acy i a 
TUnpemahs Saeticc at ib Fa 
f vt eB a Rene 
: . Me peel 
eat eres 


THE CREED 339 


expounder draws on his fund of knowledge, whether it 
be mathematics, astronomy, physics, anatomy, ethics, or 
philosophy. 

The commentary on the ethical tract of the Mishnah, ‘The 
Sayings of the Fathers,’ has a preface of eight chapters, in 
which Aristotelian ethics, as understood by the Arab philo- 
sophers, is bodily transplanted on Jewish soil. Maimonides 
was thoroughly convinced that the two systems, the Jewish 
and the Greek, were equally true. His was a logical mind and 
his whole point of view was intellectualist. Thus he freely 
operated with philosophical speculations and gave thema foot- 
hold amid the essentially legal norms of the traditional Code. 

The opening of the tenth chapter in Sanhedrin, in which 
the Mishnah excludes from participation in the bliss of the 
world to come certain classes of unbelievers, affords Mai- 
monides an opportunity to formulate thirteen articles of the 
Jewish Creed. A denial of any one of these on the part of 
a Jew carries of itself excommunication from the Jewish 
fold. Summaries of these articles have since been incor- 
porated into the liturgy in the form of verse and prose. They 
affirm the Existence of God, His indivisible Unity, His 
Incorporeality and Immutability, His Eternity and Pre- 
mundane Existence, His sole claim to worship; the inspira- 
tion of the prophets, the supreme and incomparable proph- 
etic inspiration of Moses, the divine origin and immutability 
of the Torah; Divine Providence in rewarding the righteous 
and punishing the wicked; the future advent of the Messiah; 
the future resurrection of the dead. What was new in this 
summary of Judaism was that the tacit assent to its cardinal 
dogmas was now turned into an open avowal upon which 
the very status of a Jew depended. It also placed emphasis 
not only on Jewish life as it manifested itself in a multitude 
of religious acts, but on correct belief as well. 

The formulation of the Jewish Creed was directed against 
‘the philosophical atheist and the philosophical materialist, 
against the polytheist and the trinitarian, against the anti- 
nomians of all times who taught the abrogation of the Torah, 
against Mohammed who set himself up as the seal of the 


340 MOSES MAIMONIDES 


prophets, against a predeterminism which negated freedom 
of the will and made accountability impossible. Lastly, 
again, it aimed to offset Christianity which, in its apocalyp- 
tic beginnings, made of the advent of the Messiah an other- 
worldly event bound up with the resurrection and with the 
inauguration of the future world. The whole of the Creed, 
no matter which of its parts later thinkers accepted or 
rejected as a fundamental belief, commended itself as a sys- 
tematic presentation of Judaism in contrast with the gross 
mythologies of heathendom and the competing systems of 
Christianity and Islam. 

Moslem fanaticism of the Almohade variety in the west, 
which drove Maimonides from Spain and the Maghreb, 
found a repercussion in Yemen, where two partisans of the 
Shiah compelled the Jews to accept Islam under the threat 
of severe punishments. Here again the Jews accommodated 
themselves to a lip-profession of Islam. A Jewish renegade 
appeared preaching to the communities that Mohammed 
was referred to in the Torah and that Islam was a new, 
divinely documented revelation superseding Judaism. More- 
over, a Jewish visionary came forward proclaiming himself 
a precursor of the Messiah and summoning the Jews to make 
ready for the termination of their sufferings by dividing 
their possessions with the poor. 

One of the Yemenite scholars, Jacob al-Fayumi, turned 
for advice to Maimonides, who, in his Epistle to the Yemen- 
ites, reiterated his belief that the root of all the hatred, to 
which the Jews have been exposed at all times, is opposition 
to Judaism, to the Jewish religion, to the Torah. Mohammed 
is so far from being alluded to in the Torah that the Moham- 
medans have charged the Jews with falsifying Scripture and 
excising references to their prophet. The relation of the two 
daughter-religions to the mother-faith, the true revelation 
in the Torah, is like that of a portrait, no matter how well 
executed, to the living person. Maimonides deprecates all 
attempts at ascertaining by calculation the time of redemp- 
tion, although Saadiah had done so. Instead of the redemp- 
tion there had come the Almohade persecution, exactly 


TO TGR SERENE 1S ‘S41 


owet veo snide Vie > Me ‘pbianic hope 
tion in the heart « the sauwest of Jews. 
shedits purpaw. The Yermenite Jews 
peatral faith; rately they remembered 
great leader, who wr! lus influence at the 
_ religivise perks ution stepped. In 
: x they phraserl the ox'teel petition thus: 
a come in your ssooteai get in the lifetiore 
ts.gon of Mainz --u¢ honor heretofore 
to the Babylonian exiter: > 

imonides spreari ath ‘ew all communities 
ms were submitted ww. ler for his authorita- 


5 a 
.. 


wa lity of ascholar, Svein): a man of wealth, 
mption frov ¢h ‘cpemunal tax, Ephvaian's 
ebm im 3477 for advice on a nam- 


mn , and sete eos coped hiss 2 “per 

ography’. ‘As to the kageriance of aetromcany 
deat, that science was his chosen field, and 
who knows the subject and neglects te turn 
fs one of those who ‘vegard vot the work of the 
t have they considered the operation of His 
h 5, 12)..Might a Jew instruct men of other 
Seriptures? Christiess Wy ali means, berause 
‘the pemtieh Scriptures as divinely inspired: 

amedans, because: thes ceny the authority of 
sYIeEW did not prevun’ Maimonides it another 
needing that the Mosl:ms were true monc- 
opution both Jeans and Mohammed fuliifled a 
ving the way for the Messiah who is to come, 
‘through them Jarge parts of humanity have 
| “a unto ‘the knowledge of. God aad moral 


im, the rabbi af Tre, desired todknow 


had , MOAES WAD 


awry, Agent & pvedet ease 
ry a f hy We e 4 Bf : nt WARE , PCCM i 

' ey ape = ‘oA . 
Foo Me ge Seale vale ty Sra 4 eaere 4 


peitndiy: dunt | sh wp cut ‘a 
nareiwsaion «<b Pe hahare world, 
are ee ae parts Bit 
rected o« 6 faieavearal belied! 
MAR: tee seul one “s Bamcre 


lerieriarat-y eae ae 
AL ower FEQeUien a hee 
wie Coos Aibadetscorieen Bee 
pease? | Dep iinet TR Vente, 


fue 


thetaoel ves to a Biperpheeiigny 
ack 4 Tey the C 


was PENT VRS ee the Toral 


“ 
—_ 
ow 
a 
nat 


etiscye 
3 
rena 
Se 
Me 
< 
v 
ve 


. prevurtor nf the Messiah and 
ready for ihe Gehan ratlan: Fe 
thet posession. with the peor 

One af the Venmnite s¢ 
fore xh pin to Matnionides, who; 
ites, reiterated his belief that: 

1 wae Jews bave been agp 
0 Juda io the Tewish religi 
is sO far irom being a budded toad 
medans have chareed the Jews'$ 
excising references te their prap 
daughter-religions ‘to the mot 
in the Torah, is ike thetof ae 
executed, ‘to the living person. 
VU PES AL Ase certai ning” by calc 
tion, although Saadiah had done : 
tion there had some. thé Ahmiohs 


1177] EPISTLE TO THE YEMENITE JEWS 341 


as the Jews of Persia had suffered through the pseudo- 
Messianic movements at the beginning of Moslem dominion. 

Nevertheless Maimonides could not forbear to point to 
a tradition in his family that the year 1216 would be the 
Messianic year; so deeply rooted was the Messianic hope 
of ultimate restoration in the heart of the sanest of Jews. 
The Epistle accomplished its purpose. The Yemenite Jews 
held fast to their ancestral faith; gratefully they remembered 
the name of the great leader, who used his influence at the 
court of Egypt to have the religious persecution stopped. In 
the Kaddish prayer they phrased the second petition thus: 
‘May His kingdom come in your lifetime and in the lifetime 
of our teacher Moses son of Maimun’—-an honor heretofore 
accorded only to the Babylonian exilarch. 

The fame of Maimonides spread and from all communities 
in the East questions were submitted to him for his authorita- 
tive decision. Ephraim, the rabbi of Tyre, desired to know 
whether in his quality of a scholar, though a man of wealth, 
he might claim exemption from the communal tax. Ephraim’s 
disciples turned to Maimonides in 1177 for advice on a num- 
ber of points. One of the questions touched the boundaries 
of the Holy Land, and Maimonides showed himself a poor 
student of geography. As to the importance of astronomy 
for the Jewish scholar, that science was his chosen field, and 
he ruled that he who knows the subject and neglects to turn 
it to good use is one of those who ‘regard not the work of the 
Lord, neither have they considered the operation of His 
hands’ (Isaiah 5, 12). Might a Jew instruct men of other 
faiths in the Scriptures? Christians by all means, because 
they recognize the Jewish Scriptures as divinely inspired; 
‘but not Mohammedans, because they deny the authority of 
the Torah. This view did not prevent Maimonides in another 
place from conceding that the Moslems were true mono- 
theists; in his opinion both Jesus and Mohammed fulfilled a 
mission in paving the way for the Messiah who is to come, 
inasmuch as through them large parts of humanity have 
been brought nigh unto the knowledge of God and moral 
perfection. i 


342 MOSES MAIMONIDES [1180 


When Maimonides settled in Fustat, he and his younger 
brother David maintained themselves by trading in precious 
stones. The business was actually in the hands of the brother, 
while Moses was free to devote himself to study. David lost 
his life on one of his business journeys to India. Moses 
turned to the practice of medicine for a livelihood. His skill 
as a physician brought him to the attention of Saladin’s 
vizir, who paid him an annual stipend for his medical ser- 
vices, and from that time on, some twenty years after his 
settlement in Egypt, he was greatly in demand among the 
court circle. However, he ministered to high and low, rich 
and poor, and he was kept busy until late at night. 

It is really marvelous how he found time at all for his 
literary pursuits, considering that at an early date he had 
taken upon himself the gratuitous burden of presiding over 
the college of rabbis at the Egyptian capital. In this capacity 
he strove to correct many abuses, both in the synagogue 
worship and in the home life. He watched that no Karaite 
practices should filter through into the religious life of the 
Rabbanites, but otherwise he enjoined tolerance toward the 
Karaite dissenters. He declined a call from the Frankish | 
king in Ashkelon, presumably Richard Coeur-de-lion, to 
become his body-physician. He was satisfied to remain where 
he was, enjoying the favor of his friend the all-powerful 
vizir who had Maimonides named head (Nagid) of all Egyp- 
tian Jewry. This dignity he employed to protect his core- 
ligionists far and wide, and it remained hereditary in his 
family down to the fourteenth century. 

In 1180 Maimonides completed the second of his great 
works, the only one which he wrote in the Hebrew language, 
the ‘Double of the Torah’ (Mishneh Torah) or ‘Strong 
Hand’ (YaD ha-Hazakah; YD standing in Hebrew for 14, 
the number of books into which the work is divided). Into 
this Code of Jewish Law Maimonides gathered together the 
whole of Jewish jurisprudence, religious, civil, and criminal. 
Moreover, in contradistinction to all his predecessors and 
successors he also incorporated all matters pertinent to the 
religious life in Palestine, even the Palestine of the past. No 


ae oe ~ ‘tae ‘cope’ "343 


» in the sea of the Talmud or in gaonic 
“oul notable is the architectonic structure 
: ane under heads, and the lucidity of 
that he was, he enriched his Code with 
. the principles of Jewish calendarwma king in 
| astronomical knowledge. His plitlesophical 
d scope to codify Aristytetian ethics and 
fine dn taphvsical notions concerning fod, the 
ia hasan destiny, thus making rational cogni- 

| tters a Jewish duty on a par w with ali that 
wish life, The Code opens with the glemn 
e First Book, called ‘Knowledge’. “the prbaciple 
oats the pillar of all wisdom te i krow that 
f i Being, who called into eximaence ali that 
es with the prophetic vision of the ene when “the 
taal the knowledge of of the Lort!, a: (ut waters 


: that the work, the peep wai Sy cae of 


i. ‘The chief opposition cat vie Bagdad, 

archate hac been renewed git} (oa gavute 
. : time Samuel son of Ali wes | sh vad after 
| the second exilarch Rapines & whe 20 of density 
F te the Jews in the East, Saini! es Wakes 
g prestige ot Seitecalides pee melieik Ge» 
mudic erudition. ‘There wax, tomatoe, 2h 
7 on the part of those whe Learae Abin’ at Pie 
dj “to a neglect of the study ut tite F viva. 
er, proved the apprehension i dial ud, 


i for those Who were not pe ol-waireadt Shadents 
. , there was a tendency im the @erk to trans- 
ae of the Talmud into a rigk’ Saity. This 
vas perhaps instinctively felt by fee fauitiinders. 
ep were omissions, some throug? smadvertence, 
entional, as in the case of superstitious notions. 
I * fesy-hunters were scandalized by the fact that 
xpati the traditional belief ia bodily resurrec- 


» the whole of talmudic tive: abyoeiich eet - 


the author reiterated that he avacd om der x4 facil 


—< 7 


Cae ert La, 
ee A 


944. ; “MOSES MAT ton 


When “heireonides serthed tr Fust 
t wather Daw 1 aired sitved themselves 
atonesa, Che business wae sotualhy ie 
while Moses was free to devote We 


4 , int Seas Se 
hive wit LAS ot his eS sina 


as a physician brought him to 
wizir, who paid him an annual sti 
VICES, AN from that time be 6 


COUNT circle. Mohan at 
and penr canes he was kept DoRyiu 

it is reaily marvelous here 
iterary pareuits, considering’ oe 
taken upon himeelf the gratult 
the college of rabbis at the Eypy 
he strove to correct Tay abt : 
» and in the horme hfe. 4 
practices should filter threnigh 
Rabbanites, but otherwk e weit ert) 


Senter rst 


te tot 


ne his b body-f bert sician, as 
he was, enjoving the favor o 
vizir who had Maime aK han 


In 1180 M citelaetites complet 
works, the only one which he wrote 
the bsseange mi 8 Tora hs 


THE ‘CODE’ 343 


detail escaped him in the sea of the Talmud or in gaonic 
literature; still more notable is the architectonic structure 
of the whole, the grouping under heads, and the lucidity of 
the style. Scientist that he was, he enriched his Code with 
an elucidation of the principles of Jewish calendar-making in 
accordance with astronomical knowledge. His philosophical 
bent of mind found scope to codify Aristotelian ethics and 
his own refined metaphysical notions concerning God, the 
human soul, the human destiny, thus making rational cogni- 
tion of these matters a Jewish duty on a par with all that 
goes to make Jewish life. The Code opens with the solemn 
words of the First Book, called ‘Knowledge’: ‘The principle 
of principles and the pillar of all wisdom is to know that 
there is a primal Being, who called into existence all that 
is, and closes with the prophetic vision of the time when ‘the 
earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters 
cover the sea.’ 

It was inevitable that the work, the first and only one of 
its kind to embrace the whole of talmudic law, should meet 
with criticism. The chief opposition came from Bagdad, 
where the exilarchate had been renewed and the gaonate 
restored. At the time Samuel son of Ali was Gaon and after 
the death of the second exilarch aspired also to the dignity 
of the headship of the Jews in the East. Samuel was jealous 
of the increasing prestige of Maimonides and sought to 
belittle his talmudic erudition. There was, however, also 
honest criticism on the part of those who feared that the 
Code would lead to a neglect of the study of the Talmud. 
The sequel, however, proved the apprehension ill-founded. 

Though the author reiterated that he aimed only to facil- 
itate decisions for those who were not professional students 
of the Talmud, there was a tendency in the work to trans- 
form the fluid matter of the Talmud into a rigid fixity. This 
tendency was perhaps instinctively felt by the faultfinders. 
Then there were omissions, some through inadvertence, 
others intentional, as in the case of superstitious notions. 
Lastly, heresy-hunters were scandalized by the fact that 
there was lacking the traditional belief in bodily resurrec- 


344 MOSES MAIMONIDES [1195 


tion. Maimonides’ sublimated conception of Heaven was 
really only for the elect who by virtue of right cognition 
obtain a foretaste of it in their mundane existence through 
participation in the active intellect of God. 


The brunt of the attack was borne by the master’s favorite 
pupil, Joseph Ibn Aknin, of Ceutain the Maghreb. At Fustat 
he had been inducted by Maimonides into the sciences and 
philosophy and was now residing in Aleppo. Exasperated by 
the intrigues against his beloved teacher, Joseph thought of 
carrying the combat into the enemy’s camp by 2stablishing 
a rival talmudical school at Bagdad. He desisted at the 
advice of the sage master, who urged him to cling to his 
medical profession. 


To Ibn Aknin Maimonides dedicated his third great work, 
the ‘Guide of the Perplexed,’ which he completed about 
1195. In this work Maimonides speaks as a philosopher to 
the philosophically trained, and on it rests his fame in the 
history of Christian scholasticism to which hé gave an im- 
portant stimulus. In the ‘Guide’ Maimonides boldly ration- 
alized Jewish theology. He operated with the Aristotelian 
philosophy as expounded by the Arab thinker Avicenna 
(Ibn Sina, died 1037); in all matters pertaining to the sub- 
lunar world the authority of the Stagirite was with him 
unimpeachable. Maimonides stopped short of the Aristo- 
telian teachings with regard to the eternity of matter; not 
because of any difficulty in reading the proposition into Holy 
Writ, but solely because he considered it philosophically 
untenable. The cosmological argument for the Existence of 
God has chiefly a historical interest. 

A lasting contribution to Jewish theology was his uncom- 
promising rejection of the literal interpretation of Scriptural 
anthropomorphisms. In this he stood in line with a long 
traditional development, most thoroughly embodied in the 
authoritative Aramaic version of Onkelos. At the hands of 
Maimonides it became a doctrine of the inadmissibility of 
all positive attributes to the Deity. What God is not, may 
be expressed in words; not what He is, at most what He does. 
The divine Providence is concerned solely with species 


THE ‘GUIDE 345 


. ‘to human beings, over cach and every one i 
special, individual care. Prophecy is intel- 
eis a fational explanation of ali the com- 
the Torah; some, like his ching the sac- 
concessions to the ideduremus propensities 
the precepts bear uliien.: staly pie mora! 
subservience to reason i4 (hi highest maxim 
reasoned cognition of Ces's Esistenee and 
highest duty in religion. 
al system, the age-long tre w eas of welding - 
mand Judaic faith, begtin ge She ie , COn- 
Bain Bagdad and by lhe disut. ia Peledo, 
ch Of finish which betravy se: ere belied in 
th. The effect of the wark a5. lewrs PHS 
prals acclaimed it with fey. <s'e thé don 
ite anathematized it. Tie oonkwt Wawa 
. Tasting mere than a cen ry yy ie Pw Cates 
mo ly and-bitterly. | 
Pwitnessed the gathering score with mide 
Hisfame had reached ix ae i phlewe 
; history Was assured. Vaure « ed Fee 
munal duties as well as by piri Svvary - ; 
away. fon. December 13) 1204. Hiv ony 
yp the world over. Jn ‘. eruisatene: ache) 


eet Saiteual d disaster, isd frais tie Bask 
ieetne of the santas. ot the Ame "The é 
ted from Israel; for the ark ef God is sipeciigd 
mere entombed in. Tiberin«, wid an his gene 
(penned by ah unknawn hand, ‘tse: bari to 
descended j into this lower wodlch Ty ime tite. 
tut telling adage had Leen eatued trv his 
fh Moses (the prophet} to Maes fson of 
hath arisen none like unto bien.” Ie Provence, 

the land of oe birth, « anal of enthu- 


wa eee thal 


tai. Maimoniies’ Sveudaa . 
. peally only fer the elect whe 
 @btain a forevaste of itiw = 
participation in the active im 
The brant of the aback w 
pupil, Jaseph The Aknin, abe) 
he had bern inducted’ by “Mak 
eam Hoy angen wins ner 


mPa é ff the ne master, 
medical renee SAPS ae 
To thn Aknin M. aire 
the “Gein ‘e's of the 
1195. Th this work 
‘the plilosophically 
history aft Christian schal 
portant stimulus. Tn the? 
alized Jewish thealngy He 
philosopiry aS expnaaaet U 
(Ibn Sina, died 1 37); in alt 
lunar work! the ae , 
unimpeachable, Mainunides 
telian te: achings with regard 0 


ihe ause of any seed Se. ie. 


ideheeehta The COSTN dae 


A lasting contribution to Je 
oromising rejection of the liters 
anthropomorphianis, In th is * 
traditional de velopment, most { 
authoritative Ar amalé ‘version: 

. Maimonides it became a docte 
all positive attributes to the Det 
be expressed in words; not what He 

The divine Providerict is conde 


eee ae ee hese Oo a —— 


04). - THE ‘GUIDE’ 345 


except in regard to human beings, over each and every one 
God exercises special, individual care. Prophecy is intel- 
lectualized. There is a rational explanation of all the com- 
mandments of the Torah; some, like those touching the sac- 
rificial cult, were concessions to the idolatrous propensities 
of the people. All the precepts bear ultimately upon moral 
improvement; subservience to reason is the highest maxim 
of morals, as reasoned cognition of God’s Existence and 
Unity isthe highest duty in religion. 

In this theological system, the age-long process of welding 
Hellenic wisdom and Judaic faith, begun in Alexandria, con- 
tinued by Saadiah in Bagdad and by Ibn Daud in Toledo, 
Was given a touch of finish which betrays sincere belief in 
the truth of both. The effect of the work upon Jewry was 
diverse: the liberals acclaimed it with joy, while the con- 
servative elements anathematized it. The combat was a 
protracted one, lasting more than a century; the two camps 
warred stubbornly and bitterly. 

The aged sage witnessed the gathering storm with philo- 
sophical calm. His fame had reached the zenith, his place 
in the annals of history was assured. Worn out by profes- 
sional and communal duties as well as by gigantic literary 
labors, he passed away on December 13, 1204. He was 
mourned by Jewry the world over. In Jerusalem solemn 
obsequies were held amid general fasting; from the Torah 
was read the forecast of national disaster, and from the Book 
of Samuel the narrative of the capture of the Ark. “The 
glory is departed from Israel; for the ark of God is taken.’ 
The remains were entombed in Tiberias, and on his grave 
an inscription, penned by an unknown hand, likened him to 
a celestial being descended into this lower world. In his life- 
time, the brief but telling adage had been coined by his 
admirers: ‘From Moses (the prophet) to Moses (son of 
Maimun) there hath arisen none like unto him.’ In Provence, 
the country nearest the land of his birth, a circle of enthu- 
siasts held his name in veneration. At home he left his honor 
in the keeping of his worthy son, Abraham, born to him in 
old age, who succeeded his father as head of the Jewry of 
Egypt and as physician in ordinary to the sultan. 


CHAPTER L 
THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER. GERSHOM OF MAYENCE 
(321-1040) 


the Roman province of Gaul, when the imperial 

legions stood guard over the river Rhine, Jewish 
settlements, composed of traders following the soldiers to 
their fortresses, were to be found in the empire’s northern- 
most outpost on the continent. At Cologne (Colonia Agrip- 
pina), the colony planted by the emperor Claudius in the 
year 50, there existed an organized community, with its 
customary functionaries, in 321. Its beginnings may have 
dated from the very foundation of the municipality. Under 
the Christian emperors, the Jews of Gaul suffered a diminu- 
tion of their rights as full Roman citizens. A curb was set 
upon their proselytizing. They were excluded from public 
positions, from owning Christian slaves or employing Chris- 
tian laborers, and from intermarriage with Christians. 

The heathen Franks, when they established themselves in 
Gaul, treated their Jewish subjects, who spoke the vulgar 
Latin and bore Roman names, on a par with the Romans; 
but the Church saw to it that the legislative restrictions 
remained in force. The Christian laity had to be exhorted 
again and again not to break bread at a Jewish table and to 
refrain from giving their daughters in marriage to Jews. 
Hilary of Poitiers (died 366), it is reported, had a horror of 
even answering the greetings of a Jewish passer-by in the 
street. This aversion was shared neither by the lower clergy 
nor by the Christian laity who freely associated with the 
Jews. Close contact with the Christian population led some 
Jews to be beguiled into embracing the Christian faith. But 
the majority clung steadfastly to their own religion and 
practised its observances conscientiously. They occupied 
themselves with agriculture, trade, and commerce. Jewish 


346 


As CENTURY at least before the Germanic tribes overran 


THE MEROVINGIANS' - §A7 


Mm it was besieged by Franks and Bur- 


lena os ¢ h arch cman M uch 
ation in Burgundy, according te which 
ited hy a Jew on a Christian easailed 
than when perpetrated try a Christian. 
ms likewise yielded t ce vical imtoler- 
Fe nei of Orleans (534) fr bede the Jews 
ie for four days begins with Holy 
tio affront the (hwirlacs bying ander 
; this 1 ga wag cae by Chil- 


ni ‘He strove ak all might t-to lure the 
YOn an Easter Day, as a renegade was 
aptism, he was insulted by his iormer core- 
et quently, on Ascension Day, the mob de- 
» On sited morrow the good: bish hop 


(ay For thie has. the pial wa tm then 
Went to the baptismal font, while (on rest 
| [arseilles (576). The Council a Pape (581) 
pointment of jews es ied fae alee, Council 
$35. had done previously) or farmers of taxes, 
ans should appease subject to them. It was 
‘that oe ane es Mey abs el — t 


atl will | be ; 
niiperic 1.'(S6}-584) )} was eager to convert jews 


CLs of Paris, as his busimess agent, but the 


th ed even by the clergy, anc Jews helped. 


godfather to as many as were won over. He had 


ort. * 


: seat pe aie 
settiern ents, composed of tt 
their fortresses, were to be iva 
most outpost on the cominent. 


iesinendes tia ries, in 32h 
dated from the very foundation @ 
the Christian esperore; the Jes 
tion of their rights-as full Romi 
upon their ‘proselytizing, Thay 
positions, from owning Christian! 
tian laborers, and from intermey 

The heathen Franks, when they 
Gaul, treated their Jewish subi 
Latin.and bere Roman names, @ 
but the Church saw to it rhat: 
bisa! So ie The hacker: 


aes ‘ier giving ‘heir. dala : 
bilary of Poitiers (died 366), it is ¥ 
even answoring the greetings of a 
street, This aversion was shared fe 
nor by the Christian laity who freely 
Jews. Close contact witty the Chiat 

lews to be beruiled inns petite: cs 
the maiority ching Siercicye to 
practised its observance -conacen i 
themselves with agriculty &, trade, 


344 


481-584] UNDER THE MEROVINGIANS 347 


healers were consulted even by the clergy, and Jews helped 
to defend Arles when it was besieged by Franks and Bur- 
gundians (508). 

Clovis (481-511), the true founder of the Frankish mon- 
archy, on his conversion to the Catholic faith, was powerful 
enough to hold the clergy in submission. Hence under his 
immediate successors the Jews were unmolested, save for 
restrictive measures fostered by Church councils. Much 
harsher was the legislation in Burgundy, according to which 
bodily injury committed by a Jew on a Christian entailed 
heavier punishment than when perpetrated by a Christian. 
Soon the Merovingians likewise yielded to clerical intoler- 
ance. The Third Council of Orleans (538) forbade the Jews 
to appear in public for four days beginning with Holy 
Thursday, so as not to affront the Christians living under 
Catholic monarchs; this measure was approved by Chil- 
debert I. (511-558). 

The soul of this animosity against the Jews was the bishop 
Avitus of Clermont. He strove with all might to lure the 
Jews from their faith. On an Easter Day, as a renegade was 
being led to baptism, he was insulted by his former core- 
ligionists. Consequently, on Ascension Day, the mob de- 
- stroyed the synagogue. On the morrow the good bishop 
placed before the Jews the choice, to accept Christianity or 
to leave the town. For three days the Jews wavered; then 
five hundred went to the baptismal font, while the rest 
emigrated to Marseilles (576). The Council of MAacon (581) 
forbade the appointment of Jews as judges (as the Council 
of Clermont in 535 had done previously) or farmers of taxes, 
lest the Christians should appear subject to them. It was 
further ordered that the Jews should show proper respect 
to the clergy and remain standing in their presence unless 
ordered to be seated. A Jew guilty of converting a Christian 
slave was to lose him as well as the right to dispose of his 
own property by will. 

The king Chilperic I. (561-584) was eager to convert Jews 
and acted as godfather to as many as were won over. He had 
one Jew, Priscus of Paris, as his business agent, but the 


348 THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER 


persuasion of the learned Gregory, bishop of Tours, with 
whom the king had brought him together, was powerless to 
move Priscus to forswear his faith. Cast into prison by the- 
irate king, Priscus asked for delay until after his son’s mar- 
riage with a Jewess of Marseilles. Phatir, one of those con- 
verted Jews at whose baptism the king had been godfather, 
fell upon Priscus on a sabbath day, when he was unarmed, 
and slew him together with his friendse(582). The murderer 
was pardoned, but the kinsmen of Priscus slew him in 
revenge. 

After the assassination of Chilperic, Guntram of Burgundy 
became the protector of the realm. At Orleans, the Jews 
acclaimed him in the Hebrew tongue. He refused, however, 
to grant their petition that their synagogue, which had been 
destroyed by Christians, might be rebuilt at public cost, 
and upbraided them as ‘evil, perfidious, and crafty’ (585). 
The bishops of Arles and Marseilles were reprimanded by 
pope Gregory for the use of force in converting Jews (591). 
The same pope, however, admonished the queen Brunhild 
to enact laws against the holding of Christian slaves by Jews 
(599). Similar requests were made of the kings Theodoric 
and Theodebert. 

The last Merovingian kings, whose power was weakened 
by concessions to the rich landowners, the bishops, and the 
aristocracy, gave free rein to vexatious regulations against 
the Jews and to downright persecution. Chlotar II. sanc- 
tioned the enactment at the Fifth Council of Paris (614) that 
no Jew should hold civil or military office. The Spanish Jews, 
escaping to France from the persecutions of Sisebut (p. 305), 
found no refuge. Dagobert I. (628-638), who succeeded 
Chlotar, spurred on by the emperor Heraclius, ordered all 
the Jews of France to accept baptism under pain of banish- 
ment from his realm (629). The decree seems to have been 
ruthlessly carried out, and for a century and a half we do 
not hear of a Jew in the Frankish dominions. 

Only in the southern district by the sea, that of Narbonne, 
where the Visigoths ruled, did the Jews maintain them- 
selves. They lived in the most friendly relations with the 


D@GNDER THE CAROLINGIANS 3 349 


in. When in 673 the insurrection was put 
re, driven out. hd in 589 a are were still 


paudus, Justus, i amd byuiciorella, 
it is Not quite clear whether a¢ victims of 


p) Phe Jews returned with the Arabe in 720; 
driven back beyond the Pvrentesy Jewish 
‘ah villages and suburbs were left in their 
& é Frankish Conquerors, Gree io rhe disiike 
dies who were grieved qo see Christian 
ye don Jewish plantations. 
arolingian. dynasty displace! t»e shichewry 
Ws, the: Jews throughout thé Pswkish king 
the benefits of'a firm régime: \'sder Chasies 
“Charlemagne (768-814), ancl his gon Leas 
$40), Jews, thanks to their capmiciions wit? 
abroad, concentrated in their 
ommerce of the land, especially * 
J AJew, Isaac, was a member of the ¢ Sepa 
3 me to Harun ar- Rashid. He was the sole 
ned. Christian traders paid into the: cetfers 
eles ith of their profits, while Jeys peki-one- 
op ic merchants, who commen aa chem 
emperor, were granted: special petition; So 
ae nephew | Samuel, Dee: ave leeoph in 
ham at; Saragossa. An imperisiotoot, known 
- of the e Jews, saw to if in every saab that 
5 were mipiatsined a aud life eed oroperty made 
r inthe per iet ans changed from peeerey 


travels almcist 
¢ 
be export and 


y 


Let 


ork placed on 0 hase bias ie in produce and wine 
ing coin; nor was 6 h.«ful for jews to accept 
mtensils in pledge or kcain a Christian debtor. 
8 a ainst Christian laws # crimes against Christian 
‘were severely punishet. Ina lawsuit between .a 


Bak 


"an unrecorded perseoution—amd received | 


aa , SHR PRA pouting 


wit the king ‘ui ri ecahen nies 
oor Prisca oo forwwear. be faith 
iecie katy Pri ee pact for delay ‘ 
rt a! with o learde af Marseiflen, 
¢?ect Tews 24 ay dae hagtiaay the 
Fei: 1 ry «PF AceRs oh & ay bhath 7 
feos bi . together with his 


‘ter be assassination oat (ny 
Pee arae the permiector ¢ 4 the ft 
acctaimed him ia the Hebeée 
ta grat Heir § etitn chat thet 
deatins el ty t herisi WEIS) might 
oa wobreikded then) am ‘eoths 
The biebons of Aries aiiel Mar 
pein toreggory far the ase of fords 
Phe sare peta, hostewée, ace 
io enact lows againat the het ding 
(So, 3 sida fequcests were 
and Thecelehert, | 
The tact Merovingian kings,’ 
by cone: mest i to the rich 1 landey 
aristocracy, Rave free rein 26 we 
the Jews and’ io paar lah. 


“Chiotar, eae on hy whe emp 
the Jews of France to acceat bap 

ment from his realey (629). The’ 
ruthiessly carried out, and for ae 
not hear of a Jew in the Frankish dor 

Only in the southern district by the: 
where the Visigoths ruled, did the 


ey 


selves. They lived in thé most frien vl 


768-840] UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS 349 


Christian population and took part in the rebellion against 
king Wamba of Spain. When in 673 the insurrection was put 
down, the Jews were driven out. Yet in 689 there were still 
Jewish residents in the city of Narbonne; three children of 
Paragorusson of Sapaudus, Justus, Matrona, and Dulciorella, 
died in that year—it is not quite clear whether as victims of 
an epidemic or of an unrecorded persecution—and received 
Jewish burial. The Jews returned with the Arabs in 720; 
when these were driven back beyond the Pyrenees, Jewish 
owners of land in villages and suburbs were left in their 
possessions by the Frankish conquerors, much to the dislike 
of the Church authorities who were grieved to see Christian 
laborers employed on Jewish plantations. 

When the Carolingian dynasty displaced the shadowy 
Merovingian kings, the Jews throughout the Frankish king- 
dom shared in the benefits of a firm régime. Under Charles 
the Great, or Charlemagne (768-814), and his son Louis 
the Pious (814-840), Jews, thanks to their connections with 
their brethren abroad, concentrated in their hands almost 
entirely the commerce of the land, especially the export and 
import of goods. A Jew, Isaac, was a member of the embassy 
sent by Charlemagne to Harun ar-Rashid. He was the sole 
survivor who returned. Christian traders paid into the coffers 
of the king one-eleventh of their profits, while Jews paid one- 
tenth. Certain Jewish merchants, who commended them- 
selves to the emperor, were granted special protection; so 
Domatus and his nephew Samuel, David and Joseph in 
Lyons, Abraham at Saragossa. An imperial officer, known 
as ‘master of the Jews,’ saw to it in every community that 
these privileges were maintained and life and property made 
safe. In Lyons, the market day was changed from Saturday 
to another day of the week because the Jews would not trade 
on their sabbath. 

Restrictions were placed on the trade in produce and wine 
and on hoarding coin; nor was it lawful for Jews to accept 


_ church untensils in pledge or detain a Christian debtor. 


Offenses against Christian laws or crimes against Christian 
persons were severely punished. In a lawsuit between a 


350 THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER 


Christian and a Jew, the number of witnesses required from 
the latter exceeded that furnished by the former. A special 
form’ of oath was prescribed for Jews. As between Jewand 
Jew, the disputes were adjudicated by Jewish courts. The 
canonical regulations were allowed to remain a dead letter. 
New synagogues were erected, and in them sermons were 
delivered in the vernacular and listened to with pleasure 
even by Christian visitors. 

The chief offense in the eyes of the Church was the Jewish 
trade in slaves and the employment by Jews of Christian 
laborers and domestics. Some of. the slaves were clearly 
heathen, and the Jewish masters often performed on them 
the rite of circumcision. The bishops thought that the slaves 
ought to submit to baptism, and in general were uneasy 
about Christian domestics abstaining from labor on the 
sabbath and performing service on Sunday. Nor were they 
satisfied that Christians should partake of Jewish food or 
buy meat and wine of them, considering that the Jews 
abstained from food prepared by Christians. 

Agobard of Lyons, a man otherwise of clear intellect and 
saintly character, averse to image-worship, adoration of 
saints, and superstition, was much chagrined by the im- 
perial indulgence towards the Jews. His feelings found vent 
in connnection with the following incident. The woman- 
slave of a prominent Jew in Lyons escaped and, in order to 
secure her freedom, had herself baptized by Agobard. The 
Jewish owner demanded the surrender of the escaped slave 
and, when Agobard would not hear of it, appealed to Ever- 
ard, the Jews’ master. On the side of the Jews was the impe- 
rial will as manifested in the grant of privileges, which the 
bishop sought to make inoperative by enlisting the aid of his 
friends at court who were inimical to the Jews. 

In a series of writings Agobard undertook to demonstrate 
the churchly point of view in dealing with the Jews and to 
represent the Jewish claims of descent from the patriarchs 
as unworthy of consideration. The Jewish religion was for 
him but a tissue of false pretensions and superstitions, and 
against the Jewish ‘insolence’ the authority of the older 


, 18 & AGOBARD AND AMULO 354 


hee, oouteheeng of the Cs aes 
pagitation took on a politica’ aspect when 
. 3 bishops, aided by the ministes Wala, sup- 
s ae: the king’s sons by his firgt marriage 
reas Judith, Louis’ second wife, who en- 
secure the inheritance for her awn son, Charles. 
§ pried. in 831, Louis wax deposed at the 
ae mpi egne (833); but soon he sneenne his 


ibhisa. 
r,occasion the emperor gave eres. of tas 
volent attitude toward the jou fhe jew 
‘his sons Jacob and alten Esse ‘argbt COT» 
r letters of protection, ensuring + era the 
their inherited estates, had tes taken from 
valevolent persons. Their petition, <qrnoe ugh by 
/ Richer, the abbot and cnaenrert Huw, was 
‘The pious monarch, however, was poortuliy 
Gncident which fell in the same year. The 
i@ learned cleric of Alemannic descent an 
oi court, had received permission from. the 
im a. fe a pilgrimage to Rome. Instead, however, of 
a0 “poe “to the capital of Christendom, he berook him- 
Be +t e company ol his nephew, to Renee where he 
sig i A Judaism, taking on via nae -imazar and 


reions, bronght abows bv the free imteromerse 
jand Christians, ied (he inshops to inant <yts 
tio: and the curtailing « jewtsh gn vkeyes. 
obard’s g@uccessor in the bishopric af tyons, re- 
literary warfare against the Jews. Az she councils 
and oes (845, 846) the old canonical restrictions 
. Neither Cheries the Baki (843-877). nor 
| i ian successors in. France weaid go the whole 
porte ‘a the episcopal recomutwndations. jewish merchants 

id into the land of the Franks spices from the far Kast 


S80 TH @RANCO-GERMA 


Christian and a Jew, the number 
the latter excoedend tial furnished 
fortis of oath was presertbed for” 
lew, the disputes were adjudic 
Manosical reg sepehitin were allowed 
Ni ew avnaghenes Were erected, a 
delivered in Uke vertiacular and 
even by Chrysvian ~orsitora. 3 
The chiefo sr ite the eyes aft i 
trade in slaves and the emple 
laborers and donvetiom. Some | 
heathen, and the Jewel amas ex 
the rite of circumcision. The bis 
ought to submit to baptiens, ; 
about Chrishan domestics” 
sabbath and performing cervice Om 
atisfied that Christians shoukia 
buy meat anid wine of then 
abstained from food prepared 
Agobard af Lyons, a marcet 
saintly character, averse f 
saints, and superstition, was” 
perial indulgence towards the Few 
in connnection with the folleay 
slave of a prominent Jew in Lv 
secure her freedora; had herself B 
lewish owner demanded the oy st ! 
and, when Ago bard would not4 
ard, the Jews’ master, On the cide 
rial will as manifested inthe grageial 
bishop sougit tO make inoperative By: 
friends at court who were inimical 
| In a@ series of writings Agobard tt 7 
the churchly point of view in des 
represent the Jewish claims of désa t 
as unworthy of consideration. a N 
him but a tissue of false pret tensions: § 
against the Jewish ‘insolence’ the ¢ 


MO 


829-846] AGOBARD AND AMULO Sot 


Frankish kings was invoked. A synod was convoked at 
Lyons (829) under the presidency of the zealous prelate. 
The ecclesiastical agitation took on a political aspect when 
Agobard and his bishops, aided by the minister Wala, sup-. 
ported the cause of the king’s sons by his first marriage 
against the empress Judith, Louis’ second wife, who en- 
deavored to secure the inheritance for her own son, Charles. 
The elder sons revolted in 831, Louis was deposed at the 
assembly of Compiégne (833); but soon he regained his 
throne. Agobard was deposed (835), but after a while the 
emperor reinstated him. 

On still another occasion the emperor gave proof of his 
just and benevolent attitude toward the Jews. The Jew 


-Gaudiocus and his sons Jacob and Vivacius brought com- 


plaint that their letters of protection, ensuring to them the 
possession of their inherited estates, had been taken from 
them by malevolent persons. Their petition, supported by 
the emperor’s brother, the abbot and chancellor Hugh, was 
granted (839). The pious monarch, however, was painfully 
affected by an incident which fell in the same year. The 
deacon Bodo, a learned cleric of Alemannic descent and 
brought up at court, had received permission from the 
empress to make a pilgrimage to Rome. Instead, however, of 
proceeding to the capital of Christendom, he betook him- 
self, in the company of his nephew, to Saragossa, where he 
openly embraced Judaism, taking on the name Eleazar and . 
espousing a Jewish maiden. His nephew likewise became 
a Jew. 

These conversions, brought about by the free intercourse 
between Jews and Christians, led the bishops to insist on 
social segregation and the curtailing of Jewish privileges. 
Amulo, Agobard’s successor in the bishopric of Lyons, re- 
newed the literary warfare against the Jews. At the councils 
of Meaux and Paris (845, 846) the old canonical restrictions 


were reénacted. Neither Charles the Bald (843-877) nor 


his Carolingian successors in France would go the whole 
length of the episcopal recommendations. Jewish merchants 
imported into the land of the Franks spices from the far East 


352 THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER (1010 


and exported silks, furs, swords, eunuchs, boy and girl slaves. 

However, the virus of episcopal fanaticism spread slowly 
but surely among princes and people. A slave circumcised by 
a Jew became free, whether he had been a Christian or of 
another faith. At Béziers, in the week between Palm Sunday 
and Easter Monday, the bishops would summon the faithful 
to wreak vengeance on the Jewish inhabitants for the pas- 
sion of Christ; the Christians were permitted to throw staves 
at the Jews. At Toulouse, the count of the city had the 
practice annually on Good Friday of smiting the cheek of 
the syndic, or chief, of the Jewish community. In the begin- 
ning of the twelfth century an annual payment was sub- 
stituted for this shameful custom. It was fabled that the 
Jews had once betrayed, or thought of betraying, the city 
to the Arabs, though these had never come near Toulouse. 
Because of a rumor that the Jews had made common cause 
with the Normans, the entire Jewish population of Sens was 
banished (875-876). Charles the Simple (898-929) turned 
over to the Church estates and vineyards, salt-mines and 
houses, owned by Jews in the Duchy of Narbonne and 
previously subject to the payment of tithes to the Church. 

The decay of royal power and the rise of feudalism exposed 
the Jews to the arbitrary will of the nobles who disposed of 
them as if they were serfs. Nor did the rise of the Capetian 
dynasty in 987 immediately bring to the Jews resident in 
France a position of security. The Jews of Limoges were 
offered the choice between baptism and exile. A very small 
number succumbed; several in despair took their own lives; 
the majority, with wives and children, accepted banishment 
(1010). Somewhat more tolerable were the conditions in 
southern France, in Provence and Languedoc. There, in the 
eleventh century, suddenly emerged a spiritual life. The 
first important teacher of the Talmud was Judah son of 
Meir ha-Cohen (Leon or Leontin). He was far surpassed by 
his pupil, Gershom of Mayence, ‘the Frenchman in the land 
of Germany.’ 

In Germany, which since the Treaty of Verdun (843) had 
been separated from the Frankish empire, the earliest Jewish 


) MUS FAMILY AT MAYENCE 353 


tot Be sive ‘}h along, the Rhine, on both 


nd Austria, and oa the upper course of 

min, Accordingly Jewish Germany fol- 
ole th @ lines of the Roman conquests, the 
th merit from ltaly, aad spreading 
wards, Beside Cologne-~-which, as we 
ho in the times of Cosetanteme. and 
which remained in Jewish hands for 414 
% Ha Aucsbacs and Metz had bawe 3 in- 


“commerce. Jen and merchant were hinlaie 
Otto the Great (936-973) placed under 
the bishop of Magdeburg the Jews and 


the bishopric of Merseburg full jurisdic. 
n the walls of the town, including Jews and 

B had occasion to narrate (p. 299) how this 
Sai din fils campaign by a faithful jow in his 


¢ migration of the Calonymak @ax™y from 
which is usually set fy (ee tienes of 


really connected with that mcideat. There 
ar ea . 
g of lege lpia among ‘the nf hc of 


ent , to. a Shige | was at mae aime jn 
Lanc a college présnied over by a peteetiy family 
Cohen and his dew rdents). They were suc- 
‘i opie of Aaron Hes Meir tho traced his 
. The real i avidig ( Eerie learning in 


aine, ot among the Franconians and - 
4 them along the upper course of the 


nts of the town (965). Similarly Otto U1. - 


Of this Jew was Calonyias, od it is . 


as 


Res nt eee 


oe RA. 


ist 


; f 


. t = € 
al 5) 
J hy *e 
: es 
ies ; 
* % 
“ y > 
‘ a ae 
ei Re 
E ’ 
oe rs 
‘“ a F 
es oF Re 
J Rate Jdting Heb 4 PE es ee a) ae cae | 
¢ are, h 4 UNE Maids PY ni , 
* 
. . » Pu 4 
5 A Y Bit ee Sy - Bie he  aectett tae tet 5 
4 th ee : grip ah Re ge Cpa Sree t sf Ag? ie, ale 


: Se Sth aS a “% Swit e yy Me? re 
on 8? Eas 
| oF : es f % 4p oa pen Bd ow famed ‘ k ‘ 


i 
e+ ee lb ed 
7 uae sy 
Pes . Suits orem * 
B a te aes ls oa 2 wa bs) 
, ; 
fbn oie? ee he, Be 
es a ida } . my s 
t » Cee ve es | re 
# ees x 
x Pe 
rat ‘ ae st re 4 
; welt -ae Hy 4 ‘eae. +45 


5 . ‘ es 
Sea Beit peeve a pares EE! Oe 


THE CALONYMUS FAMILY AT MAYENCE 353 


communities were to be found all along the Rhine, on both 
sides of the river, in Lorraine, or among the Franconians and 
Swabians. Then we find them along the upper course of the 
Danube in Bavaria and Austria, and on the upper course of 
the Elbe in Bohemia. Accordingly Jewish Germany fol- 
lowed on the whole the lines of the Roman conquests, the 
Jews coming from the south, from Italy, and spreading 
northwards and southwards. Beside Cologne—which, as we 
saw (p. 346), harbored Jews in the times of Constantine, and 
where a synagogue, which remained in Jewish hands for 414 
years, was erected in 1012—-Augsburg and Metz had been in- 
habited by Jews by the close of the ninth century. In the 
tenth there are records of Jews in Worms, Mayence, Prague, 
Magdeburg, Merseburg, Ratisbon. 

The feudal organism of the Germanic state made it impos- 
sible for the Jews to own land, and so they were thrown 
completely upon commerce. Jew and merchant were synon- 
ymous terms. Thus Otto the Great (936-973) placed under 
the jurisdiction of the bishop of Magdeburg the Jews and 
the other merchants of the town (965). Similarly Otto IT. 
(973-983) gave to the bishopric of Merseburg full jurisdic- 
tion over all within the walls of the town, including Jews and 
merchants. We had occasion to narrate (p. 299) how this 
emperor was saved in his campaign by a faithful Jew in his 
entourage. The name of this Jew was Calonymus, and it is 
likely that the migration of the Calonymus family from 
Lucca to Mayence, which is usually set in the times of 
Charlemagne, is really connected with that incident. There 
was an awakening of spiritual interests among the Jews of 
Germany. In thesecond half of the tenth century the Rhenish 
Jews addressed queries, particularly on the subject of the 
Messianic advent, to Palestine. There was at that time in 
the Holy Land a college presided over by a priestly family 
(Joseph ha-Cohen and his descendants). They were suc- 
cessors to the family of Aaron Ben Meir who traced his 
descent to Hillel. The real founder of talmudic learning in 
Germany was Gershom son of Judah at Mayence. 


354 THE FRANCO-GERMAN CENTER [1012 


Gershom, ‘the Luminary of the Exile,’ as he was rever- 
ently called, was born at Metz about 960; his learning he 
acquired in France, in the school of Leontin. It is not known 
what moved him and his brother Machir to settle in May- 
ence. There Gershom gathered about himself numerous dis- 
ciples who flocked to him from France, Germany, and Italy. 
The master expounded to them the Talmud plainly and 
succinctly in the form of a running commentary, which sub- 
sequently the pupils, on becoming teachers themselves, com- 
mitted to writing. Gershom was the acknowledged authority 
of the three adjacent countries, and queries reached him 
from many communities. Gershom’s fame rests preém- 
inently on a number of regulations promulgated by him 
under pain of excommunication from the Jewish fold and 
accepted immediately by all European Jewry. Thus polyg- 
amy was prohibited. It was made obligatory for the husband 
to obtain his wife’s consent to a divorce. The secrecy of pri- 
vate correspondence was guarded by the prohibition to open 
a letter addressed to a third person even when not sealed. 

In the early years of the eleventh century a cleric, by the 
name of Wecelin, embraced Judaism and engaged in a bitter 
controversy with one of his former pupils. In 1012, emperor 
Henry II. (1001-1024) ordered the expulsion of the Jews 
from Mayence. It is possible that under these circumstances 
many, to save their lives or their fortunes, accepted bap- 
tism ; among them Gershom’s own son. Grieved as the father 
was over his son’s apostasy, he performed all the rites of 
mourning for him, when shortly thereafter he died a Chris- 
tian, just as if he had remained in the fold. The public 
calamity Gershom lamented in a penitential prayer. ‘Thy 
congregation is driven away from her seat and home, faint 
and prostrate she lifts up her eyes to Thee.’ 

In a similar strain elegies were composed by Simon son of 
Isaac, who, however, succeeded in checking the persecution. 
Many of those who had accepted baptism returned to the 
fold. Gershom threatened with excommunication any that 
reminded them of their temporary lapse. Solomon and his 
wife Rachel were likewise instrumental in having the edict 


} _@eRsHON OF MAYENCE 5 Gao 


” burial. lie. The pier Samhiniaey 


‘of this couple aud of its two teachers 


for perpetual remembrance during the 


| om’s achool, in which atttemts of the 


many, France, and {tay were trained, 


acentury. - 


“ 
4 
-, 


hee, “the: Lagrary of che 
ently celiet, Was Gort at Mered | 
agen es pedi : bok the school 
ities anosed tink wae tee brother 


° 
— 
ae 
Cua 
b> 
vow 
~ 
a 
ed 
pai 
-” 
& 
~~. 
ol sa 
te 
iF 


nether Che Santa Bh basco 
Artie’ eo. ape et ie ‘ Cershi vet WORE 
ed ie 4 howe ach jax 3 coun tri 
watt roasey conmunueitios, tae 
inoeciy on & wetaber of pie ; 
Gixie?t Ten mM exce mimun ication § 
acon “i inatedh ately by all, Eurog 


any was orohihi ned. Aya 
-obtain iis wits B conwent £6 
, 


Vole COM Ea MACRO? Waa ie 
€ Ree eae at \ poe? 

a lettes addressed Hi & third 
: 4S. - 4 hes Die 
lo the early peare af thee 


“OU Oversy wit it. ike. t f his. 
enry 1. (1001-1028) ove: 
from Mayenee. Ibis possible | 
ihe to save the byems ar. 
tism); among them Gers shom's 
was over his son's apostasy, h 
mowning for him, when short! 
tian, juse as if he had remain 
calamity Gershom lamented 
congregation is driven away ft 
and prostrate she lifts up her 
' Ina similar strain elegies w ‘ 

Isaac, who, however, s jeceedk 

Many of those who hid accep) 
fold. Gershom thredtemed wit 

reminded them of their tempo 
wife Rachel were likewise ing 


GERSHOM OF MAYENCE 350 


a . 


‘revoked and endeared themselves to the community by the 
purchase of a new burial-place. The grateful community 
F registered the names of this couple and of its two teachers 
in its record book for perpetual remembrance during the 
_ sabbath service. Gershom’s school, in which students of the 
Talmud from Germany, France, and Italy were trained, 
flourished for nearly a century. 


ao 


CHAPTER LI 
RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL. THE FIRST CRUSADE 


(1040-1105) 


tian kings in France or the Franconian emperors in 

Germany. Local persecutions occurred, as at Lyons 
(1049) or on the occasion of an expedition of French warriors 
to Spain to fight the Saracens (1065)—on the way innocent 
Jews were murdered; the community of Narbonne was saved 
by the intervention of count Berengar. It was well enough— 
such was the admonition of pope Alexander II. (1061— 
1073)—to slay the Saracens who persecuted Christians; but 
the Jews, who kept the peace, should be let alone. 

On both sides of the Rhine talmudic learning was culti- 
vated, and a modest beginning was made in the study of 
Scripture. At Limousin and Anjou, Joseph son of Samuel 
Tob-elem (Bonfils) edited older collections of ritual works. 
Menahem son of Helbo, leaning on Menahem son of Saruk 
and Dunash Ibn Labrat (p. 311), sought to recover the plain 
sense of Scripture. At Narbonne, Moses the Preacher col- 
lected old homilies. At Worms, a beautiful synagogue in 
Byzantine style was erected in 1034 through the munificence 
of a childless couple, Jacob son of David and Rachel. There 
Isaac son of Eleazar ha-Levi, the father of three scholarly 
sons, taught. He, as well as Jacob son of Jakar in Mayence 
and Isaac son of Judah, at first in Worms and then rabbi at 
Mayence, had been pupils of Gershom, whose traditions 
they carried on. At their feet sat an illustrious disciple who 
was destined to transplant the Rhenish learning to his home 
city in Champagne. He became the epoch-making founder 
of the French school, distinct from the Spanish, yet rivaling 
it in importance and fashioning the inner life of Jewry this 
side of the Pyrenees. 


EWISH life was very much the same under the Cape- 


356 


RASHI j 337 


: > end. Prcites. was @ very gmportant 


from whom the wide-awake youth 
5 sting facts about foreign countries. With 
@ traveled to ab net Ac Weems they 


h » Rhenish city cd hacia ie peiatlent 
nt of feod,-in ragged clotites, and bearing 
wny' he imbibed the wivtom ot his 
of twenty-five, he settled ltteer 
If he was named rabbi et Pith ee BE ta 
onttand to the. custeyt: af the tienes, 
ne himself and his faseiiy ce best oe 
ga vineyard. 
pce his reputation was immiediac:!y eetats 
sen turned to him for scholarly decisis. Afi 
Rhenish teachers (about 2070), vormg 
fo him from France and Germany. Gn Die 
b ary were copies of Mishnah and the vo 
ephta, of halakic and haggadic Midreaiiin 
cain, As needs might be there were at Rand 
t gs ) Menahém’s Dictionary, the Ceti of 
ayye) and Iba jJanah, both of where wear in 
dee had reached northern Preace »:suerly 
Na i. Aruk freshly arrived fern Mone. Tn 
isdaining the by-work of —_— < aoumen antl 
speech, anticipating as #f by dv iemtion adiff- 
i nded the Talmud to che young learners, 
fons he wrote down in noie-hooks forremg a 
on. othe Babylonian Taimad, unas vs sub- 
rep sated revision. In this Comumettary Rashi 
eC ie accumulated expository work of | ih Baby- 


yy 


* sibem teachers _ a mearer even 


by merchants from distant parts 5 


Han hinge FP “ance or. 
F Germany, Loeal persecti 
(1H) of on the occasion of ane 
at the Saracens’ 

jews we ve murde rect; the com 
by che intervention of count Be 
such was a admonition: e pi 
{073}—to day the Saracens at 
the Jews. whe kept the pea 0 
On berh aides ot the Rite 
- vated, and a modest begiraml 
Scripture. At Limousin and, 
Tob-elem (Bonk 1s) edited om 
Merahem son of Heil BM}, lean 
acd Dunash loa Labrat (6.94 
sense of Seriprure At Narbena 
lected old horpilies. At Worn 
yzantine style Was erecead im 
of a childless coupie, Jacob song 
isaac sop of Eleazar ha-t evi, ais 
sons, taught, He, as well as Jaaging 
and isaac son of Judah, at first fy 
Mayence, had. been pupils oft € 
they CATrWal of, At tires leet +) 
was destined to transplait the Rh 
tity in Champagne, He beware | h 
of the F kasi school, distinet fran 
it 7 Importance and a eo 

e of the p yrenees 


“1 : + am 
4 Soya tes fe 
; f ‘Fit i 


’ 
Z ss a 
st CEL i 


356 


1070] RASHI 357 


Rashi—Solomon son of Isaac—was born in Troyes in 
1040, two years after the death of the Gaon Hai, when the 
old-established seats of learning in the far East had virtually 
come to a premature end. Troyes was a very important 
mercantile center, visited by merchants from distant parts 
of northern Europe, from whom the wide-awake youth 
learned many interesting facts about foreign countries. With 
these merchants he traveled to Lorraine. At Worms they 
still show the bench from which he taught. But legend apart, 
Rashi tarried in the Rhenish city only during his student 
days, when ‘in want of food, in ragged clothes, and bearing 
the yoke of matrimony’ he imbibed the wisdom of his 
teachers. At the age of twenty-five, he settled permanently 
in his native city. If he was named rabbi of Troyes and its 
environs, he was, according to the custom of the times, 
unsalaried, sustaining himself and his family as best he 
might by cultivating a vineyard. 

Young as he was, his reputation was immediately estab- 
lished ; older men turned to him for scholarly decisions. After 
the death of his Rhenish teachers (about 1070), young 
students came to him from France and Germany. On the 
shelves of his library were copies of Mishnah and the two 
Talmuds, of Tosephta, of halakic and haggadic Midrashim, 
of works of the Gaons. As needs might be there were at hand 
Donnolo’s writings, Menahem’s Dictionary, the Critique of 
Dunash—of Hayyuj and Ibn Janah, both of whom wrote in 
Arabic, no knowledge had reached northern France—latterly 
also perhaps Nathan’s Aruk freshly arrived from Rome. In 
an even way, disdaining the by-work of dialectic acumen and 
diffuseness of speech, anticipating as if by divination a diff- 
culty, Rashi expounded the Talmud to the young learners. 
These expositions he wrote down in note-books forming a 
Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud, which he sub- 
mitted to repeated revision. In this Commentary Rashi 
incorporated the accumulated expository work of the Baby- 
lonian and African teachers and especially, nearer home, 
the immediate traditions of Gershom’s school as he had 
received them from his Rhenish teachers. 


358 RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL 


Rashi’s Commentary surpassed the efforts of all his pre- 
decessors. It was a unique work, the like of which had never 
been seen before, skilful in making plain the most abstruse 
discussion, masterly in its brevity, taking up the context in 
brief sections. Aramaic words and expressions are para- 
phrased in a clear Hebrew and, frequently, in the vernacular 
French, these renditions figuring among the earliest records 
of written French. It may be said that without Rashi’s — 
Commentary the Talmud would to-day be a sealed book. 
Rashi also found leisure to write a Commentary on the Bible, 
which became as popular as his work on the Talmud, chiefly 
because it maintained an intermediate attitude between the 
traditional interpretation in Talmud and Midrash and 
latter-day rational exposition. This Commentary was likewise 
recast again and again, and in his old age Rashi owned that 
were he but younger. he should make another revision in 
accordance with the newer interpretation coming up daily. 

The Commentary on the Pentateuch, in particular, be- 
came in time the most popular and widely used, and ever 
after the sum of lay education for a Jew consisted in the 
ability to read his Hummash (Pentateuch) with Rashi. 
Though the work on the Bible done in France could not 
measure up to the productions of the Spanish school, a wil- 
ling exception was always made as regards Rashi, to whom 
men referred as the Commentator on the Law (Parshan- 
datha). What is most appealing in the two Commentaries, 
the one on the Talmud which is thoroughly rational and 
that on the Scriptures which is not quite free from homily, 
is the touching modesty of the man, who does not scruple to 
say, ‘This'I do not understand,’ or, ‘Concerning this I have 
no tradition.’ With the same modesty he incorporated many 
a suggestion which came to him from his hearers, whom he 
apparently drew into his work, making them feel that they 
were participants rather than recipients. 

At the close of the eleventh century, the Church, repre- 
sented by pope Gregory VII. (1073-1085) and the more 
diplomatic, but just as vigorous Urban IT. (1088-1099), was 
locked in a deadly combat, over-the question of ultimate 


nda ONE aes 
« + ' r 


Ni 2 ome FIRST CRUSADE > rege. 


in te Christian cps Ay. with the German 
HaV. (1056-1106), Now the emperor was 
<0 ion {at isons. 1077); aew Rome had 
is resolute monarch aim the amti-pope set 
ing this time the Jews seemed to he at ease 
eth pat was because the meat” provigces 


Jews occupied 4 if comauire "i were the 
rivil eges at the hands of bishops ard the 
= 1084, bishop Riidiger of Soiree permitted 
ttle in a village incorporated welts the 
Pociabelr protection from the pi placer, the 
Special quarters fortified by # 9 
md themselves to remit to Ve sowster anit 
a half pounds of Spires cord as warg given 
hin the new settlement and ia fhe city Yeah, 
€ yold and silver, to buy or sell all incre” of 
w@ ampioy Christian servants. Thew peretmen: 
& n 1090. At the bishop's recommendation, Ss 
ted special privileges to Judah son of (as 
Be en yrace family at Mavence), David =>» 
eure son of Jekuthiel, and other menibers a! 
aily. Apparently these Jews were confirmed in 
viles es dating frem the time whem theirs aacer 
splanted from ltaiy, A similar grim () wus made 
‘Worms under the ministration of Fates, ihe 
op.’ Little, however, did rs thee, gocim, for 
paid considerable sunts, aye:t. ok yiors later, 
¢ zeal Sp pegignal by the Fi : t vomade; the 
. e road to the resrne er i be Holy Sepulel rer 
del aracen, en siclivns nearer home--the 
add pect the religious war ated. 1 Ee cyes of 
€ accounted enemies of ¢ “hriatiamtey: 
ere not entirely unpreparedd, Rao rs of the 


city 


de ee were heari. ao sia on t be call to the 
sunded by Urban fl, at <termont: (in south: 
on the 26th of Nowemher, 1095. It came to 
Godfrey of Bouillet bac vowed that ‘the 


eres 


each 


eae AN IG Se 


ae BST av 2 


‘ 


1095] THE FIRST CRUSADE ‘ 359 


sovereignty in the Christian world, with the German 
emperor Henry IV. (1056-1106). Now the emperor was 
reduced to humiliation (at Canossa, 1077); now Rome had 
to reckon with this resolute monarch and the anti-pope set 
up by him. During this time the Jews seemed to be at ease 
in Germany. Whether it was because the Rhenish provinces 
in general held with the emperor, or because of the impor- 
tant place the Jews occupied in commerce, they were the 
recipients of privileges at the hands of bishops and the 
emperor alike. In 1084, bishop Riidiger of Spires permitted 
the Jews to settle in a village incorporated within the city 
limits, where, for their protection from the populace, they 
were assigned special quarters fortified by a wall. 

_ The Jews bound themselves to remit to the chapter annu- 
ally three and a half pounds of Spires coin and were given 
permission, both in the new settlement and in the city itself, 
to exchange gold and silver, to buy or sell all manner of 
goods, and to employ Christian servants. These privileges 
were ratified in 1090. At the bishop’s recommendation, the 
emperor granted special privileges to Judah son of Cal- 
onymus (of the Calonymus family at Mayence), David son 
of Meshullam, Moses son of Jekuthiel, and other members of 
the same family. Apparently these Jews were confirmed in 
their old privileges dating from the time when their ances- 
tors were transplanted from Italy. A similar grant was made 
to the Jews of Worms under the ministration of Zalman, the 
‘Jews’ bishop.’ Little, however, did all these grants, for 
which the Jews paid considerable sums, avail. Six years later, 
in the religious zeal engendered by the First Crusade, the 
populace, on the road to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher 
from the infidel Saracen, found victims nearer home—the 
Jews who stood outside the religious war and, in the eyes of 
the mob, were accounted enemies of Christianity. 

The Jews were not entirely unprepared. Rumors of the 
threatening danger were heard so soon as the call to the 
Crusade was sounded by Urban II. at Clermont (in south- 
eastern France) on the 26th of November, 1095. It came to 
be known that Godfrey of Bouillon had vowed that the 


360 RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL [1096 


blood of Christ would be avenged by the blood of the Jews. 
Early in January, 1096, the French communities, threatened 
with extinction if they did not submit to baptism, called on 
the Rhenish Jews to ordain a general day of fasting and 
prayer. The Jews on the Rhine felt entirely secure, enjoying 
as they did the favor of the emperor and of the local rulers. 
However, they fervently prayed for the safety of their 
French brethren. The first divisions that poured into Ger- 
many were bought off by substantial bribes, which enabled 
them to procure provisions for the long road. But the frenzy 
of the mobs, which everywhere formed the advance guard 
of those that took the cross, was uncontrollable. It was 
spread abroad that killing a Jew would secure atonement 
for one’s sins. Certain of the leaders took an oath not to 
leave the country before they had killed a Jew with their 
own hands. 

After the lamentable havoc wrought in Lorraine—in Metz 
twenty-two Jews, among them Samuel ha-Cohen, lost their 
lives—the Jews in the Rhenish cities turned for protection 
to the bishops, in accordance with an earlier rescript of the 
emperor, then residing in Italy, to the princes, bishops, and 
counts of the realm. The bishops John at Spires, Adalbert at 
Worms, Ruthard at Mayence, in response to the solicita- 
tions of such Jewish leaders as Moses son of Jekuthiel and 
Calonymus son of Meshullam, did what was in their power 
to safeguard Jewish lives and property. As many as could 
be accommodated in the episcopal palaces were sequestered 
there; others found a refuge with the secular princes in their 
castles. The better class of the burghers also took Jews into 
their homes; all were content to have Jewish property left 
with them for safe-keeping. The mob overpowered the Jews 
themselves, though some of them offered armed resistance, 
and intimidated their protectors. 

On May the third, which was a sabbath day, the crusaders 
surrounded the synagogue of Spires, but the assembled © 
worshipers succeeded in repelling the attack. Then the mob 
threw itself upon the Jews individually and slew ten of them; 
one pious Jewess killed herself in order not to fall into the 


Sig THE MASSACRE AT WORMS 561 


‘the mob. ‘Apparently, the quick and thertive meas: . 
len by the bishop, who had the guilty seized and 
4. fri shee ened. the mob away. On Sunday, May 18, a 
inde: sr the leadership of count Fmiche, arid with 
#f the burghers, fel! upon the Jews of Worms, 
ing on promises of protictinn by rhe Chris- 
remained in their homes. bho fewest saved 
¥ accepting baptism; the great majority were 
i many died by their ow : hands Jewish 
pillaged and destroyed.. The corpeet were 
ir garments, and so they ‘< aatil the jews 
gopal. palace sent to the baptized ciuiee where 
< r the nakedness of the dead marta. The phil- 
d for baptism. ‘ 
hg Sunday, the 25th, the crsudets and te 
proed by the peasants from the nc ichhoarieg 
ded the Jews in the episeomn) ye lace. Avver — 
om bar they penetrated within am? sew ah: man 
slain their children and then ‘he miagte a The 
those who perished on these two daw. wus whos 
dundred souls. The latter Sunday fell vy Sie Mie ew 
' Sivan; the martyrs died singing the © sos lel’ (Psalms 
- Isaac son of preseis met Als death aa tic wae 


‘whose i ocae the a2 citizens fe ie G ess) ces 
to gather, was dragged from tier teteeg. hece in 
she spurned the offer of bapti» gem et Joe 
to death. A youth, Simhah Colo. wiecy iather 
brothers tad been brutally @sweeredt bythe 
» pretended that he would aes eos? PTT aL he: Was 
@church..At the moment whe. be wae to teorive 
mt, he produced a Geiies knife vad stabbed the 
ephew. Iti is oa ngs te acy that the Gab waa cut 
y the infuriated bystanders- 

‘orms ‘Emicho's army af army it ey be called, 
to Mayence. On the 27th of May, at neon, the city 
eg ‘gates to the crusaders who, “gy by the 
ee; stormed the hiding phic of the Jews. Such as 


en RASHI AND S18 8¢ 


bleed of Chiat would be avenged: y MM 
Fayty in Tamuary He the phe! 


che Parse hye to Or odkatet ay 
iter, Ff be Pe aeR OTE the Rhine fel 
he thes Git the favor of the erap 
tLbowever, hev..fervently pra: 1 
ren aie en Ses ie divi 


i icone 


~i 
- 
oe 
wa 
ae 
oy 
* 
ae 
iets 
~ 
= 


mesa dbraad that ee a 


‘eave he-< mirv / belore whey . 

PAT) Tey ag 

ifeer the lamentabie haan wr 
ews, among: them 


oes 


‘emperor, then reside ih te 


tions of such lewish leadere as 


w 


Calenvinna se - of a hulle a 
there; of th ers dec a sng wil 


wi 3 hae for depiaibasoh 


weenie Bee some of . 


On} viay the chi: which was: 
uvrounted the synagogue’ of 
worshipers succeeded in tepella 
ie are? — cit the wha inate 


is 


1096] THE MASSACRE AT WORMS 361 


hands of the mob. Apparently, the quick and effective meas- 
ures taken by the bishop, who had the guilty seized and 
punished, frightened the mob away. On Sunday, May 18,a 
larger force, under the leadership of count Emicho, and with 
the connivance of the burghers, fell upon the Jews of Worms, 
all such as, counting on promises of protection by the Chris- 
tian citizens, had remained in their homes. The fewest saved 
themselves by accepting baptism; the great majority were 
put to death; many died by their own hands. Jewish 
dwellings were pillaged and destroyed. The corpses were 
stripped of their garments, and so they lay until the Jews 
in the episcopal palace sent to the baptized clothes where- 
with to cover the nakedness of the dead martyrs. The chil- 
dren were seized for baptism. 

On the following Sunday, the 25th, the crusaders and the 
burghers, reinforced by the peasants from the neighboring 
villages, surrounded the Jews in the episcopal palace. After 
a heavy combat they penetrated within and slew all; many 
Jews had slain their children and then themselves. The 
number of those who perished on these two days was about 
eight hundred souls. The latter Sunday fell upon the new 
moon of Sivan; the martyrs died singing the ‘Hallel’ (Psalms 
113-118). Isaac son of Eliakim met his death as he was 
studying Talmud. A prominent Jewess, by the name of 
Minna, at whose house the best citizens and even princes 
were wont to gather, was dragged from her hiding-place in 
the cellar; she spurned the offer of baptism and was imme- 
diately put to death. A youth, Simhah Cohen, whose father 
and seven brothers had been brutally murdered by the 
crusaders, pretended that he would accept baptism; he was 
led into the church. At the moment when he was to receive 
the sacrament, he produced a hidden knife and stabbed the 
bishop’s nephew. It is needless to say that the lad was cut 
to pieces by the infuriated bystanders.- 

From Worms Emicho’s army, if army it may be called, 
moved to Mayence. On the 27th of May, at noon, the city 
opened its gates to the crusaders who, reinforced by the 
populace, stormed the hiding-places of the Jews. Such as 


362 RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL 


had not died by their own hands were massacred and the 
corpses stripped of their garments. The carnage lasted till 
the evening. The dead, numbering more than a thousand 
souls, were interred in nine ditches. The cost of burial was 
defrayed from the moneys left by the Jews with the burghers. 
Among those who died by their own hands was Jacob son 
of Shullam, whose mother was a convert. Isaac son of David, 
the head of the community, who was baptized by force, 
set fire to his own dwelling as well as to the synagogue, 
which the crusaders were determined to turn into a church, 
and perished in the flames. Uri son of Joseph, who had like- 
wise been baptized by compulsion, had planned to aid Isaac 
in burning down the synagogue; but he was caught and slain. 

Only a small number of Jews, Calonymus with fifty-three 
companions, who had not been discovered in their hiding- 
place, the treasury of the cathedral, were conveyed in the 
dead of night by boat to Riidesheim, where the archbishop 
with three hundred men in arms awaited them. However, 
the villagers and the rabble which soon followed could not 
be fought off. The Jews then proceeded to lay hands on 
themselves; Calonymus slew his own son Joseph. A few 
managed to escape to the woods, but were surrounded and 
done to death. In Cologne, on the 30th of May, the syna- 
gogue was destroyed and the dwellings of the Jews were 
pillaged. One man and two women were slain; the remainder 
were sent by the archbishop into his castles. 

At Treves, in June, archbishop Egilbert was powerless to 
hold out against the mob. To save himself and the Jewish 
residents, he advised that they should accept Christianity, 
and in this he was seconded by the rabbi, whose name was 
Micah; this man remained a Christian even after the per- 
secution ceased. The women in particular proved steadfast; 
they were dragged to the churches by force together with the 
children. Several men and women destroyed themselves by 
leaping into the river; so Elijah, the brother of Hezekiah, one 
of the synagogue authorities, the latter’s daughter Esther, 
and two girls from Cologne. Similarly Jews were massacred 
or brought to self-destruction at Neuss, at Cologne in the 


ATION CHOSEN FOR THE LORD'S PORTION’ 363 


: Se iined fleci, Wev efinghoten, Eller; Xanten, 

sn, Gelder. At Ratisbon there were forced bap- 
ele community standing in the Pannbe and a 

ero sies of the cross over them; likewise in 

ther the number of Jews who periehed was 

. hing ¢ ten oaeernioeal see he vedlmiliee with 


| a say that oe fa joorne chose tat gen- 
4: } own portion, since they steadiastly futfitled 
ct ified i holy Davie = Seclg works, 


gene Bie icvas to the ‘glade int i gary 
; its. ae a Penmaes ig uieed 


fF 
+ tog 


bey were even cisely fein emipraiag 
Cipitate a commercial crisis. Sede proper? 

re restored ; but the emperor wevecared fe: 
belongings of the martyred cite. 18 1103, a 
imed, i in 4 Which as eae were i included. ‘s 


y for these acts of ‘ice! as well as i the 
aission given to all those who had beer hate 
bei: to their religion. It appears. Sowever, 
mts were not always well rocwer wt: “i the 
}, and Rashi admonishe} ‘he itter to 
iliating the penitents and wirirawing 
r ait must have rejoiced che heirt of the 


. ic learning, was completed and dedicated 
v9 year (July 13, 4105) occurred his death. 
, but three daughters, one of whet was so 
wmd-that during her father’s Uiness she 
m ning: talmudic questions gna wrote down 
ictation. All.of these were given im marriage 
ia the mothers of achalars of repute. 
shi’s sons-in-law and disciplae were Meir son of . 
neru (a town not far from Troyes) and Judah 


rs ro know that the new aynagogur.at ¢ Mavyence, . 


ae ae RASAL AND Bis 8 


hme gar dled by then own pee 
fetvens stripped of thetr garmentsy: 
ie evening, The dead, numbert 


Hula, were 1 intenres in nine — 


4 
' 
3 


& oivallam, Sebabe mot ‘her was at 
the head Or the < communytyy wiht 
sot re to bis Own dwelling as , 
which the crusaders w ere det os re 
ad perished in the flarnea. UF 


a iee ieee sere hy-« ompuls 


3 burning down the synagogue; but 
| pis a ‘small ny ihe ¢ of Jee £ 
place, the treasury at rhe’ cath 
dead of night by boat te Rad 
with three henvdred men Ga 
the villagers and the rabble wm 
ue fought ott, The Jews then 
themselves; Calonvies slow 
managed to esnape to the wees 
done wads death, fn Colagne, on 
gogue was destroyed And the: 
sored. a he war ‘eitd twee. 
were sent by the archbishop 

At Treves, m June, archihigh 
hold eut against the sige To 
v5 : 


a aM, at thie ten wus ; becoridud ‘by 


Micah; this man remained @ 
setution ceased. The women i 
they were draped to the chiure 
tiktren. Several men dena wom en 
Mtbing into the river: so Blijath 
we the ey spray bx nuthorities;) 


-* 


Ae 
” 


PONE: Se 10.8 li-cdestraction 


1105] ‘A GENERATION CHOSEN FOR THE LORD’S PORTION’ 363 


castles to which they had fled, Wevelinghofen, Eller, Xanten, 
Mehr, Kerpen, Geldern. At Ratisbon there were forced bap- 
tisms, the whole community standing in the Danube and a 
priest making the sign of the cross over them; likewise in 
Bohemia. Altogether the number of Jews who perished was 
estimated as approaching ten thousand. The readiness with 
which the Jews accepted the appalling sufferings led a con- 
temporary writer to say that the Lord had chosen that gen- 
eration for His own portion, since they steadfastly fulfilled 
His word and sanctified His holy Name in this world. 

The paroxysm which had spent itself by the end of July— 
Emicho’s division was scattered to the winds in Hungary 
and never reached its destination—left a permanent depres- 
sion of the spirit in the Jewish survivors. They were, how- 
ever, permitted to return to their old places of residence; in 
certain localities they were even prevented from emigrating 
so as not to precipitate a commercial crisis. Stolen property 
was in a measure restored; but the emperor confiscated for 
his own use the belongings of the martyred dead. In 1103, a 
truce was proclaimed, in which the Jews were included. It 
does not require to be said that heavy sums were paid to the 
imperial treasury for these acts of grace, as well as for the 
immediate permission given to all those who had been bap- 
tized by force to return to their religion. It appears, however, 
that these penitents were not always well received by the 
pious and faithful, and Rashi admonished the latter to 
refrain from humiliating the penitents and withdrawing 
from their society. It must have rejoiced the heart of the 
aged teacher to know that the new synagogue at Mayence, 
the seat of talmudic learning, was completed and dedicated 
in 1104; within a year (July 13, 1105) occurred his death. 
Rashi had no sons, but three daughters, one of whom was so 
learned in the Talmud that during her father’s illness she 
read to him the incoming talmudic questions and wrote down 
the answers at dictation. All of these were given in marriage 
to learned men and were the mothers of scholars of repute. 

Two of Rashi’s sons-in-law and disciples were Meir son of 
Samuel of Rameru (a town not far from Troyes) and Judah 


364 RASHI AND HIS SCHOOL 


son of Nathan, who carried on the traditions of the master 
and laid the foundation for the ‘Supplements’ (Tosaphoth) 
to their teacher’s Commentary on the Talmud. Judah com- 
pleted the commentary on one tractate left unfinished 
at Rashi’s death; that on another was finished by Rashi’s 
grandson, Samuel son of Meir, who also wrote commentaries 
on the Scriptures, stressing the plain meaning. This field 
was also cultivated by his brother Solomon. An elder brother, 
Isaac, died at the noontide of his life; both taught their 
youngest brother, Jacob (called Tam, ‘the Perfect,’ by the 
epithet applied to the patriarch Jacob). Jacob Tam was the 
recognized talmudic authority of his age. Queries were 
addressed to him not only by the scholars of France, some 
even older than himself, but also by those of Lorraine, 
Germany, Italy, Spain, and England. His keen intellect 
served him in finding difficulties and solving them, although 
he deprecated extreme casuistry which was then coming into 
vogue. Idle conjectures, resting on personal opinion and 
unsupported by any talmudical utterance, were not to his 
liking. 

The multitude of taxes and special contributions to king 
and feudal lords forced the Jews into lending money on 
interest. Tam himself engaged in this business, and he sanc- 
tioned the method by which money might be lent on interest . 
to a Jew through the agency of a non-Jew. Other timely 
ordinances issued from his seat at Rameru; he associated 
with himself his elder brother Samuel and leading French 
and German rabbis, on one occasion as many as a hundred 
and fifty. Sometimes they met at Troyes, the seat of Rashi’s 
activity. It was their aim to secure uniformity of practice 
and to settle questions caused by the new conditions. Jacob 
Tam was also at home in Hebrew grammar and even tried 
his hand at versification. He, the shepherd of his people, paid — 
marked deference to Abraham Ibn Ezra when the Spanish 
scholar tarried in southern France (p. 333). During the 
Second Crusade, Jacob came near losing his life (p. 367); 
he was content that his body was spared and his books were 
left to him. 


fe CHAPTER LII 
tT g SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES 


as 28) 


y aaa the can teem of ‘ab he atin eo deraid 
. ) there were but few Jews left in the whole of 
indéed reported that alt ne oe ish ~siagia 


et series “Stim one of ae L atin eimtes 1 
len into the hands of the Mohammedaas, the 


gly they turned for help to the West. Pope 
if (1145-1153) issued a call for a new Crusade 
ait in atin to the fiery’ amen of mt. Ber. 


uis vit) and the German.emperor (Conrad 1 ty 

e the Jews were the first victims. Not only di 
enthusiasm beget fanaticism m: but this thi 
oe the first enterprise which opened e» Trae 
, there had arisen a body of Cherise yb nest 
Ou aot their Jewish competitors. Frog tour pot 
byear 1146 serves as a turning-preat oy fhe eco- 
id social life of Franco-German fewry ‘vradually 


velending, which made of ties aa object of 
cial degradation. Up t% that time the Church 
n this business; but the vigorous ecclesiastical 
iti in Cluny nade an end is it Sp the ao 


n dialer scale . than they a been in 1096; 
visas he pe formance was the same. The bishaps sought 
‘pr ¢ th f ae St. Bernard himself would permit no 


st them—they were neither to be killed nor 
365 


ithe sphere of cornmerce, the jew perforce - 


cnc Fifty. Somretinies they | 


bed © °  RASHI AND RIS SCH 
go of Nathea, who carried on the tre 
mrt baad had sundation fin ag ‘Su opl : 


oo the csauhaaaiaia On. one a 
st Roshi’s death: that on another 
ceva cn) , Som tel won of ees who 


eo ae died at ue ie eotide of hid 

roungest brother, lacol (called. ' 
uf eo d to the patriarely J: 
. nized ialrnudie: authority © 
acidressed to yet nat: only: by the s 
ev en ace than himself, but 


he de priate a ext? sink casttis 
vogue, Idle conjectures, me 
aneuppe vted by any mses : 
ing. ae 
ri The rultivade of taxes | ; 


io a ae ow prinsoee = ani 
ordinances. ismued from: his 

th bimvelf hig-elder broth 
add (herman rabies on One 4 


t wae their alm to, 
and (> settle euestions cal st 
also at home in. 

‘ulin. treed wt vervifcation. He ; 
roared ceference tes Ab 
seliestas tarried in oouithril es 
Sermnd Crusade, Jacob cane t 
tin was content that bis he 
batt tee. Relari, ? wt 


wtaste.: I 


. 
4 a. Pe 
wate Tes 


Baar TER Lit 
THE SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES 


(1099-1215) 


FTER the entry of the First Crusaders into the Holy 
A City and the foundation of the Latin Kingdom 
(1099) there were but few Jews left in the whole of 
Palestine. It is indeed reported that all the Jewish inhabi- 
tants of Jerusalem, whether Rabbanites, Karaites, or Samar- 
itans, were assembled in one synagogue and given over to 
the flames. When in 1144 Edessa, one of the Latin states in 
Syria, had fallen into the hands of the Mohammedans, the 
Latins feared that Antioch and then Jerusalem might be 
lost. Accordingly they turned for help to the West. Pope 
Eugenius III. (1145-1153) issued a call for a new Crusade 
(1146). Soon, in response to the fiery eloquence of St. Ber- 
nard of Clairvaux, multitudes gathered about the king of 
France (Louis VII.) and the German emperor (Conrad III.). 
Once more the Jews were the first victims. Not only did 
the religious enthusiasm beget fanaticism; but this time, in 
‘the very wake of the first enterprise which opened up trade 
with the East, there had arisen a body of Christian mer- 
chants, jealous of their Jewish competitors. From this point 
of view the year 1146 serves as a turning-point in the eco- 
nomic and social life of Franco-German Jewry. Gradually 
driven out of the sphere of commerce, the Jews perforce 
took to money-lending, which made of them an object of 
hate and of social degradation. Up to that time the Church 
had engaged in this business; but the vigorous ecclesiastical 
reforms originating in Cluny made an end of it. |So the Jews 
stepped into the gap. The scenes of the massacres and pillage 
in 1146 were on a smaller scale than they had been in 1096; 
otherwise the performance was the same. The bishops sought 
to protect the Jews. St. Bernard himself would permit no 
excesses against them—they were neither to be killed nor 


365 


366 SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES [1147 


to be expelled. Christian usurers, he urged, were no better 
than Jewish; however, the Jews should be made to remit 
interest due from such as took the cross. Jews were com- 
pelled by force to accept baptism; many preferred death by 
their own hands or those of their near relatives. 

The instigator of the persecution was the monk Radulph, 
a pious but otherwise ignorant person. He appeared on the 
banks of the Rhine and propounded the idea that the Jews, 
scattered in the cities and villages, were enemies of Chris- 
tianity and should be killed. The teaching bore immediate 
fruit in many localities of France and Germany. Some Jews 
placed themselves under the protection of the king, others 
emigrated to the imperial city Nuremberg and other places, 
but many were slain. A Jew, Simeon the Saint, of Treves, 
was returning from England; on the road, not far from 
Cologne, he was attacked by the crusaders and, upon his 
refusal of baptism, done to death. A Jewess of Spires, Minna, 
had her ears and thumbs cut off. The Jews of Cologne left 
their dwellings and their property with the bishop. For a 
consideration he permitted the anxious Jewish community 
to seek safety in the strongly fortified Wolkenburg in Lor- 
raine. The next year (1147), at Wiirzburg, the mobattacked 
the Jews, accusing them of the murder of a Christian whose 
body was found in the river. Twenty-two Jews, men, women,’ 
and children, were massacred, among them the rabbi, Isaac 
son of Eliakim. At Aschaffenburg, a Jewess, by the name of 
Guthulda, was drowned in the river because she refused to 
be baptized. At Stahleck, near Bacharach, Alexander son of 
Moses, a prominent scholar, Abraham son of Samuel, and 
Calonymus son of Mordecai were seized on the road and put 
to death. The Jews of Magdeburg and Halle were expelled. 

The disturbances passed on to France. At Ham a hundred 
and fifty Jews were killed; a number lost their lives at Sully. 
At Carenton (in the department of Manche) it came to a 
veritable battle between a body of crusaders and Jews; the 
latter resisted heroically, but were ultimately destroyed. In 
France there fell at this time as a martyr Peter, a promising 
pupil of Samuel son of Meir and his brother Jacob. The com- 


Tn hp Bete i i Sec at a te i 


rE S-POINT IN NORTHERN FRANCE 367 


at was itiarkied on the second day of the> 
oth. Jacob Tam, the most prominent Jew 
s entire. possessions serzed, a seroll of the 
led was torn to shreds, and he himself 
Mids inthe head to. atone for the wounds 
pe mately, a friendly knighe teseed by 


ws iavhiolor aay aa: ane reg ‘nada ie the 


. was ih wed ce the news of the destruc- 
a r pity at Blois. [t is-here that the deecardly 
q saftorwas fastened upon the Jews, tmagh 
in England first ip. 3@4jv The 
lates of about forty meinberk, sree 
cathe two forinec disciples 2 hs the tous tree 


Bivie was Bd or aansom nn oe 
The intermediary was Beruch sa 


, ateran Cena { EeETO) witeets. tistoacte the 


ai 7. Matters 


e ceded in day the scrolls ast ‘ bi } 


: i con to carry i PHL ees yes MOET, ; 


ey 2 pret 
Uy ie SFLOND + 
; 


ene a expelled. Christian psurers, tne 
= Vaud Jewish: however, the jews shor 
e ~ fitterest due front such as took the ¢1 

refit by force to accept Baptt sm} is 
- javie own hands or those bess thett 4 


j wate r on 


spt aid be k 


Petre ee! Many jocah thes $ ie Fiss ; 
faced themselves | under the bin 


» 
‘ e; 
‘Wart maw Bere Soni 
Bite trie) We M8 we re. 4 


3 3 iol aussi tins 
Lot Bein Sewer ees gf: 
Fiat? FET ERITS coarse 


aera he perrie red 


eS ree oy «e pas Ms 
the ews, 2OOCana 


Ss was found in 
didren, were 1 C 

ae teh " oh as Ky fy er 
son of Kiakim, At : yu 
- % a 
uthuida, was drow a in the 


ane aes 1. t 
he OapPuze ats meine 


pat 
+ 
Ps 


co 
me 


Ag Peat 3 ap Hy 
weritable ba rile ; , jaa a on 
laiter resisted herdic: ally, but 
France thera fell mt this time ast 


pupil of Samuel sonmof { Meirand 


1180] TURNING-POINT IN NORTHERN FRANCE 367 


munity of Rameru was attacked on the second day of the 
Festival of Shabuoth. Jacob Tam, the most prominent Jew 
in town, saw his entire possessions seized, a scroll of the 
Torah which he owned was torn to shreds, and he himself 
received five wounds in the head to atone for the wounds 
inflicted on Jesus. Fortunately, a friendly knight passed by 
who promised help if in exchange he received a well-favored 
horse. Thus was the scholar saved from the hands of the 
mob. 

Jacob’s old age was saddened by the news of the destruc- 
tion of the community at Blois. It is here that the dastardly 
calumny of ritual murder was fastened upon the Jews, though 
the example had been set in England first (p. 384). The 
entire community, consisting of about forty members, men 
and women, among them two former disciples of the teachers 
at Rameru, also a prominent Jewess, Pulcinella, the favorite 
of count Theobald, were committed to the flames (May 
26, 1171). They died confessing the Unity and intoning the 
Adoration of God (Alenu). Only the fewest saved themselves 
by baptism. Count Theobald was minded to destroy all the 
Jews of the county, but he was appeased by a ransom of one 
thousand pounds. The intermediary was Baruch son of 
David, who also succeeded in rescuing the scrolls and the 
other sacred books formerly belonging to the Jews of Blois. 
Jacob Tam ordered a general day of fasting and mourning, 
which was observed by the communities through France, 
Anjou, and the Rhineland. This was his last public act. He 
died on the ninth of June in the same year. 

The two closing decades of the twelfth century marked a 
turning-point in the fortunes of the Jews of northern France. 
Louis VII. had dealt with them in a manner of comparative 
mildness; he was loath to carry into execution the regula- 
tions of the Third Lateran Council (1179) which forbade the 
employment by Jews of Christian domestics. Matters 
changed for the worse under Philip Augustus (1180-1223). 
The new king was nurtured in the belief that the Jews used 
Christian blood in the preparation of their Passover bread— 
the new legend which had sprung up no one knows where— 


368 SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES [1182 


and was in addition covetous of Jewish wealth. Soon after 
his coronation, on a sabbath day, the young monarch 
ordered all the Jews to be arrested in their synagogues and 
extorted from them a payment of fifteen thousand silver 
marks. He was persuaded by a hermit of Vincennes that it 
was an act of piety to despoil the wicked Jews. Accordingly 
he declared all debts of Christians to Jews null and void, 
save a fifth which he claimed for the royal treasury. 

Having reduced the wealthier Jews, who were particularly 
numerous in Paris, to beggary, he issued an edict in April, 
1182, driving the entire Jewish population from the royal 
domains. A respite of three months was granted during 
which they were to dispose of their personal property; on 
the other hand, all immovable property, such as dwellings, 
fields, vineyards, barns, and wine-presses, was confiscated by 
the king. The deserted synagogues were converted into 
churches. Only the fewest saved themselves by baptism; the 
great majority left the realm. Fortunately, the royal domains 
were confined to a small district about Paris. The remainder 
of France was in the hands of powerful barons, who molested 
neither those Jews long settled in their lands nor the refugees 
from the king’s domain. 

The most active center of Jewish life was in Champagne. 
At Rameru, Jacob Tam was succeeded by his pupil, Isaac 
son of Samuel of Dampierre, Rashi’s great-grandson. It was 
reported in after times that the school of Isaac the Elder 
(as he was called) counted sixty scholars, of whom each one 
was not only at home in the whole of the Talmud but in ad- 
dition knew by heart and thoroughly mastered one specific 
tractate of the sixty. Following along the lines of his teacher, 
Isaac subjected Rashi’s Commentary to renewed scrutiny. 
What was left unexplained, was made clear; or imaginary 
gaps were invented and contradictions unearthed between 
Talmud passages far apart. Similarly, analogies, derived 
from seemingly irrelevant dicta, were turned to account in 
order to reach decisions as new questions presented them- 
selves. This emphasis on practical conclusions constituted 
one of the characteristic differences between Rashi and the 


Ly an 


ied TOSAPHISTS ; 4 369 


whole decks on the form f queries and an- 
sie method, applied te the Mishnah, was 
amie the Talmud itself, 4 eort.of super-- 
n on of the Talmud. Igaac's own son, 

pasa wll to his faith (118¢¥s veung as he 
2 ie eat had been established among the 


e townlet (Bray) a Jew wes mz tiered by 
vee eal who happen vo bew subject 
France, was delivered # the Jews by the 
§ (Blanche) and ee oe *he Festival of 


Z , ge 


x e out the Jewish COTMIM LE © = sapeounded bY 


‘the Jews were given the « ner! ie dw woe che 
Many suffered themseives to te Sn by dhcir. 
e to a handred persons wert Imerned alee by 
nchmen ; only children under vecatned sme 
pat this massacre the heer sin LA yiiise 
wade for the recovery of Jerussien ve Foe: Sede 

i ee the ony C ity in sank ium au 


ts. tc Saaaiali creditors were: cancel “ ak 
thus impoverishing the jews, drow! iaee 

tories. fs 

ever, fell out with Ric hard. hee 27 f-wiend, 
home. He bethought Licaeily £ eenher plan 
fh the Jews. Perhaps it was te pre nce of the 
rt Ul. 1198-22163, who trl per: wah him under 
ication because ch hie. sepe cso cd tne wile 
the} reasor may tows Been thet, stategman aod 
the was, he faveae: od cognmerce and renng nized 
Hitude therefor. A Say rate, conteary to all 
ie vecalled in 1708 the Jews to tei domain, 
ygave sanction to the operatiots in money- 
nae the legal rate of interest. A tax was 
ish trade; the treasury had a epecial account 
‘revenue.’ By treaties with the barons, the 


d the Jews in their dovaitiie; henceforth they . 


re 


tee. SECOND AND THIRD € 


a was it eddition covetous of | 
his cor romation, on a sabbath pe 


tg 


H Pa reduced ithe emer 
1182, dr ving the entire Jews 
domains. A respite of three t 
vhich they were to diapose of 
the other hand,all bapa 
helds, % prevarcds, | ererest A and % 
the king. The Ge enertedt syn 
churches. Only the fewest sa z 
great majority lettthe reali. 
were confined to & euanll dist 
of France waein the hands of ‘ 
neither thoes jews JOUNge r settled 
from the kiag’s domain: 428% 
The must active center of 5 
At Rameru, facod Tan eS: 
son of Samuel of Damplerrey at 
hone ted in after times’ that 
(as he was eaten) connie se 


ditien na w by beet sak thor 
tractate of théeity. F hee 
aac subjected Rashi's 
What was ieft eerie 
gaps were invented: atid. OF 


bea ot 


from: saelaats  jerelevant diet 
order to re eT decisions: as Ae 
selves. This enrphasis.on pra 
one of the characteristic diffe 


1198] THE TOSAPHISTS 369 


Tosaphists. The whole took on the form of queries and an- 
swers—the Amoraic method, applied to the Mishnah, was 
now brought to bear upon the Talmud itself, a sort of super- 
Talmud in continuation of the Talmud. Isaac’s own son, 
Elhanan, died as a martyr to his faith (1184); young as he 
was, his fame for erudition had been established among the 
‘Supplementers.’ 

In a Champagne townlet (Bray) a Jew was murdered by 
a Christian. The murderer, who happened to be a subject 
of the king of France, was delivered to the Jews by the 
reigning countess (Blanche) and hanged on the Festival of 
Purim. This incident offered Philip Augustus an oppor- 
tunity to wipe out the Jewish community. Surrounded by 
royal troops, the Jews were given the choice between death 
and baptism. Many suffered themselves to be slain by their 
relatives. Close to a hundred persons were burned alive by 
the king’s henchmen; only children under thirteen were 
spared (1191). From this massacre the king stepped into 
the Third Crusade for the recovery of Jerusalem from Sala- 
din, who had captured the Holy City in 1187. Those that 
took the cross were freed from paying interest on their 
debts. Debts to Jewish creditors were canceled, and the 
barons, after thus impoverishing the Jews, drove them out 
from their territories. 

Philip, however, fell out with Richard, king of England, 
and returned home. He bethought himself of another plan 
of dealing with the Jews. Perhaps it was in defiance of the 
pope (Innocent III., 1198-1216), who had placed him under 
excommunication because of his repudiation of his wife 
Ingeborg. Or the reason may have been that, statesman and 
organizer that he was, he favored commerce and recognized 
the Jewish aptitude therefor. At any rate, contrary to all 
expectation, he recalled in 1198 the Jews to his domain. 
Moreover, he gave sanction to their operations in money- 
lending and determined the legal rate of interest. A tax was 
put on Jewish trade; the treasury had a special account 
labeled ‘Jewish revenue.’ By treaties with the barons, the 
king restricted the Jews in their domicile; henceforth they 


370 SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES [1200 


were not free to move from one feudal dominion to another. 
King and barons spoke of the Jews in their territories as 
‘their Jews,’ thus treating them like chattels and obviously 
as a source of extortion. The penalty for migration was the 
confiscation of property. Isaac the Elder ruled that no Jew 
should buy the confiscated goods of another Jew and, if 
bought, these should be returned to their owner. 

Isaac’s pupils continued the work on the Talmud in the 
manner of their master. Samson son of Abraham of Sens, 
the author of the ‘Supplements of Sens’ and of commentaries 
on parts of the Mishnah, together with some three hundred 
French and English rabbis, settled about 1211 in Palestine. 
He died at Acre (Acco) and was buried at the foot of mount 
Carmel. His brother, Isaac the Younger at Dampierre, 
Judah son of Isaac (Sir Leon) at Paris (1166-1224), and a 
host of scholars labored incessantly to revise the older collec- 
tions and enrich them with fresh erudition. From the French 
schools the ‘supplementing’ activity spread to Lorraine and 
the Rhine, to lands ‘of (comparative) darkness, dry and 
weary, where vision was scarce.’ At Metz, Eliezer son of 
Samuel (died 1198), a pupil of Jacob Tam, wrote the “Book 
of the Reverent,’ in which he set forth the quintessence of 
religious law according to Torah, Talmud, and authoritative 
interpretation. Another Tosaphist, Baruch son of Isaac, was 
born at Worms, but lived in Ratisbon; he was Samson’s 
colleague in the school of Isaac the Elder, and wrote a prac- 
tical ritual code (‘Book of the Heave-offering’). 

Other scholars devoted themselves to mysticism. Samuel 
son of Calonymus and his son Judah, of the Italian Calony- 
mus family, were both known as ‘Saints.’ Thus the Babylo- 
nian lore, transplanted by way of Italy, found a home in 
Germany, and a link was established with the East, dis- 
tinctly unique and far-reaching in its consequences. Judah 
(died 1200), the author of the ‘Book of Saints,’ was like 
Baruch, a native of Worms and a resident of Ratisbon. His 
mysticism, far from taking theoretic flights, lost itself in a 
multitude of odd beliefs which stood near to the popular 
religion and in turn influenced it among German Jews for 


icunmien, WUt fhever in- 


th : YiSMM: Lt? OPPOSITION 


tom, & oe 


. 

ea | 7 1i¥5 ‘oe 

: ‘ a A fey be 4 
q 4 
tr 

\2 wi a a ALi 

ab exe +1} 

Fr = Fa Ack 


Y Clegg. © aus 
poets, “et it~ 


os 


— ed ii any part Gi ine ietierg 
of chanting t he diver: hei its Of Sregrtare 
d. Young men and you! WOTTETE SF. : 
su teach sex by itself. ‘shou 
, Lspeeae sti aC ‘Ahristian cleric: Ge" ine 


yoy 
# 
Ww 
~ 
a 
a 
« 
es 
* 


binge 


sade, $ ince 
his ont “i cicadas leit the Jewpy 
a6 The tidings of the capture of Jernacten 


pe the Gimely order of thot esnperor ta - 
} from preaching age the Jews. The 
cost the Jews a cereal ee, af money 
rial treasury (cammerts. Pius a begiri- 
! f German Jes ev i later times 

sieht the enmiperor had cx wt jurisdic 
protection granted to the jews by the 
met ne ha Ths © circus stance that. te 


l the fate of iNT attacks, 90 a ar 
the First Crusade. T he grant w as de- 
7 will of cheetaperor sit wig an act of 
ad to be applied fc for each ¢ time a new 

Mirena Ee ae | 
in return for the protection was pit: 
over and above: thé: taxes, paid oe the 


APG SEAND! 7 


were ter sere ir) fee Sicialt one f | 
KS nS aed Pures w aad of the Je 


Ae a pore CF extort. the p r ad 
Seaham of EET Taaac the 


‘het; ieves.” thus? renting: thea fi 


ane 
‘2 
> 
o 
ie 


icons wei cad ise spa 
(ite continved: the wor 


these ney, sie 


, 
4 es 4 e 


ponte, asl 


sammner tf 


y at ih ark peice pores a 
ae Aiet at Aare ‘ Aa ancl was 
Capmel. Hie Pre cher, isaac 
iidah son of tes mety ee leon) 
hist ef: oe ho la At 
fwek AN ii CmPrtic G privet eee 
ACTOS a! en pple Cea, act 


mw * : 
Nidve, 


oa 
uw 


* “ oe 
wWeAty, Wie 


Samad { 


iaretadel Agathert ++ Foss 
bom at Wore, bub divest te 

sare in the anhenbnd: Ixanet 
wat ritual ¢ nde: Risedl of the Mi 
‘Ohare scholars dewahed thet 
son of {alon yn and Bis aan 5 
mis family, were Both: Reiwesy as 2 
nian, lore, transplanted by —_ 
Germany, anal a tusk wd gets 
tnetly unique and far nea cba 
died. 1200), the aavher-of thee 
vach, a native of depiex and a 


ae, 


na 9 
whe 
2 
5 


religion and in turn infvenced a 


JUDAH THE ‘SAINT’ 371 


times to come. He valued dialectic acumen, but never in- 
dulged in it himself; he distinctly set himself in opposition 
to arguing for the sake of display. The root of the Torah was 
for every man to know the religious practice. Prayer is 
greater than good works. Devotion in prayer is the principal 
thing; the unlearned and women should pray in a language 
which they understand, instead of honoring God with lip- 
worship in Hebrew. The saint must deal honestly with all 
men, Jews and non-Jews, or else the name of God will be 
profaned. The smallest matters are weighty enough. Thus 
the liturgical productions of the Spanish poets, cast in non- 
Jewish meters, must not be sung in German congregations. 
No landmarks shall be removed in any part of the liturgy; 
the distinct modes of chanting the diverse parts of Scripture 
must be preserved. Young men and young women shall not 
dance together, but each sex by itself. No Jew should dis- 
guise himself in the garments of a Christian cleric, or sew a 
cross on his cloak, to escape persecution. 

The Third Crusade, in which the emperor Frederick I. 
(Barbarossa) met his death by drowning, left the Jews of 
Germany unscathed. The tidings of the capture of Jerusalem 
by Saladin produced a commotion against the Jews; but it 
was nipped in the bud by the timely order of the emperor to 
the clergy to refrain from preaching against the Jews. The 
imperial protection cost the Jews a small sum of money 
delivered to the imperial treasury (camera). Thus a begin- 
ning was made in the status of German Jewry, in later times 
a fixed legal condition, that the emperor had direct jurisdic- 
tion over them. The protection granted to the Jews by the 
central authority was not due to the circumstance that they 
were considered aliens and therefore rightless, but rather |to 
their defenselessness in the face of popular attacks, so glar- 
ingly revealed during the First Crusade. The grant was de- 
pendent upon the good-will of the emperor; it was an act of 
grace on his part. It had to be applied for each time a new 
emperor mounted the throne. 

The consideration in return for the protection was either 
a fixed annual tax, over and above the taxes paid by the 


372 SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES [1196 


individual Jew, or a special assessment at a given time. As a 
source of revenue, the Jews were valuable to the emperors. 
As times went by, the moneys thus received were consider- 
able enough to tempt the territorial princes to acquire for 
themselves the Jewish tax piecemeal from the emperor in 
lieu of payments due them. Thus the theory developed that 
the emperor or territorial lord could arbitrarily dispose of 
the life and property of the Jews. A crime, actually or sup- 
posedly committed by individual Jews, was seized upon as 
a pretext for extorting ‘protection money’ from the Jewish 
communities as a corporate body. In 1179, a number of 
Jews, traveling from Cologne upward the Rhine and passing 
Boppard, were accused of the murder of a Christian woman 
whose body had been found on the banks of the river. The 
Jews were seized and, on refusing baptism, cast alive into 
the river. Emperor Frederick exacted from the Jewish 
communities along the Rhine five hundred pieces of silver, 
and the archbishop Philip on his own hand received forty- 
two hundred. Bonn, where there were particularly wealthy 
Jews, alone contributed four hundred. 

A similar occurrence took place at Neuss in 1187. A de- 
mented Jew murdered a Christian girl in the sight of the 
public. The mob avenged themselves on the Jews by pillage 
and murder, and the community paid-the bishop a hundred 
and twenty pieces of silver. Nevertheless, at Spires and 
Boppard, where excesses occurred in 1195, Emperor Henry 
VI. and his brother Otto had those guilty of the murder of 
Jews executed and restitution made for destroyed property. 
The act of justice was, of course, well paid for-by the Jews. 
At Vienna, in 1196, Solomon, a pious and charitable man 
and the business agent of the duke of Austria, was murdered 
by crusaders. A year later, at Worms, two crusaders attacked 
the home of Eleazar son of Judah, a pupil of Judah the Saint. 
They killed his wife Dolza and their two daughters Bellette 
and Hannah, and left the father severely wounded. In both 
instances the culprits were duly punished. 

The chronicles of the persecutions during the Second and 
Third Crusades were written by Ephraim son of Jacob of 


Benen OF BONN 373 


4200), He was himself @ witness of the 
hors and #t one time getaned death, but 

‘< He also commeniorated the sufferings. 
1 enitential @legies. At the tim of the cen- 
eavy hand of Pope Fnnocent 117, #9 laid upon 
1 ~e of song mace itse!f heard in Gerenan Jewry, 
ema Sfisskind of Toaster. How- 
he grew weary of appears ig venice the 


pe , a tad er ae a F- er vsti? OO eel ees 


- ¢ me 
V7? NOON AND: PREP 
hmaivici lew, ore anes : 
eenyene of revenue, eh a je xa were val 
Aa tines wont by, vr ma oneys thus 
abu eyoug! viy tat) y Ta 
rhamaelves tte jowish e at peti 
fan of pay mente die thet. Thus ¢ 
the nha 1 territed eel lord c0 i 
the Hid and oa one iy oll oe Jews. f 

‘ powdly goraitoad bya 


Hos wage were aoe weekok Hea et’ urd <i 
ee os iy miele or vie on the b 


sia river, Empence yh 


| nial the pane sate “3 PR nee 
Bes ove hundred. Beer, eerste: 
shite alone curien eatin four t r 
| A striker occ renee wok p 
shia Tew 0 meee @ Chr 
otbhe. The mobaie expel the 
4 - iiirder, and the ces 
ewenty piece as ottnar, 
Pt a 1, where eaugerate 
v bored hie bs odie Cities badd ur 
jess executed and rea Le Soe 
; The acto — nee: wets, of cs ! 
ny Veena, in DES6) Sem 
aor the business age og the at 
yy crusaders. A-yeartater, ot ¥ 
the home of Lleazar won of Jada ty 
They killed his wite —— 


tances the « ‘alors ware di 
“The chronicles of thé p BE 
Fhird Crusades were written 4 


1215] EPHRAIM OF BONN BK: 


Bonn (died about 1200). He was himself a witness of the 
events nearer his home and at one time escaped death, but 
not loss of property. He also commemorated the sufferings 
of his people in penitential elegies. At the turn of the cen- 
tury, ere the heavy hand of Pope Innocent ITI. was laid upon 
the Jews, a voice of song made itself heard in German Jewry, 
the voice of the minnesinger Sitisskind of Trimberg. How- 
ever, about 1215, he grew weary of appearing before the 
courts of princes and amusing the great lords and ladies, and 
determined to share the humiliation of his brethren. 


CHAPTER LIII 


THE JEWS OF FRANCE AND GERMANY IN THE 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY 


(1198-1293) 


NNOCENT III. (1198-1216), learned in the law and 
| resolute man of action, zealous in the promotion of 
unity of faith and sworn enemy of heresy, brought the 
papacy to that pinnacle of moral prestige, religious author- 
ity, and temporal power which characterizes the first half of 
the thirteenth century.. His relation to the Jews was mainly 
dictated by the general policy of his predecessors. Although 
he regarded the unbelief of the Jews as in many respects 
blameworthy, yet he held that, as living witnesses to the 
truth of Christianity, they must not be oppressed by be- 
lievers. Accordingly, in 1199, he renewed the privileges 
granted by Alexander III. (1159-1181), which insured to the 
Jews inviolability of their faith, of their life and limb, and 
of their property. This did not prevent him, in the same 
year, while urging the Christians to take the cross against 
the Mohammedans in the East, from demanding that Jewish 
creditors should release the crusaders from payment of 
interest. 

The demand was enacted in the form of law, under pain 
of exclusion from dealings with Christians, in the Fourth 
Lateran Council (1215). Another enactment protected Chris- 
tian debtors against exorbitant, usurious, rates of interest, 
and insured to the churches the tithes from Christian prop- 
erty even when it had passed into the hands of Jewish 
creditors. Jewish converts to Christianity were to be re- 
strained by ‘salutary compulsion’ from secretly practising 
their old rites. In renewal of the rulings of the Toledo Coun- 
cil (p. 305), no Jew was to hold public office. Moneys 
paid to Jewish officers by Christians were to be turned 
over to the Christian poor according to the pleasure of the 


374 


ne ‘BADGE’ . 375 


wi centuries planar thie desta in the posi- 
Te Pi ttiviatian society, was the pure creating for 
oth sexes a dpecial dress ar a Mstijetive sign of 
be worn on their garments. ‘Tins was meant 
a gare gat ie de fren ke pn 


sis dahcaaies: This provision inc sdkucted the 


red at ai early date. ‘Pos weiter. princes, 
Ricsle slow in @arrying thie tosctoyent into 
ge usually of yellow color sid ween on the 
ng time stamped the pam: ee peered. 


sl cxutsempt. 


‘finety-six Jews were sliq et fo furt. in 
of a. murdered Christian ad ceiert Cetween 


Ca 


t e Tauber and. Tauberbischolaltees: © acden: 


ae i 
nthe two Jewish communitiie "esr i cked | 


om in fanart thes discrimi Yet ie a gainst the | 


were everywhere at the raeres ee ine peapiis+ | 


ws and property were Geeree.ed. Many: 
ews were tortured, crucliv «.cccerd, and. 


the flames after their deni. ime Gregory 
) was eer wh odie pewy * t® spaharae deog 


frederick 12. €4215-1250), test eoeeay 


cy, 4 
iter of intellectual activity in whiet poo tems weil 


‘oledo, with whor the emer be carried on 
lence, settled in 1247 in Tuwmyy. iit son of 
natoli of southern France wa: red to Naples, 
hid the university: fowniet in 1224. There, in 
t-with the imperial pets at the sciences and 
a scholars, he made ancessible in Hebrew 
, commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle and 


@ reputed liberal in religion, © wa tae Wieian 


d Mohammedan scholars esl ma. Ax the! 
Judah sin of Solonim, Mart cow (Tbr: 


THE [EWS OF PRARER, : 


1215] THE ‘BADGE’ 375 


diocesan bishop. But the most degrading and humiliating 
enactment, which for centuries placed the Jew in the posi- 
tion of a pariah in Christian society, was the one creating for 
the Jews of both sexes a special dress or a distinctive sign of 
shame (badge) to be worn on their garments. This was meant 
to make them immediately distinguishable from the Chris- 
tian population, on the plea that sameness of dress had led 
to Christians marrying Jewesses. This provision included the 
Saracens, with whom in fact this discrimination against the 
Jews had originated at an early date. The secular princes, 
however, were a little slow in carrying this enactment into 
effect. The badge, usually of yellow color and worn on the 
breast, for a long time stamped the Jew as dishonored, 
branded as an outsider, an easily marked victim of popular 
fury and universal contempt. 

Thus the Jews were everywhere at the mercy of the popu- 

“lace. In 1221, some ninety-six Jews were slain at Erfurt. In 
1235, the body of a murdered Christian was found between 
Lauda on the Tauber and Tauberbischofsheim in Baden. 
For three days the two Jewish communities were attacked 
by mobs. Dwellings and property were destroyed. Many 
representative Jews were tortured, cruelly executed, and 
committed to the flames after their death. Pope Gregory 
IX. (1227-1241) was entreated by the Jews to renew for 
them the privileges previously granted by Honorius III. and 
Alexander III. . 

The emperor Frederick II. (1215-1250), the arch-enemy 
of the papacy, a reputed liberal in religion, made his Sicilian 
court a center of intellectual activity in which Jewish as well 
as Christian and Mohammedan scholars took part. At the 
emperor’s bidding Judah son of Solomon ha-Cohen (Ibn 
Matkah) of Toledo, with whom the emperor had carried on 
a correspondence, settled in 1247 in Tuscany. Jacob son of 
Abba Mari Anatoli of southern France was invited to Naples, 
in the vicinity of the university founded in 1224. There, in 
personal contact with the imperial patron of the sciences and 
other Christian scholars, he made accessible in Hebrew 
translation the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle and 


376 ; IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY [1225 


several works on astronomy and logic by Averroes and al- 
Farabi. In his own philosophical commentary on the Penta- 
teuch, the ‘Goad to Students,’ he cited several suggestions 
that had come to him from the emperor. 

In 1235, a charge of ritual murder led to the slaughter of 
some thirty-two Jews at Fulda. The emperor, thereupon, in 
consideration of a sum of money tendered by the Jews, con- 
firmed the privileges granted to them by his predecessors. 
Moreover, he convoked at Hagenau a diet of princes, nobles, 
and abbots to investigate the charge that the Jews were 
using Christian blood for ritual purposes. The emperor per- 
sonally, on the basis of his own reading, was convinced of the 
falsity of the charge. But as the diet came to no decision, he 
invited all the kings of the Occident to send converts who 
had knowledge of the Jewish law. After prolonged meetings, 
this commission declared that it was written neither in the 
Old nor in the New Testament that the Jews made use of * 
human blood and that both the Law of Moses and the 
Talmud strictly forbid the eating of blood. If the Jews were 
restrained by law from partaking of animal blood, it was 
not to be supposed that they would risk life and property 
for the sake of human blood, not to speak of the horribleness 
and unnaturalness of the crime. Accordingly the emperor 
confirmed the verdict of the princes and pronounced the 
Jews free from the charge. He furthermore forbade any one, 
whether in preaching or otherwise, to lay this accusation at 
their door. | 

Otherwise Frederick yielded to the antipathies of his Ger- 
man subjects, which were largely dictated by economic 
envy. The Babenberg dukes of Austria, who made of Vienna 
a center of commerce, culture, and learning, committed the 
financial administration of the duchy to the hands of Jews. 
Leopold I. (1177-1194) had the Jew Solomon as his master 
at the mint, the same Solomon who in 1196 was murdered by 
the crusaders (p. 372). Leopold II. (1198-1230) had another 
Jew for his banker, who arranged for him the financial terms 
with the Magyar king upon the conclusion of peace in 1225. 
Two brothers, Lublin and Nekele, were counts of the treas- 


gl 


R OF DUKE FRADERION U1. 377 


Austria, When the last Babenberg duke, 
ine Dcenctisine’ }, was driven out, the 
mn the demand of the citizens of Vienna, 

‘ eto the Jews should held no office, 
authority they had of old been eondernaned 
t ip crime to Perpetual slavery’ 41237). A 

n was incorporated into the charter granted 

ar 

ee semperor vouchsafed to the jeniel Vienna 
jon on lines similar to the charter previously 
s'0' F Germany (1238). Their lives were safe- 
terc ous siete and their children — 


| ey were sbitieeis ibternal autonomy 
of their rabbis, Scarcely hae! the eraperor 
nm duke Frederick returned. The citizens of 
aati frora him a promise sisilar to the 
mp eed conceded to them, Tt is ques 


a Gihthe duke issued acharter forthe menis- 
vish affairs, which on the whole was beneveders 
d served as @ model for similar charters whren 
| ntly obtained j in Bohemia, Movewvia. Piun- 
d Poland, The interest permitted te jewieh 

Frat to exceed eight farthings a week for 
. 1 statutes deal with plesee prertgages, 
The eit are free to-move and ‘ carry their 
lace to place within the ducal «rrtory, their 
being subject to the same sl we Christian 
are rated to pay. No tol! ix to be levied upon 
yoda from city to-city or frems peivince to 
uction ah 4 a izh w ee - - pick Me punishable 


ult oe Jewish synagogues. fewrtah ‘children are 
from kidnapping and Jewish maidens from viola-_ 
na I strifes between Jew and Jew may be settled § in 


’ 


334 iN ‘THU THRERREN TE 2 


several works on asivonemy and 
Faraln. in his ows philosophical ¢o 

‘tench, the ‘Goad to Students,’ hee 
tha - had come to hin from. the ox 
es & charge af Leeetise:> : 


Mmakddration gre & st asf pier 
firmed the privileges, granted to 
Woceawer, he conveked wt Mag 
and ebbots to. investignad 2g, 
usne Ghre Lian bland for eral: 
sonavy, Of the basia af hig owt r 
ialeicy of che charge, But ag fhe: 
invited al! the kings of «he Geoss 
hacl know letge of the leiwish le Wg 
this commission declared that i 
Old cor in the New reign 
human brag: ural | 1 
lalmud strinthy fombul he eating. >} 
pana he law ine. 93 Tek A 
to be supposed vhs chey. we i 
for the azke of human thi, not 
- uniatureiness af the erbmiy 
onfirmed the verdiot of cig 
jows [ove from the chaame: Biel ta 
rhether in preachy oF orhnrat 
their dace. 


Owthere ner r Ter deen i. yisieient . ke 
man subjeste, whith were “dal 
enw The BR ibenberg dukes of. 
a copter  conmmmerte, Heltwe ea 


* 


financial administeatiog of the 
Leopoitt 1, 11177-1194) bad rhe f 
at the mint, (he caine Selomon who 
the crasarlers if. = 2h. Leopold ThA 
Jew for his banker, who arranged 
with the Maryar King upon the 
Two brothers, Lublin and Nekele, 


1244] THE CHARTER OF DUKE FREDERICK II. 377 


ury to the dukes of Austria. When the last Babenberg duke, 
Frederick II. (‘the Quarrelsome’), was driven out, the 
emperor acquiesced in the demand of the citizens of Vienna, 
now an imperial city, that the Jews should hold no office, 
‘since by imperial authority they had of old been condemned 
in expiation of their crime to perpetual slavery’ (1237). A 
similar condition was incorporated into the charter granted 
to Wiener Neustadt. 

Nevertheless the emperor vouchsafed to the Jews of Vienna 
imperial protection on lines similar to the charter previously 
issued to the Jews of Germany (1238). Their lives were safe- 
guarded against murderous attacks and their children against 
enforced baptism. Their trade in wines and medicaments 
was regulated, and they were allowed internal autonomy 
under jurisdiction of their rabbis. Scarcely had the emperor 
left Austria, when duke Frederick returned. The citizens of 
Wiener Neustadt exacted from him a promise similar to the 
one which the emperor had conceded to them. It is ques- 
tionable whether this concession extended beyond the local- 
ity mentioned. 

However, in 1244, the duke issued a charter for the regula- 
tion of Jewish affairs, which on the whole was benevolent in 
character and served as a model for similar charters which 
the Jews subsequently obtained in Bohemia, Moravia, Hun- 
gary, Silesia, and Poland. The interest permitted to Jewish 
money-lenders is not to exceed eight farthings a week for 
each pound; several statutes deal with pledges, mortgages, 
and the like. The Jews are free to move and to carry their 
wares from place to place within the ducal territory, their 
merchandise being subject to the same tolls as Christian 
merchants are required to pay. No toll is to be levied upon 
the removal of a corpse from city to city or from province to 
province. Destruction of a Jewish burial-place is punishable 
with death and confiscation of property. A fine is imposed 
upon insults to Jewish synagogues. Jewish children are 
protected from kidnapping and Jewish maidens from viola- 
tion. Internal strifes between Jew and Jew may be settled in 
their own courts; naturally the duke reserves for himself all 


378 IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY [1248 


criminal jurisdiction. As to lawsuits between Jews and Chris- 
tians, Jewish witnesses must be heard alongside of Christian 
testimony. 

Quite the reverse of friendly was the attitude of the French 
king, Louis IX. (1226-1270), to his Jews. His warfare on 
usury and the propensity of the nobles to borrow money 
was justified enough. However, in line with an older ordi- 
nance of his father’s, he remitted the interest due on Chris- 
tian debts to Jews. -He even went further and liberated his 
subjects from a third part of their indebtedness to Jewish 
creditors. The pious zeal of St. Louis manifested itself in 
the favor he extended to converts; often he was present in 
person during such baptisms. The neophytes acted with 
bitter rancor toward their former coreligionists and the 
faith upon which they had turned their back. 

Particularly vicious was the apostate Nicholas Donin of | 
La Rochelle. He laid before pope Gregory IX. a formal 
accusation against the Talmud, charging that it contained 
blasphemies against God, against Jesus, and against Chris- 
tianity, and that it alone was the cause why the Jews stub- 
bornly refused to submit to baptism. The pope gave orders 
for the seizure of all copies of the Talmud and for an investi- 
gation of its contents. In France, the order was immediately 
obeyed. On March 3, 1240, while the Jews were in the 
synagogue, all their books were seized. On June 12 of the 
same year, a public debate was opened between Donin and 
four representatives of the Jews led by Jehiel son of Joseph 
of Paris. A just comprehension of the arguments advanced 
by the Jewish rabbis could not be expected. A tribunal, com- 
posed of dignitaries of the Church, passed judgment upon 
the Talmud, and on the eve of a sabbath in June, 1242 or 
1244, twenty-four cartloads of Hebrew books were com- 
mitted to the flames in Paris. Though in 1247, at the solicita- 
tion of the Jews, the pope was favorable to reopening the 
case, the Talmud was condemned a second time (1248) by . 
the pope’s legate. 

The holocaust at Paris evoked bitter strains of lamenta- 
tion in France and in Germany; the elegy of Meir of Rothen- 


| THE TATAR INVASION 379 


» whe ans present at the event, over Hae & mflapration 
© i Forah is chanted to this day on the Saath of Ab. In 
sant by Rashi. The aged Jehiel expen nnclee! the Talmud to 
e hundred scholars by word of mewth, He assem- 
later ‘Supplements,’ pathetic: “its acting that he 
mpelled to fall back upon ee menawy. The persecu- 
ious exactions ot money Graces Che resources 
munities. Jehiel was compe! f week Rnancial 
the. French schests from sigs’ i hy apd and the 
y countries, At lengt bh the ayes sihzewr te analated 
Acco (1260); he died at Haifa, ©2 2% toast of 

e f (1268). There remained stiasgicte af home. 
MIC @tranged the religious ‘ese the Salmed 
het the Pentateuchal Commuscvenuw- (The 


Sane son. of Joseph of Corbeil. feist « cout lew 
owed suit with ‘the Lesser Peek 6° oneal 
‘Mizwoih Katan, SeMali) s'toan. eezioned 

sof ‘Supplements,’ . 

Germany were likewise ovees / «reef i own 
lamentable vicissitudes, Tie “Aw Ee 
thed. Germany in 1241, arent Ke 9. Soars 


orld and the advent of the Me ee Ra aa ae 
Ehret), especially since forthe HAG 2% wear 

the Opening of the sixth melden tee oeanblag 
Mf creation. False rumors wer, d-sat about 
aby with the rathless iiwadei ts rue fabled 
S$ were none ot haw thaw tii: >, ace tate ahr 
ithe Great in the uation acaiptaias, Phe 
was inflamed; the feast gesveeanen was 
inva Jewish lad, ready. to amigas hapriam, was 
oy ‘his parents and friends. Chesetens and Jews 
ig; on May 24, i241, tustts wis fought with 


* 
N 
‘ % ~ 
; A 
- . 
if i 
‘ , 
Aue) a x & 
a x 
= * « a < 
¢ i Bie . t 
of e' a eps 5 aoe Mas te Filles A”, 4) x 


n France i rb meant the inevitable cleeline of the studies, 


it Gommandments,’ Sepher “ion Viadul, 


neg Christians and Jews, notions ¢pere oy oie | 


e Consequences. In the Upetillotin-Frank-.- 
apres! 


, iG paatiits iets aa ne — side i. 


* 
* 
eye 
ies 
’ . 
al 
Ae 
a a 
a aly 
i te tha | 
aM 
aka ®f i 


ih sine Miye VEY er, : 


; oben Re remitted | : 
2 a «He event _— 


E Oia ae Cites 
Sys. fn Fra 


1241] THE TATAR INVASION 379 


burg, who was present at the event, over the conflagration 
of the Torah is chanted to this day on the Ninth of Ab. In 
northern France it meant the inevitable decline of the studies 
begun by Rashi. The aged Jehiel expounded the Talmud to 
some three hundred scholars by word of mouth. He assem- 
bled the later ‘Supplements,’ pathetically remarking that he 
was compelled to fall back upon his memory. The persecu- 
tions and various exactions of money drained the resources 
of the communities. Jehiel was compelled to seek financial 
support for the French schools from the Holy Land and the 
neighboring countries. At length the aged teacher translated 
himself to Acco (1260); he died at Haifa, at the foot of 
mount Carmel (1268). There remained stragglers at home. 
Moses of Coucy arranged the religious laws of the Talmud 
in the order of the Pentateuchal Commandments (‘The 
Great Book of Commandments,’ Sepher Mizwoth Gadol, 
SeMaG). Isaac son of Joseph of Corbeil, Jehiel’s son-in-law 
and pupil, followed suit with ‘the Lesser Book of Command- 
ments’ (Sepher Mizwoth Katan, SeMak). Others gathered 
up the gleanings of ‘Supplements.’ 

The Jews in Germany were likewise overwhelmed by per- 
secutions and lamentable vicissitudes. The Mongol inva- 
sion, which reached Germany in 1241, aroused in the minds 
of many, among Christians and Jews, notions concerning the 
end of the world and the advent of the Messiah (or second 
coming of Christ), especially since for the Jews the year 
coincided with the opening of the sixth millennium according 
to the era of creation. False rumors were spread about 
Jewish complicity with the ruthless invaders. It was fabled 
that the Tatars were none other than the lost ten tribes shut 
up by Alexander the Great in the Caspian mountains. The 
popular mind was inflamed; the least provocation was 
fraught with dire consequences. In the imperial city Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main a Jewish lad, ready to accept baptism, was 
thwarted by his parents and friends. Christians and Jews 
came to blows; on May 24, 1241, both sides fought with 
vehemence. A few Christians fell; on the Jewish side the 
victims were about a hundred and eighty persons. Those 


380 IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY [1254 


whom the sword had not slain died in the conflagration 
brought about by the fire which they set to their own dwel- 
lings. The fire spread and destroyed almost half of the city; 
the surviving Jews feared the vengeance of the citizens; 
twenty-four embraced Christianity. The emperor’s son, Con- 
rad IV., graciously granted an amnesty to the citizens of the 
devoted imperial city, on the plea that whatever damage had 
been done to the Jews was the result of casual negligence and 
accident. | 

At Kitzingen (in Bavaria) several Jews and Jewesses were 
tortured and then executed (1243). The same year witnessed 
excesses in Ortenburg (lower Bavaria), in Belitz, in Mei- 
ningen; the next year the Jews of Pforzheim were the object 
of popular fury. Peculiar complications developed in con- 
sequence of baptism: through necessity. A Jewish girl, 
betrothed to a Wiirzburg Jew, had changed her faith during 
the Frankfort massacre. After a while she returned to the 
fold, but found that her affianced husband had meantime 
married. The German rabbis held that the husband was in 
duty bound to divorce his wife and marry the girl whose 
claim on him had not been made invalid by her enforced 
baptism. Isaac son of Moses of Vienna (1180-1250) ruled 
that baptism disqualifies a woman for marrying a Jew. 
He was born in Saxony and, after a training in France and 
Germany, settled in Vienna. He wrote a ritual code (‘The 
Light Sown,’ Or Zarua‘), and became the intermediate link . 
between the Franco-German centers of talmudic learning 
and the Slavic countries. 

The repeated massacres, largely growing out of the popu- 
lar legend that the Jews were using Christian blood in the 
preparation of their Passover bread (p. 367), persuaded the 
Jewish notables that a pronouncement from the papal see 
might extirpate the fiction which like a disease was lodged 
in the people’s mind. Innocent IV. (1243-1254) was neither 
friendly nor unfriendly to the Jews. The old canonical re- 
strictions, he insisted, should be enforced with all rigor; 
otherwise he reaffirmed the edicts of toleration of Gregory 
IX. and his predecessors. The pitiful petition of the German 


= GREAT INTERREGNUM | 381 


4 the pontiff of the famencable occur- 
tnd elsewhere, led tim to Gee%re in a bull, 

hbishops and bishops of *#xmany (July 
he Jewish law forbade the very Yisg of which 
methenty docused, faring in conseqsence much 
their fathers in Egypt pader Piraraoh, ‘Since 
pthat the Jews, whose con versis our Lord 
m0 awaits, should be uejust!y itertmented, we 
shapes that they deal wicks thes graciously 
the unfounded undertakenge agpient them 
ationed prelates, nobles, eed mighty rulers, 
i to their legal condition, Re? net te & Gerate 
oy ee or in other mattere ide) Ge dusiuistly 
s to the contrary mist be 4 wuppeemed 


al discipline’ 
he Great Interregnum. from: the cea an | een 
} te Santion of Rudolph of Mss oR [23%5), 


t the Rhine, ; in return for aderskions tie annie! 
| rf in the general peace. wmintained by tee 
ition. The Coniederatign Sail the rate of 
Bie to exceed one-third of the capital. Ph 
it, on the other hand, drew the line ae 
and legitimate merchants; the former he 
e expelled, whether they: were jews or Cihrise 
‘unless they turned to « commerce. (Tsurc h com: 
of Vienna under cardinal (ui as (12 67), rein 
fous measures with the intent of cuctRg “vt 
t 2 between Jews and Christians. jews were 
xt ortion (at Magdeburg, 1261), exqvaidicm , 
again bon life and linb—es at Arnagwet, 11264), 
nh, at 268) and Sinziy (1266), at Welameiieg: £4270). 
of Habsburg (1273-1291). wha sem iagt ail the 
cou lay his hands On, av aie Awhoows: if of.a sub- 
‘sum lent by the wealthy Anshel Upeqiwimer, and 
ag neral accepted gifts, in return for @ay fewer, from the 
wwe in the empire. Heconfirmed the coreaunity of Ratis- 
on in seamed old charter whi guatanteed them internal 


mF 


~ h 
a en 


age IN THE TRIRTRENTE 


whom the swore had nok: slain . 
bronght ato: by the fire which 
. sing. The fire spread and des : 
Pye gurviving Tee axed the 4 
‘ wins tow garbenscand # Chrieulant >, 

pare’... rats arty granted an ai 
Teaixtges gre weenie 4 G2¢ by tid: the plea a4 
Tah cheers Dale: ves iN ier : 


So ACA SOR chy. anata) a 
ee Tegel Toke sme " shuted (12 . 


he 


eA OP ORE See ae gies, 
vit aeowes Leary es cca 


ts ea a: rb 
vey Rak uae fey digngee his 
Vaden ge Rove heed mot Pesitay 
Cee tens ps ee GL ak seine 3 
at fagecern diag ay 
vis eR 21% Say ad, 
ae GSA aectihed +h Whetiau: 
. et TS ba << ae gO ty peep wes 


<a 


wr ieee’ thet the ders were 
mraparation of thet Pasmanat ti 
howieh notables hata prano 
iw. Bato pate thea fhtieny WH 
4a. THE tere & WINE. innocent! 
friendly oor unfriendly te thes 
stractions, he insisted, pai 
therwise he reafirnwedd the « 


pn 


1273] THE GREAT INTERREGNUM 381 


Jews, who reminded the pontiff of the lamentable occur- 
rences at Fulda and elsewhere, led him to declare in a bull, 
addressed to the archbishops and bishops of Germany (July 
5, 1247), that the Jewish law forbade the very thing of which 
the Jews were wantonly accused, faring in consequence much 
worse than did their fathers in Egypt under Pharaoh. ‘Since 
we are unwilling that the Jews, whose conversion our Lord 
in his compassion awaits, should be unjustly tormented, we 
command the bishops that they deal with them graciously 
and, as regards all the unfounded undertakings against them 
by the above mentioned prelates, nobles, and mighty rulers, 
to restore them to their legal condition, and not to tolerate 
in future that in this or in other matters they be unjustly — 
harassed; all attempts to the contrary must be suppressed 
by ecclesiastical discipline.’ 

During the Great Interregnum from the death of Conrad 
IV. (1254) to the election of Rudolph of Habsburg (1273), 
the Jews along the Rhine, in return for a considerable annual 
tax, were included in the general peace maintained by the 
Rhenish Confederation. The Confederation fixed the rate of 
interest on loans not to exceed one-third of the capital. The 
duke of Brabant, on the other hand, drew the line between 
money-lenders and. legitimate merchants; the former he 
ordered to be expelled, whether they were Jews or Chris- 
tians (1261), unless they turned to commerce. Church coun- 
cils, like that of Vienna under cardinal Guido (1267), reén- 
acted all the rigorous measures with the intent of cutting off 
social intercourse between Jews and Christians. Jews were 
subjected to extortion (at Magdeburg, 1261), to expulsion, 


~ to violent attacks on life and limb—as at Arnstadt (1264), 


at Coblenz (1265) and Sinzig (1266), at Weissenburg (1270). 
_ Rudolph of Habsburg (1273-1291), who needed all the 
money he could lay his hands on, availed himself of a sub- 
stantial sum lent by the wealthy Anshel Oppenheimer, and 


in general accepted gifts, in return for any favor, from the 


Jews in the empire. He confirmed the community of Ratis- 
bon in their old charter which guaranteed them internal 


382 IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY [1286 


judicial autonomy, but yielded to the bishop in insisting 
that the Jews should keep indoors during Holy Week. Sim- 
ilarly he reaffirmed the charter held by the Jews of Austria 
since 1244, but appeased the Christian citizens by dis- 
qualifying a Jew for public office. He gave imperial sanction 
to the bull of Innocent IV. against the libel of ritual murder, 
as well as to that of Gregory X. (1271-1276) which, in addi- 
tion, forbade baptism by force. The emperor did what was 
in his power to bring the guilty to book. Serious excesses 
occurred along the Rhine, in Franconia, and in Bavaria — 
(1283-1287), thus adding new lists of martyrs from among 
the sorely tried Jews of Germany. 7 

Many of the wealthier families along the Rhine and Main 
determined to emigrate. to Palestine. The company of exiles 
was led by Meir son of Baruch of Rothenburg (1220-93), one 
of the last ‘Supplementers,’ a pupil of Samuel of Falaise and 
of Isaac of Vienna. Meir was highly revered through northern 
France and the German communities for his saintliness and 
learning. He was by far the greatest authority that had 
arisen in Germany in a long time. He had a large school and 
many of his students lived in his house. He had more influ- 
ence on the religious life of his day than any other German 
scholar, not so much by his own writings as through his great 
disciples who carried his teachings to Spain and Austria. 
While tarrying at Lombardy to await the arrival of the rest 
of the company, the rabbi was recognized by a converted 
Jew who was passing through with the bishop of Basel. The 
bishop had him seized and delivered to Germany where, 
upon the emperor’s order, he was confined in the fortress of 
Ensisheim, near Colmar, in Upper Alsace (1286). 

The voluntary expatriation of so many Jews, subjects of 
the imperial treasury, was not to the liking of the emperor. 
Such property as the fugitives had left at home was claimed 
by Rudolph, though the citizens thought that the inheri- 
tance should pass on to themselves. At all events an example 
was to be made of the rabbi; no restriction was placed upon 
his freedom, and his disciples were permitted intercourse 
with him; but he was kept in confinement. The Jews offered 


mere OF ROTHENDY ao | 383 
emperor the Gans of twenty. thivasernd denrics3 in silver 
re aie» ) their leader. The rabisi deelined to be set 
18 8, le ent should be estatvintwal whereby any 
F money from the Irws by selving their 

t din the fortress act tie death in 
the body Was: not supreme nierat whi! many 
rd heavy Fansom wae gael da @onch and 
Frankfort, Alexander Sacked Wimpfen. 

r 2 interred at Worms, at oper tue death, 
ad tovrest by the side of rhe gre, tewther, ‘ 
s here for a while to oaerae Vie Gedamity 
pan a jand whose politsca: Samtery a8 
ibithethat of France, acci where aii «i- 
rking Jewish. life were: nach Cyan te 
lan center. | 


a 
‘ ; 
wae 
@ 
> 
a’ 
a 
o% ? 
: i 
ioe os" 
. 
ed % 
: - 
airy r : 
ote s 
ge t 4 
er 
' 
. 
*y 
« 
r 
\ 
és 
¥ d 
ms 
2 L : 
By © 
‘.- q 2 : > 
4 iG . a * A i 
a 4) Se +s: 
eae Lae ix q * i ‘5 
DE a w ee Oe ee hers tee 1 + oe a & VA ‘. uN ood 


; 
IN 
A ; it} 
‘ t ‘ + i 
; . re 
7 : . ‘ > 7 a) ‘ 
i ; i244, DUC appease. the G 
. ae | 3 A. 7 cA aa 4 M4 é } . LELpety ~ 
. : wile inocen 
| is to that of Greg ary 
AA \ ‘ 4 " P 
f a { nah tet {9nd te? j ‘4 { isiti foree hake Th 4 
xa . ? 5 ai \ J 
is Dower tO & 
’ ; ; ah ri th; 
4 T2871. Taae 
2 ‘ . 3 Ae ¥ es jute a eg 
’ ’ CT set3 says e704 Tina, 
jane of the weaitnie: fanrilve 
ey porter ie 2 FQ 
mined to emigrate to Palegtt 
; , RESP : aie ¢: 
a ay Per BOM. Ot Ba rue ich of Re 
; en, os on 
i 5 apoE: ¢imh 
2 } ay pris 
i 4 1 My ist! 


ee Tote TT b 4g Wes ieee f he, gre chee 
arisen 1m 4 serkt Mvy Im, a ong times] 


While tarrying at Lombardy? 
of the COMpany, the Sete” was. 


Was TRISSHIt 


bishop had him seis an fi de 


upon, the emperor's $ ; order, he wae 
‘ear Colmar, ir Uppe 
tar v expats heute On of 
the imperial treasury, was not to 
Such oroperty as the filgitives f : 
by Rudolph, theaueh the citizen! 
f tance should pass on Th themselvoRs, 
was to be made of ther rabbi: non ri 
his freedom, and hig esa ciples 
with him: but he w 


1293] MEIR OF ROTHENBURG 383 
to the emperor the sum of twenty thousand marks in silver 
for the release of their leader. The rabbi declined to be set 
free thus, lest a precedent should be established whereby any 
ruler might extort money from the Jews by seizing their 
rabbi. So Meir remained in the fortress until his death in 
1293. Even then the body was not surrendered until many 
years later, when a heavy ransom was paid by a rich and 
generous Jew of Frankfort, Alexander Stisskind Wimpfen. 
The remains were interred at Worms, and upon his death, 
Wimpfen was laid to rest by the side of the great teacher. 

We may pause here for a while to narrate the calamity 
which befell Jewry in a land whose political history was 
largely interwoven with that of France, and where the cul- 
tural conditions marking Jewish life were much the same as 
in the Franco-German center. 


CHAPTER LIV 
THE JEWS OF ENGLAND 
(1066-1290) 


Pr “ur Jews of England, the ‘Land of the Isle,’ came 
from northern France and the Rhine valley. Before 
the Norman conquest casual traders ventured across 

the Channel; some Jews may have come to Britain in still 

earlier times, in the train of the Roman legions. However, 
we know of no permanent settlement before the eleventh 
century. William the Conqueror (1066-1087) brought over 

a body of Jews from Rouen. They formed the middle com- 

mercial class between the upper and lower classes in Eng- 

land. The presence of the Jews in the land was encouraged. 

Henry I. (1100-1135) granted a charter to Joseph, rabbi and 

chief Jew of London, and his followers, under which they 

were permitted to move freely in the country, together with 
their chattels, without paying tolls or customs. They could 
buy whatever was offered them, receive pledges for loans of 
money, and dispose of them after holding them a year anda 
day. They were to be tried by their peers, and to be sworn on 

a scroll of the Law. 

The disorders and civil strife under Stephen (1135-1154) 
could not pass by without disturbing the Jewish community; 
they were mulcted both by the king and by his rival, the 
empress Matilda (Maud). An Oxford Jew, who refused to 
pay his contribution to the king’s expenses, had his house 
burned down. In 1144, on the occasion of the disappearance 
of a boy, William of Norwich, the Jews were accused of hav- 
ing murdered him. At the same time, a Jewish convert, 
Theobald of Cambridge, made the general charge that the 
Jews killed a Christian every year before Passover as a 
sacrifice, deciding by lot in which city the murder was to 
take place. So flimsy was the evidence that the Jews were 
not even required to answer the charge, the sheriff of 


384 


ie deel 


UNDER BENRY I 385 


<mate his protection. . Neve Atte! the 
ly gained credence aad the chiid became a 

: : cons sequence, the fews of Norwich were 

eing killed; while the majority fed. When, 
the Erdesdters raged against the Jews on the 
sh Jewry went unscathed thasks to the 
King Stephen. | i 
ved favorable conditions uncer eet i, 
(first of the Angevin kings, both in his 
and in England. As there was novegency 
jand the taking of interest was proheinied 
ae Church, the Jews, who were barred 
an. and from holding inad, perterce 
5 or qmoney-lenders, thereby wing & gap 
nic life of England. The king writs frequetiily 
r€ Weds, at times canceling the debes i 
é to the Jews in return for a lesser pay went te 
a nape capitalist died, the king became bts 
nd » Christians would allow their debi te 

. nd the appointed time in the hope that Se — 

| die whereupon they could. settle with the 
sable terms; Moreover, by laying chin bo 
’ the king often acquired power ewer Ute 
ame indebted to him instead of te thu jews. 
ever, the natural heir was permitted io retain 
fortune so a8 to continue the, hes ative 
was closed to the king. a 
rose to great opulence. They live! in pears 
ch in magnificence equaled the royal palvets. 
coln built up a vast banking thi iit ies eereech- 
ine count he advanced money mE) @u.corn, 
JMany an abbey and monastery was built 
eecreintin cofiperation ; the king iatmeelf was in- 
phim for loans. Wher be died,” Ldesiry seized his 
e actual gold and wilver were dws. in x wreck 
ng s si sed to France, te esaugh remained in the 
nof debts owed by several hustdred persons for the main- 
of a pecerate’ division of the exchequer, ‘Aaron's 


. 


ew: jews ol euianide 
from northern France @ 
the Norman conquest e 


a i x ol he 3 from Rouen: 


Henry ‘% (1 100- 1 135) scag til 
chief Tew of London, and his |! 
were permitted to move freely & 
their Plabinst: er paying | 


money, pie: dispose “of then aft 
day. They were to be tried by the 
2 ar Oe: roll of the Law, 
The disorders and civil strife: 
could not pass by without distur 
they were mulered both by the 
empress Matilda (Mand). An @ 
may his contribution to the icing 
yurned down. In 1144) en thé o¢ 
of a boy, William of Norwich, the 
ing murdered Him. At the sary 
Theobald of Cambridge, made 
Jews killed a Christian every > 
sacrifice, deciding by jot in wht 
take place. So flimsy was. the @¥ 


1154-1189] UNDER HENRY II. 385 


Norwich taking them under his protection. Nevertheless, the 
story subsequently gained credence and the child became a 
martyred saint. As a consequence, the Jews of Norwich were 
attacked, some being killed, while the majority fled. When, 
two years later, the crusaders raged against the Jews on the 
continent, English Jewry went unscathed thanks to the 
intervention of King Stephen. 

The Jews enjoyed favorable conditions under Henry II. 
(1154-1189), the first of the Angevin kings, both in his 
French dominions and in England. As there was no agency 
for money-lending and the taking of interest was prohibited 
to Christians by the Church, the Jews, who were barred 
from the artisan guilds and from holding land, perforce 
became capitalists or money-lenders, thereby filling a gap 
in the economic life of England. The king would frequently 
interfere in their business, at times canceling the debts of 
Christians due to the Jews in return for a lesser payment to 
himself. When a Jewish capitalist died, the king became his 
real heir, and many Christians would allow their debts to 
stand long beyond the appointed time in the hope that the 
creditor would die whereupon they could settle with the 
Crown on favorable terms: Moreover, by laying claim to 
Christian debts, the king often acquired power over the 
barons who became indebted to him instead of to the Jews. 
As a rule, however, the natural heir was permitted to retain 
a part of the fortune so as to continue the remunerative 
business which was closed to the king. 

Several Jews rose to great opulence. They lived in houses 
of stone which in magnificence equaled the royal palaces. 
Aaron of Lincoln built up a vast banking institution stretch- 
ing Over nine counties; he advanced money on land, on corn, 
on dwellings. Many an abbey and monastery was built 
through his financial codperation; the king himself was in- 
debted to him for loans. When he died, Henry seized his 
property. The actual gold and silver went down in a wreck 
on being shipped to France, but enough remained in the 
form of debts owed by several hundred persons for the main- 
tenance of a separate division of the exchequer, ‘Aaron’s 


386 THE JEWS OF ENGLAND [1189-1199 


Exchequer.’ The. Jews were, moreover, heavily taxed espe- 
cially when preparations were being made by Henry II. for 
the Third Crusade. On this single occasion, the immense 
tallage of sixty thousand pounds, one-fourth of their mov- 
able property, was levied on the Jews of England. 

In all that pertained to the communal and spiritual life, 
English Jewry was dominated by France. From France, 
Abraham Ibn Ezra paid them a visit in 1158. In London 
taught Jacob of Orleans, a noted pupil of Tam; another dis- 
tinguished disciple of the teacher of Rameru was: Benjamin 
of Canterbury. Jewish communities were to be found at 
London, Oxford, Cambridge, Norwich, Bury St. Edmunds, 
York, Canterbury, Winchester, Newport, Stafford, Wind- 
sor, and Reading. The largest body of Jews resided in the 
capital. Until 1177 the only burial-place the Jews owned 
was located there. | : 

The Jewswere roused from their tranquillity by the storm 
which broke loose at the coronation of King Richard I. 
(Coeur-de-lion, 1189-1199). When a Jewish deputation ap- 
peared at Westminster Abbey with rich gifts on behalf of 
all the communities in the realm, they were refused admis- 
sion. The humiliated representatives of Jewry were hooted 
by the palace guards; the mob without proceeded to throw 
stones at them. A false rumor spread that the king had 
ordered the destruction of the Jews. Unable to penetrate 
into their strongly fortified stone houses, the populace set 
fire to the straw roofs of the dwellings. Many who essayed to 
escape were ruthlessly butchered; others, among them Jacob 
of Orleans, slew themselves when the alternative was bap- 
tism. A few Jews, however, saved themselves by this alterna- 
tive: one of these, the rich Benedict of York, was later per- 
mitted to return to Judaism. The riot lasted twenty-four 
hours; the chief justice and some noblemen, whom the king 
sent to quell the disorder, were forced to withdraw. The 
king, on learning what had happened, had three of the par- 
ticipants hanged. He let it be understood that the Jews must 
not be molested and had proclamation made to that effect 
throughout England and his French dominions. Scarcely, 


7 


a a Richard crossed the Channel to join Philip 
sin ne Crusade, when riots broke ont afresh; so at 
bly because the Jews attacked a baptized core- 
d taken refuge in a churci:. also at Norwich, 
p Bury St. Edmunds (2/90). The Jews of 


themselves betimes by seeking Re Sel in the 


h and the dawn of the next Gas; March 14-17, 
: perenne. to follow their king against the 
esses envious of jewish wes'th, barena tn- 
aiieé: the fanatical clergy, x® posspéivedd to 
the Jews. Several dwellings wee set en fre: 
children: of Benedict, who had died of arrests 
Eeepeeton. were burned.in th eix hevtese: ated 
§ riches were plundered... The alarmed Jer 


* 


f eaept, pct a Nig in ‘the royal castle, 


¢ 4 ey ddied hin Shostesheoni The warder callect 
J of the sheriff of the county; Richard Malebys, a 
aie rin debt to the Tews. Se cucnaid § the siege. The 
he ob was kept alive by the exhortations of a 
lebrated mass every morning in his white robes 
1@ tower. A stone falling from the battlements 
we monk; his death infuriated the mob to a spill 
PEs pe iv. seat fe % 
less ada were short.of rations; surrender petted 
death by torture. In obedience to the &ehorta. 
‘religious leader, Yorn Tob of Jaigen, wr y Shevse 
hands On themselves. Tire tay leader Beweeds cot the 
of his wife Anna and ther owe chaetes: 09 se fel! 
ARGS of tie steadfast rable. the weston ¥ followed 
ou ning ot destroying _ _— When at — 


1 ¥ death. BS hsidiettigs: some five: hdtindred 
he mncis then returned to the cathedral where the 


THE YORK MASSACRE = 387 


Lirss sie — at York on the eve of i the. 


* 


TT . Truk IBWS Of ENGEZ 


owner. The Tews were, aaonpoviens 

c$aihs wis ih orenaratone wore being: 
the Thicd Crmede: Cn thie shighe 
tpitane or mRty sen fags ©: 


wigan ieTs Was Bets 


ita “ i tae eres a mE =o 
RVeeticores fp Dee ee ee pes: 
F a 
ane wre i= 

ts) ? 
of Canteroury. pemuni a cone 
: tom, Oetord, Cam beldews 


od 
My 
ine 
» 
-_ 
- 
2 
Pr) 
me 
=~ 
~~ 
S 
oa a 


f 4. cs 
wteth there. 


i 


fe TER RES Paes 


he Laie prermeraees See moe. gy 
ee of (etn JA bat gee 


a ae et Maia rhe se Ge. 


iff. Rice fe Ve & be BOWES :, teat 
tee) oneal these che : ich en : 
rived to rebum wo jee 
hours; the chiel imate ama? a 
went to quell the discedar, 
king, on learsing what had h 
tichpants hanged. He let te, he 
mt be molested and bad: | 
throughout Lugland «at big d 


7 


a | 


ae FS ee 


1190] THE YORK MASSACRE 387 


however, had Richard crossed the Channel to join Philip 
Augustus in the Crusade, when riots broke out afresh; so at 
Lynn, ostensibly because the Jews attacked a baptized core- 
ligionist who had taken refuge in a church; also at Norwich, 
at Stamford, at Bury St. Edmunds (1190). The Jews of 
Lincoln saved themselves betimes by seeking refuge in the 
royal castle. 7 

Most tragic was the massacre at York on the eve of the 
Great Sabbath and the dawn of the next day, March 16-17, 
1190. Crusaders preparing to follow their king against the 
Saracens, burgesses envious of Jewish wealth, barons in- 
debted to the Jews, the fanatical clergy, all conspired to 
exterminate the Jews. Several dwellings were set on fire; 
the wife and children of Benedict, who had died of wounds 
received at the coronation, were burned in their house and 
their enormous riches were plundered. The alarmed Jews, 
with their leader Joseph, sought shelter in the royal castle. 
One day the warden happened to be gone; the Jews were 
apprehensive lest he might hand them over to the besieging 
mob, and so they denied him admission. The warden called 
in the aid of the sheriff of the county; Richard Malebys, a 
noble deeply in debt to the Jews, commanded the siege. The 
rage of the mob was kept alive by the exhortations of a 
monk, who celebrated mass every morning in his white robes 
in front of the tower. A stone falling from the battlements 
killed the monk; his death infuriated the mob to a still 
higher degree. 

‘The hapless Jews were short of rations; surrender spelled 
baptism or death by torture. In obedience to the exhorta- 
tions of their religious leader, Yom Tob of Joigny, they chose 
to lay hands on themselves. The lay leader Joseph cut the 
throats of his wife Anna and their two children, then he fell 
at the hands of the steadfast rabbi; the majority followed 
suit after burning or destroying their goods. When at day- 
break the citadel was captured, those who were still alive 
were put to death. Altogether some five hundred Jews 
perished. The mob then returned to the cathedral where the 
records of debts due the Jews were in -safe-keeping. They 


388 Te PES Ce ee 


vompelied the guard ans EO: ae 


Harertec then andl there iy the's : 
of the mob wae spent; and tet bity 


| mer and qinet. Similarly chs Ri 
St sumity of Prasesytes, We tw 
yo mit. The cha yacellos Lorigelamp 


eee wie: afte euders; but the mat et crus: 
Hity barns escajrest be) ‘ Seotla 
as removed from offek,. i: 


slates i, on was not to rthe interest of 
j « r , 


ri 


a twire = the ows bi ‘ihe ore 
A S + yh Hi nga ; j Richard,” toward 
ne Fogland wtre made to (om 


the whole city ol u eindony int 

in deplicate all debta heldr ‘by’ 
ne che king were-cay ik fa 
et | asa wile pertaarcda all wee 
ants euccemors the. fewer’ 
brads of. taxen i ihe form. 


j dep si iy a itty obleringy; 
sed, and Hite + Pe vim was! 
cunfacathon of pripertyy the 
acd even gotamg out the e 
jot Leukia i exterted fro 
marks (4290) Ab ahiatie OF 
sacs of ter thousand mar 


seven of ide teeth ae 


holy Lar ) {21 i}. 

A still larger ewodus: was 

years after ce gocession of K 
et aisle wi th the decision. of hes 


Siewihers I Prise , fovenes 


x 
4 
¥ 
ine) 4 

re 


1255] THE LIBEL AT LINCOLN 389 


mix with Christians. The wearing of the badge, an oblong 

white patch of two fingerbreadths by four, was to be rigidly 

enforced, so as to make the isolation certain and complete. 

However, the king, jealous of his authority, quickly dis- 
___ solved the injunctions of the ecclesiastical body. Soon, how- 
; ever, the oppressive measures against the Jews were revived 
__and the burdensome taxation levied on them again became 
the norm. The Jews sued for permission to leave the land. 
But they were far too valuable a source of income to tolerate 
their expatriation; orders were given to the wardens of the 
ports to prevent any Jew from passing out of the country. 
In 1230, the king levied in taxes one-third of the property of 
the Jews. The annual taxation grew by leaps and bounds. 
Between the years 1255 and 1273, upward of four hundred 
thousand pounds escheated to the Crown from the legacies 
of deceased Jews. The communities were made collectively 
responsible for the taxes that were to go to the king. In 1241, 
a ‘Jewish Parliament’ was convoked at Worcester, sup- 
posedly to consider ways and means of improving the lot of 
the Jews; it proved to be a new method of regulating the 
distribution of a tremendous tallage. 

The influence of the Church became increasingly marked 
in the repressive measures against the Jews. The order of 
January 31, 1253, provided that Jewish worship in the syna- 
gogues should be carried on in a low voice, inaudible to 
Christians; Jews might not employ Christian nurses or 
domestics; Jews might not eat or buy meat during Lent; no 
Jew might prevent another Jew from embracing Christian- 
ity. A special refuge for baptized Jews had been established 
in 1233, the House of Converts. Henry III. felt himself com- 
plete master of the Jews of the realm. In February, 1255, the 
king sold them to his brother Richard of Cornwall for five 
thousand marks, ceding all his rights for one year. Before 
the year was over, the Jews of Lincoln were made to expiate 
the murder of a Christian boy (Hugh of Lincoln), upon the 
forced confession of a Jew near whose dwelling the body had 
been found. Ninety-one were sent to London to the Tower, 
eighteen were executed for claiming a trial before a mixed 


390 THE JEWS OF ENGLAND [1262-1281 


jury, as was their right, and the remainder lingered in prison 
until the king released them at the request of his brother, 
the earl of Cornwall. An earlier appeal on behalf of the Jews 
by the friars—who thus proved the utter falsity of the 
charge—had failed. During the civil war (1262-1266) Lon- 
don Jewry was sacked. Similar excesses occurred elsewhere. 

Restrictive legislation reached its complete measure under 
Edward I. (1272-1307). His Statute of Judaism of 1275 
breathed the same spirit as the edict of Louis IX. of 1254. 
By the categorical prohibition of usury, the chief, almost 
the sole, source of income was lost to the Jews. After being 
successively mulcted to the point of impoverishment, they 
ceased to be quite as indispensable as they had been, par- 
ticularly since the great Italian banking firms were just as 
accommodating and had supplied Edward with funds during 
his Welsh wars. It made little difference that the Lombards 
soon made themselves as unpopular as their predecessors 
had been; the monopoly of the Jewish money-lenders had 
been broken. The king granted them permission to engage in 
any other legitimate commerce and handicrafts, and even 
to take farms for a period not exceeding ten years. But farm- 
ing could not be taken up at a moment’s notice, nor could 
handicrafts be acquired at once. Moreover, the guilds had 
practically a monopoly of all skilled labor, and they refused 
to accept any Jews in their midst. Even to buy and sell in 
the markets one had to be a member of the Guild Merchant. 

The other restrictions tended to preclude all intercourse 
between Jews and Christians. A supplementary edict of 1279 
set capital punishment upon Jewish blasphemy against the 
Christian religion. In 1280, the Jews were ordered to listen 
to the conversion sermons of the Dominicans. The Synod of 
Exeter, in 1281, gave force to the usual churchly enactments 
against the Jews. Jews were forbidden to employ Christian 
domestics, nor were they allowed to hold public office. Chris- 
tians might not eat at Jewish tables or engage the services 
of Jewish physicians, no new synagogues were to be built, 
doors and windows were to be shut on Good Friday, the 
wearing of the badge and the payment of church tithes were 


_ THE EXPULSION. a eae 


7 ause of the increasing vexations leading 
phe, the spiritual life of English Jewry 
t lines . There were individual scholars 
sramumiar or to lixurgical fwwtry ; several 
201 ge Jewish jaw. At the head of the 
hope 1 ea esaaiaas of al! the ents os once 


ate ioc. The f were sadaed to 
Ail Saints’ Day of that year: They 


bunds, vena the total magne nieoner te 


tains rho sopaniain to transport erin: 
I: other were drowned on their way te 


‘ei is t going vo Pander, the pohet Giidteiy rele 
Pep 


+o" 


bd Carry away with iin their wide 


nthe shape of rental did wer aaa ime 


* HE JRWS OF E NG 
ie 4a! , unt :} y iy Gy eto th ie rema 
a reroseed cise at po I 
¢; : ¢ Bae eit? ryew 
; : % 5 ‘ é : “ %S 


et os 
‘i 


¥ 
¢ 


—a 
et 
ae) 
= 
. 


aes Rewisicrive le@itati 1» reached it 
His See a 


ee ead ees 
ae ; 


ase 8 iy 
SE bP eh oe o EM 
h 
CUEAT I< & 
CMP T 
‘3 4 aon 
3 R ne es 
by 
Ch 
tA log ea 
u ¥ : “<< eF e2 


BAY Leet eV: ccenrnerce 
: io take farms a eheses suns 


: Hancdicrafia tak siete ie at pate ‘ 
or? - ; ae abt 
tes Ve Lact rv a tt m7 pe: of 4 alt ale 


nae OL er Teete of See “rende 
y 7. F cvceeuk Seca ce 4 
DeWalt 2. ee tes 2: ha 


to the com versie sermons of A 
ikxeéter, in 1231, gsavedorce te the 
against the jews, leweavere for 
domestics, vor were they allowet 
eat at; jewish 
of Jewish physicians, moareW 
dogs and « dome 2 were ae bie 


CMA Teagiat They 


- 


1290] | THE EXPULSION 391 


made obligatory. Because of the increasing vexations leading 
to the final catastrophe, the spiritual life of English Jewry 
moved along modest lines. There were individual scholars 
given to the study of grammar or to liturgical poetry; several 
are quoted as authorities in Jewish law. At the head of the 
whole Jewry stood the ‘presbyter of all the Jews of England,’ 
who was chosen by the king and who was in the main the 
official tax collector. 

There was no alternative for the king save the final act of 
expulsion—the first general expulsion to befall the Jews— 
which was issued July 18, 1290. The Jews were ordered to 
leave the realm before All Saints’ Day of that year. They 
were given permission to carry away with them their mov-, 
ables. Their dwellings, with few exceptions, escheated to the 
king, whose profit in the shape of rental did not exceed one 
hundred and thirty pounds, while the total debt owed to 
the Jews—the king could collect only the principal— 
amounted to nine thousand pounds. Some of the Jews were 
robbed by the captains who undertook to transport them 
across the channel; others were drowned on their way to 
France. Altogether sixteen thousand Jews left England, 
about one-tenth going to Flanders, the others finding refuge 
in France. 


CHAPTER LV 
THE JEWS OF PROVENCE 
(1100-1394) 


O LONG as Languedoc and Provence in southeastern 
France were under the rule of the counts of Toulouse 
). and the counts of Provence, the Jews shared in the 
peaceful condition, the prosperity, and culture of this wealth- 
iest portion of France. The population was of old Roman 
blood; Christianity sat lightly upon them; the Saracens were 
‘near by, now as enemies that must be fought, now as friends. 
Life was gay; manners, fostered by troubadour poetry, were 
freer, with scant room for bigotry. What made Jewish exis- 
tence secure was, in the first instance, the circumstance that 
the ruling counts were only nominally dependent upon the 
distant king of France or the equally distant emperor of 
Germany. Secondly, as in Narbonne, the jurisdiction was 
divided between the viscount and the bishop, both compet- 
ing for the revenue brought in by the Jewish subjects. The 
Jews of that city had their own head, referred to as ‘king of 
the Jews,’ and their own ‘consuls’ or police officers, subject, 
of course, to the city consuls. Jews owned land and im- 
movable property; they had extensive vineyards. They 
imported spices and retailed them in market stalls; they 
were generally engaged in commission business. Only ata 
late date were they drawn into money-lending, but their 
transactions were not usurious. At Marseilles, the Jews had 
equality of status with the Christian citizens, and were 
admitted to all the professions and trades. At Montpellier, 
several of the ablest teachers at the school of medicine were 
Jews. | 
The mental horizon of the southern French Jews was a 
much wider one than the confined outlook of their northern 
brethren. Provence, which for the Jews meant the whole 
South, was the bridge between Spanish Jewry and the center 


392 


Aoue 
tone AS nN SEAT OF CULTURE 393 


. 


‘The Provencal J Jews became the carriers of 
Hture: Among them we find thie hvat transla. 
ihe Hebrew rongue, mace ancesaitde to wider 
$ written is Arabic. In talniudic studies they 


an fatermediating Fae wrving to 


th was closest to tet Abealiae aon of 
M the rabbinical college lied 1176), codified 
prudence (The book of ‘the Chicer, Sepher 
). Tal mudic learning was ¢ le tacidd by Bie pupils, 
i oF of David af Pose quidren: 6th } PEGA) nck 
vi of Saleen later ad tha Ame. The Sisto ivy 


Beet aa. et Cleat intenec:. Yoreawah wax 
wha either | 14; satel ce. a a ae: ‘ ~ b orter t ; 


all eireired ait sve Fakeosd ot at-Fasis 
he was at home in other bere here te teas ny 


as Maimonides more honored titer: ce the Com- 
yathern France, and here poe cen Hi >? WERK 
fists and the friends of a vorioeitred )adaism 
The Jews of Provence hang 46 ‘7% word of 
€ as upon an orac le. When re * Laviadlie’ appeared 
i of Lunel, | aS fet by in men son of Daye | 
red the author aD SiG Op ee pat brek ete i; 
translate the work inte Hiebrow, that ches tet 
B thoroughly, As a muse: « é fact, the iy Rad 
lent at hand. ft fd oh . a fortune @ qesexs- 
basi of Mestuthiee woe: of jacob fdligk 7179) a 
se wealthy, erode @ fecudic Warten, and a 
Sulture: Thanks 4 py ee uragomeni, a circle of 
. ea iadeisate ytlvsi a vhie cite, Eel zane came 
‘ | Saul lire Tihbes i <5 about 1990), a fugitive 
mohade fanaticusn s- Goranaita, Sy profession a 
a,-and the posses« of a»valuatle collection of 


Z ae rere we eae guedac and i Provence 
the esi: of t 


cat 


gas 


- wy " % ra 
Met OCU UD ee La PCa CS 


weVveral of the eolhab ten obers at 


+ One thant 


? oes ad oon a a) 
rrovence, wW 


* 


as the bri lve be . 


on 


ein. w 


ween § n Spat 


1198] LUNEL AS A SEAT OF CULTURE 393 


further north. The Provencal Jews became the carriers of 
Arab-Jewish culture. Among them we find the first transla- 
tors who, in the Hebrew tongue, made accessible to wider 
circles the works written in Arabic. In talmudic studies they 
likewise occupied an intermediating position, striving to 
unite Spanish system with Franco-German acumen. At 
Narbonne, which was closest to Spain, Abraham son of 
Isaac, chief of the rabbinical college (died 1178), codified 
talmudic jurisprudence (“The book of the Cluster,’ Sepher 
ha-Eshkol). Talmudic learning was cultivated by his pupils, 
Abraham son of David of Posquiéres (died 1198) and 
Zerahiah ha-Levi of Gerona, later at Lunel. The authority 
of the former was recognized in all Provence. He submitted 
‘the Code of Maimonides, to some of whose views he objected, 
to a searching criticism in which he displayed all his vast 
learning, his keen mind, and clear intellect. Zerahiah was 
more original than either his teacher or his fellow-student; 
he possessed an unusual independence of judgment. Though 
his writings all centered about the Talmud or al-Fasi’s 
Compendium, he was at home in other branches of learning 
as well. | 

Nowhere was Maimonides more honored than in the com- 
munities of southern France, and here the battle between 
the traditionalists and the friends of a rationalized Judaism 
was fiercest. The Jews of Provence hung upon the word of 
Maimonides as upon an oracle. When the ‘Guide’ appeared, 
the intellectuals of Lunel, headed by Jonathan son of David 
ha-Cohen, begged the author to send them the book and if 
possible to translate the work into Hebrew, that they might 
study it more thoroughly. As a matter of fact, the city had 
the ready talent at hand. It had the good fortune of posses- 
sing in the person of Meshullam son of Jacob (died 1170) a 
leader, at once wealthy, erudite in talmudic learning, and a 
friend of culture. Thanks to his encouragement, a circle of 
prominent intellectuals gathered in this city. To Lunel came 
Judah son of Saul Ibn Tibbon (died about 1190), a fugitive 
from the Almohade fanaticism in Granada, by profession a 
physician, and the possessor of a valuable collection of 


394 THE JEWS OF PROVENCE [1204 


books. He became the ‘father of translators’ and rendered 
successively from Arabic into Hebrew the works of Bahye, 
Ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, Ibn Janah, and Saadiah (1161- 
1186). 

His son Samuel (died about 1230) was charged with the 
translation of the ‘Guide.’ Later, he translated not only 
works of Maimonides but also some of the writings of Aris- 
totle and Averroes. While at work on the version of the 
‘Guide,’ he entered into correspondence with the sage at 
Fustat. He longed to meet the greatest Jewish scholar of 
the age face to face. Maimonides dissuaded him from under- 
taking the perilous voyage, especially since, busy as he was, 
he was hardly able to spare him much time. Instead he gave 
him sound advice as to how to overcome the difficulties of 
translation and elucidated a number of difficult passages 
(1199). On November 30, 1204, fourteen days before the 
author’s demise, Samuel completed the translation of the 
‘Guide.’ This translation enriched the Hebrew language with 
many new terms coined by the translator, and the style of 
the Tibbonids became the model of scientific Hebrew during 
the Middle Ages. Another, less successful, version was made 
by the poet Judah al-Harizi, whose style excelled that of 
Samuel but who did not master the subject-matter as thor- 
oughly. Both these men rendered into Hebrew portions of 
the Commentary on the Mishnah. 

The publication of the Hebrew ‘Guide’ added fuel to the 
flame in the controversy between liberalism and orthodoxy, 
Maimunists and anti-Maimunists. The opposition to the 
‘Code,’ which had started in the East (p. 343) and was taken 
up in the West by Meir son of Todros Abulafia ha-Levi, was 
nothing as compared with the storm which now broke 
loose. Some of the friends of philosophic studies had followed 
the method of allegorical interpretation to great length, 
thereby shocking many of the orthodox talmudists. Ortho- 
doxy, moreover, scented danger in the rationalism of Mai- 
monides. The talmudist Solomon son of Abraham of Mont- 
pellier, in conjunction with his pupils Jonah son of Abraham 
of Gerona and David son of Saul, tried to set the people 


THE KIMHIS 


le.’ The seloaaeaomy of 
Beziers, and eter erie) 


er: ’ isand Sheth a Stata as ne 
€ ar el spread across the Bs t ae ri x, 


qMmediating attitude. But 
‘physician to king Ferdinx 


out from Narbonne across the 
the Kinshis originated in Spatn 
persecution, David's father. 3 

‘to Narbonne. He, like his sw 


inslations from the Arabic (died ate 


(died about 1190) ‘wrote ope 


; young: brother Davi fur nishe *; 


t Stila a Hebral: BES, ai the revivi 


re of the last three centuries. 
) grammar and dictionary. Ms 


pfoundly influenced the An 
¢ Pivaxs Bible, Authorized 'Version). 


' % ‘ 


vin, if possible, some of the “ors 
ithe side of the Maimunian pert 
Pyrenees. 


‘co? 


i himself by-tutoring; a contemporary 
inc Lo ai he wrote on Hebrew geo 


land elementary grammatical rcs 


395 


ati istic method, while carefully avoiding 
tC) — tai Maimonides. Av Abulafie. had done 
poten son of. Abrahars AoW terned to oF 


Provenge rose in 
r the han by a 


itself 


«> blows in the 


Pet Saefona, 


n of Nahman (Nahmani, p. 424) was inclined to 


“* A 8 itd; 


led by 


od 111, dtead 


ish Fewish 


the aged 


Le the tine 


reeerehh aon of 


er him, 
Abraham 
tar and 
}. hie 
aries an 
ouh 
tox t-Doeis 
learning ix 


th century, trained themevives in the etow- 
David summed up the labors of Spanish 
its wrote @ 

jomimentary on 
hg of Scripture became so popular that in this 
Ne $ second only to that of Rashi; through indirect 
glean version of 


La Mas 


training, David was commited to the liberal spirit; 
he: espoused the cause it the Maimunists. At 


WOO, Sade oe 


1190] THE KIMHIS 395 


against the rationalistic method, while carefully avoiding 
personal attacks upon Maimonides. As Abulafia had done 
before him, so Solomon son of Abraham now turned to the 
northern French scholars. These men were entirely unfamil- 
iar with philosophic speculation, and when they saw the 
- ‘Guide,’ they unanimously condemned it and pronounced a 
ban against the study of the ‘Guide’ and the philosophic por- 
tions of the ‘Code.’ The communities of Provence rose in 
protest; Lunel, Béziers, and Narbonne met the ban by a 
counter-ban. The community of Montpellier was itself 
divided, and liberals and traditionalists came to blows in the 
streets. The quarrel spread across the Pyrenees. At Gerona, 
Moses son of Nahman (Nahmani, p. 424) was inclined to 
a conciliatory, mediating attitude. But Toledo, led by 
Judah al-Fakhar, physician to king Ferdinand III., stood 
obdurate. To win, if possible, some of the Spanish Jewish 
- communities to the side of the Maimunian party, the aged 
David Kimhi set out from Narbonne across the Pyrenees. 

The family of the Kimhis originated in Spain. At the time 
of the Almohade persecution, David’s father, Joseph son of 
Isaac, emigrated to Narbonne. He, like his sons after him, 
maintained himself by tutoring; a contemporary of Abraham 
Ibn Ezra and Jacob Tam, he wrote on Hebrew grammar and 
made translations from the Arabic (died about 1170). His 
elder son Moses (died about 1190) wrote commentaries on 
the Scriptures.and elementary grammatical treatises. Both 
he and his young brother David furnished the text-books 
with which Christian Hebraists, at the revival of learning in 
the early sixteenth century, trained themselves in the knowl- 
edge of Hebrew. David summed up the labors of Spanish 
Jewish scholars of the last three centuries. He wrote a mas- 
terly Hebrew grammar and dictionary. His commentary on 
the greater part of Scripture became so popular that in this 
respect it was second only to that of Rashi; through indirect 
channels it profoundly influenced the Anglican version of 
1611 (King James Bible, Authorized Version). 

By his training, David was committed to the liberal spirit; 
naturally he espoused the cause of the Maimunists. At 


396 THE JEWS OF PROVENCE [1288 


Avila he was taken ill. In vain did he protest, in his corre- 
spondence with al-Fakhar, his own orthodoxy, claiming that 
he was following merely in the footsteps of the ancient 
teachers, Sherira and Hai and al-Fasi, in that he held fast — 
to reason at the same time that he was true to tradition. At 
Burgos, the tidings reached him of the scandal perpetrated 
by the opponents of Maimonides. Gregory IX., bent upon 
destroying the last vestige of the Albigensian heresy, had in 
1233 conferred upon the Dominican order inquisitorial 
powers to ferret out and repress heresy. To the Dominicans, 
accordingly, Solomon of Montpellier and his abetters de- 
nounced the writings of Maimonides—the ‘Guide’ had by 
that time been translated from the Hebrew (of Harizi) into 
Latin—and a bonfire was made of them in the public squares 
of Paris. Kimhi did not long survive this fanatical exhibition 
(he died in 1235). The act led many of the French rabbis to 
withdraw their signatures, and there ensued a decided revul- 
sion of feeling. The quarrel, however, was one which could 
not be settled—the differences were too deep-seated. The 
commotion subsided for the time being, but it was bound to 
break out afresh sooner or later. 

The bloody crusade against the Albigensians had for its 
result the destruction of the brilliant Provengal civilization 
and the annexation to the kingdom of France of all the 
country from Carcassonne to the Rhone (1229). The Council 
of Béziers (1246) ratified the usual canonical discriminations 
against the Jews, including the prohibition for Christians 
to employ Jewish physicians. Nevertheless, Alphonse of 
Poitiers, heir of the count of Toulouse, who harassed and 
despoiled the Jews of his domains, was glad, when afflicted 
with a disease of the eye, to procure the service of a Jew- 
ish physician of Aragon. What was left of Languedoc passed 
into the possession of Philip III. the Bold, after the death 
of Alphonse (1271). Philip IV. the Fair, who added Cham- 
pagne to his possessions (1284), mulcted the Jews again and 
again. At Troyes, on the charge of ritual murder, thirteen 
of the richest’ Jews of the community were condemned to 
perish in the flames (1288); two poems in old French recount 


EQUARREL anouTMaAIMGNGES 6 397 


he Unfortunate victims. Af Pana, on the 
ig the host, a Jew and hic wile wore burned 
oes the game year the: king exiled the Jews 
m from Gascony and Raylene tut the full- 
niser ¥ for the Jews of France wakpyt tocome. 
jons of the kingci Frade at Perpi- 
172 had passed froth. + Sarcoma 7 Rowssil- 
sof Aragon, the Jews hast © faves tolerable 
Weteven there they wer ett jected #p certain 
d were domiciled i in Orne «eh Loe acer qharters 
inner life reflected the coihiews of the 
munities, There wen iy ‘terge, who 
phie studies, aud the op citea, whir were 
rrische methods py ae ed Sword thi ntral Per 
flere turned into mene fepseion “reel Ba-- 
iy) charitable, pious, ‘$ Reeega ei awk a 
ed a poor scholar, i. ot SE SP eeham of 
1320), bn extrem: a ea i ee 
Probe out again. 2) ¢ see | panent 
eects the: pevscn. : r* oot S's son of 
later at Maatpelies trl Moen ime, at 
Peamonsacainat Stsiniese cc, aed by 
‘: la Rabalist ol Freee - oy “yatalism 
nsors in Jarah sesan. spk esas t ipbon 
mebemathematical awit -esrye.cu. works, 
ymical tables anc! dina Bae ye, DOPE 
steansiations), ard the weet coeur son of 
peers. An intetimedinn ese) fae, oot itn 
9 the students of st tana eg het one Se ed By 
i fabbi, Menahem son oF Speed: ha-Meiri, 
voluminous and rnethedic#! ver -y on the 
Dalmud. The erthoriox aypuwsy ) ve dovemest 
Rut rity” of the time, ty neh ay Hehe ta ort at Bar- 
0).On the sabbath hie! ny ‘ee? Besa’ of Ab iuly 
, this scholar issued a ban. shipe! “> finwell and 
han-thirty scholars of iw» gee, vbich pacer ribed 
r of the: geciences; save mm@i>er, io @igobee whe 
thirt “years old. The Rbsais aaiwnted with a 


Be 


an 


5 ad 


1305] THE QUARREL ABOUT MAIMONIDES 397 


the sufferings of the unfortunate victims. At Paris, on the 
charge of piercing the host, a Jew and his wife were burned 
to death (1290). In the same year the king expelled the Jews 
who were driven from Gascony and England. But the full- 
est measure of misery for the Jews of France was yet to come. 

Outside the dominions of the king of France, at Perpi- 
gnan, whichsince 1172 had passed from the counts of Roussil- 
lon to the kings of Aragon, the Jews lived in fairly tolerable 
circumstances. Yet even there they were subjected to certain 
restrictions and were domiciled in one of the worst quarters 
of the city. Their inner life reflected the conditions of the 
neighboring communities. There were the liberals, who 
dabbled in philosophic studies, and the orthodox, who were 
shocked at the extreme methods by which Scriptural per- 
sons and facts were turned into mere parables. Samuel ha- 
Sullami, wealthy, charitable, pious, a learned man and a 
poet, befriended a poor scholar, Levi son of Abraham of 
Villefranche (1250-1320), an extreme allegorist. 

The old quarrel broke out again. A vigorous opponent 
of philosophy arose in the person of Abba Mari son of 
Moses of Lunel, later at Montpellier, while in Palestine, at 
Acco, the agitation against Maimonides was started by 
Solomon Petit, a cabalist of French origin. Liberalism 
found its sponsors in Jacob son of Machir Ibn Tibbon 
(a translator of mathematical and astronomical works, 
whose astronomical tables and treatises were very popu- 
lar in Latin translations), and the poet Jedaiah son of 
Abraham of Béziers. An intermediate position, not un- 
friendly to the students of philosophy, was maintained by 
the Perpignan rabbi, Menahem son of Solomon ha-Meiri, 
author of a voluminous and methodical commentary on the 
whole of the Talmud. The orthodox appealed to the foremost 
rabbinical authority of the time, Solomon Ibn Adret at Bar- 
celona (p. 430). On the sabbath before the Fast of Ab (July 
31), 1305, this scholar issued a ban, signed by himself and 
by more than thirty scholars of his city, which proscribed 
the study of the sciences, save medicine, to any one who 
was not thirty years old. The liberals answered with a 


398 THE JEWS OF PROVENCE [1306-1315 


counter-ban. Curiously enough, the governor of Montpellier 
objected to the ban against the study of philosophy, as it 
would check the progress of conversion. 

The quarrel had by no means been allayed, when French 
Jewry was overwhelmed by an edict of expulsion, promul- 
gated June 21 and executed July 22, on the tenth of Ab, 
1306. The king’s treasury was empty; the property of the 
Jews, real and personal, as well as the debts which Chris- 
tians owed them, was confiscated. Even the chicken in the 
pot was not safe from the king, so ran a folk-song. The 
synagogue at Paris was presented by the king to his coach- 
man. The Jews, about a hundred thousand, were turned out 
of the country where they had resided nearly one thousand 
years, with only the clothes on their backs and a small pit- 
tance in coin. The impression which this calamity made upon 
a young student, hailing from Spain, but at the time under- 
going training in Montpellier, is pictured in the narrative 
of Estori Pharhi. He tells us how he was taken out of school, 
stripped of his garments, driven at the height of his studies 
from his fatherland, how he cast about in his youth from 
people to people and from kingdom to kingdom among men 
of foreign tongue, and at last found rest in the Holy Land, 
devoting himself to a study of its sites. The majority of the 
banished settled in adjoining Lorraine, Burgundy, Savoy, 
Dauphiné, Roussillon, and the part of Provence which was 
not under French dominion. A few rich Jews were recalled 
to help in collecting the debts and in locating the treasures 


hidden by the exiles; but their stay lasted only a few years, 


till 1311. 

Jewish history in France practically came to a einen 
then. It is true, the Jews were recalled by Louis X. in 1315. 
The people, groaning under the usurers who succeeded them, 
clamored for their return. The king had himself well paid 
for the grant of protection stipulated to last for a period of 
twelve years. The Jews were glad to return to their father- 
land, ‘their mother.’ Unsold property, synagogues, and burial- 
places were restored to them and they were promised one 
year’s notice if the permission to stay was to be withdrawn. 


mo nahin AND LEPERS 399 


1 (1316-1322) continued the policy of his 
ta nied band of Pies persis 


uslier aosates were repeated, At Verd tin, 
‘took refuge in a stone tower; after a 
eing faced with surcepier, they preferred 
5, the governor vain sried to protect 
against the ‘holy mer’: but the pop- 
with the shepherds, and the Jewish con- 
hilated; some were bapriaed. When the 
1 against the clergy. tury were vigor- 
down. pthan a hundred awe? bwenty Jewish 

3 f France a Spain had i in the oe untime beets 


when the popular mind Was a4 easy fi shi 


t the lepers Se Bicenedt a conspiracy + poison 
1e e outcasts, on being tortured, eS that the 
scommit the crime themselves, had instigated 
ing. Accordingly the Jews were condemned to 
y fine. At Chinon, one hundred and sixty Jews 
n enclosed pit. In Paris, only the' ru! liye were 
he others were exiled. The richest were re- 
fo assure the payment of the enormous fines; 
Hy admitted the innocence of the Jews; batt 
1 phrad inst: their lives; nor was the momey, 
n the Jews, restored to them. Charies PV, #BO 
Philip ‘in 1322, expelied the jews a second Mine 
french realm (June 24, 1322), quite unexpantedty, 
: promis of a ywar s warning. - 
fisaster-of Poitiers, when Jon thy (xed was 
at by the cm gngely army Sh 356}, Sab lews. were 


ay however, were epee cia Pe, "iad ite 
ment was narrowly averted in 1464 though Charles 

4. 1380) on the whole kept to bm compact and in 
fs conceded privileges. all few fixed payments. 


i " ¥ ; t 
" . 
¢ 
Ra gee! wee 
v7 HF f CA See” pee 
WY 
CTPA Pages ety cae eough, the 
Wat ae Ras ei 
s ’ ~ at ’ 2 < . a 
: 2S ee ne ee ee ee 
re 
: 
4 
¢ 
Pie 
aa: f ; te ae ; Pe, Keer wise | a ay, ae 
‘ 3 * t 
aX ras aon i 
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1320-1368] THE ‘SHEPHERDS’ AND LEPERS 399 


Philip V. the Tall (1316-1322) continued the policy of his 
predecessor. But a crusading band of shepherds (Pastou- 
reaux) and peasants overran in 1320 southern France and 
later northern Spain. They soon turned against the Jews, and 
the horrors of the earlier crusades were repeated. At Verdun, 
five hundred Jews took refuge in a stone tower; after a 
desperate defense, being faced with surrender, they preferred 
suicide. At Toulouse, the governor vainly tried to protect 
them and to proceed against the ‘holy men’; but the pop- 
ulace took sides with the shepherds, and the Jewish com- 
munity was annihilated; some were baptized. When the 
shepherds later turned against the clergy, they were vigor- 
ously put down. More than a hundred and twenty Jewish 
communities of France and Spain had in the meantime been 
ruthlessly destroyed. ; 

It was a time when the popular mind was an easy prey 
to all imaginary terrors. In the following year, 1321, it was 
_ believed that the lepers had formed a conspiracy to poison 
the wells. The outcasts, on being tortured, alleged that the 
Jews, fearing to commit the crime themselves, had instigated 
the undertaking. Accordingly the Jews were condemned to 
pay a heavy fine. At Chinon, one hundred and sixty Jews 
were buried in an enclosed pit. In Paris, only the ‘guilty’ were 
put to death; the others were exiled. The richest were re- 
tained so as to assure the payment of the enormous fines. 
The king finally admitted the innocence of the Jews; but 
five thousand had lost their lives; nor was the money, 
extorted from the Jews, restored to them. Charles IV., who 
succeeded Philip in 1322, expelled the Jews a second time 
from the French realm (June 24, 1322), quite unexpectedly, 
in spite of the promise of a year’s warning. 

After the disaster of Poitiers, when John the Good was 
made prisoner by the English army (1356), the Jews were 
once more brought back (1359) for a period of twenty years. 
‘The conditions, however, were most precarious. Another 
banishment was narrowly averted in 1368, though Charles 
V. (1364-1380) on the whole kept to his compact and in 
many ways conceded privileges, all for fixed payments. 


400 THE JEWS OF PROVENCE [1394 


But the popular revolts against heavy taxation, which 
began under that king and continued during the reign of 
Charles VI. (1380-1422), coupled with the rise of the national 
spirit, led to riots against the Jews. The king for a time made 
a show of protecting them, convenient as they were for filling 
the treasury, until an incident occurred which brought mat- 
ters to a head. A Jew of Ville-Parisis, Denis Machault, 
returned to Judaism after accepting baptism. Immediately 
the Jews of Paris were ordered to be flogged and then ban- 
ished. On September 17, 1394, which coincided with the 
Day of Atonement, the mad king signed the order for all 
the Jews of the realm to leave the country by November 3. 
No Jew was thenceforth to live in the domains of France. 
In Lyons, they remained another twenty-five years, till 
1420; in some parts of Provence, for another century. From 
the papal possessions, including Avignon, the Jews were 
never expelled. 

Under such conditions little of fruitful inner activity was 
possible between the first recall and the final banishment. 
We hear of official chief rabbis, such as Mattathiah son of 
Joseph Treves, who lived in Paris; he had great authority 
and enjoyed royal favor. Charles V. exempted him from 
wearing the circular badge. In Provence alone, which was 
outside the French realm, interest in philosophic studies and 
in the sciences did not flag. In this nook, Maimonides and 
Averroes held the minds captive. In commentaries on the 
‘Guide’ as well as on various biblical books, two men carried 
the ideas of the master farther: the shallow but prolific 
Joseph son of Abba Mari Caspi (of Argentiére, died at 
Tarascon 1340) and tAe more erudite Moses son of Joshua 
Narboni. The latter hailed from Perpignan, but spent the 
greater part of his life in Spain, where he died some time 
after 1362. 3 

By far the boldest philosopher of the age was Levi sonof 
Gershon, intermittently at Orange, Perpignan, and Avignon 
(1288-1344). He excelled as a mathematician and astrono- 
mer. He invented an instrument of observation; the part 
of his astronomical work dealing with that instrument was 


a a 


Levi aon OF GERSHON 401i 


Latin by acder of BoP xe Clement VI. in 1342. 


Pidlosapbica! system, hel eats upon 
andations, he laid down in his priseipal work, 
the Lerd’—his opponens: cailetl it ‘Wars 
x d'—written itt @ dogina-te of atone ‘aera 


8 matter before creation, fhe thvire Provi- 
te yy 


ying to dividuals, he maistinest, eiawniteated 
 inanner-the more wombs es. ie Betson, 


Sona in the ee vine care. it wag Cab aiewt 
poer to rationalism, pavits ce ee tue the 
ite rationalism of Spinoza. “si fo the Gow 
eth Matter even in tater: sos % }endaparte 
fed from the’ extremé powers Pie atl 
ht an expression of its decocw hooey «# 
a — Or at least ean Hah dt the 


hewan. ttndes thus: bisip cere! conde 
(mashes Vi, (1280-1427), coupled 
apuit, Jed to riots againat fem 

veow of protecting they oo 
the. treasury, untiban incident« O 
tris tO 2 nba er Jew of Vil 


an Pe 4 3t) rent area 17, 139 
Lohan eit hie ent, Law nie: 


’ 
ee . ." 
faa] ae ee RR hy 


Wie Beaty a cial hiet « rabbis 
idangh Trewes, whe dived in 
sen: eqjoyed royal faver. Chases 
weecng the opeular badge In Pra 
caie«le che Presch teal, interest 
um tee asians GRE ot flag, 
Awerrags hel id the minds cap i 
otic 39 wel ues Om wari Bs Me 

wig. cf they master farth 
: ‘ ory oe sere. af Adve ‘Mari ¢ U 
Decireg eH i340) aaa dhe more 
Nu “The Inter Bates 
Pet ver pare oF Wa life § a 


ad hes rt oJ. 


ae 


By v far the Wieldest ehie 4 
(aero, bberyrd then the at Owe 
(28S 1540), He excelled aaa 
mer. He inverted: an, intel 
of his astrcnomical work dea 


1344] LEVI SON OF GERSHON 401 


translated into Latin by order of pope Clement VI. in 1342. 
He also wrote commentaries on Averroes as well as on the 
Scriptures. His philosophical system, based largely upon 
Aristotelian foundations, he laid down in his principal work, 
‘The Wars of the Lord’—his opponents called it ‘Wars 
against the Lord’—written in a Hebrew of utmost precision. 
In this work he ventured to go beyond Maimonides, admit- 
ting a formless matter before creation. The Divine Provi- 
dence, as applying to individuals, he maintained, manifested 
itself in a graded manner—the more illustrious a person, 
the more given to realizing in himself the Active Intellect, 
the more he participated in the divine care. It was the most 
complete surrender to rationalism, paving the way for the 
still more resolute rationalism of Spinoza. Yet for the time 
being, and for that matter even in later times, Judaism 
necessarily recoiled from the extreme positions thus ad- 
vanced and sought an expression of its deepest concerns in a 
‘knowledge’ that was Jewish or at least more akin to the 
Jewish spirit. 


CHAPTER LVI 
GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 
(1298-1407) 


“uE ‘Jewish Knowledge,’ which ripened in Spain (p. 

432), had its roots both in France and in Germany. 

It was mainly a turning away from the exaggerated 

rationalism of the philosophers. At the same time it was 

favored by the depression of the Jewish mind in consequence 

of the growing deterioration of the status of Jewry, economic ~ 

and social. The eclipse of French Jewry was precipitate; the 

misfortunes of the German Jews were drawn out for a longer 
parid down into the fifteenth century. 

_ During the civil strife between Albert I. of Habsburg and 
his rival Adolph of Nassau, shortly before the latter was 
defeated in battle and slain (1298), the Jews of R6ttingen, in 
Franconia, were charged with the crime of pounding a sacred 
wafer in a mortar until the blood flowed forth profusely. 
Such a preposterous story was enough to cause a general 
uprising. A nobleman, by the name of Rindfleisch, placed 
himself at the head of a mob, and the whole Jewish com- 
munity suffered death at the stake (April 20). Rindfleisch 
and his followers went from town to town and from province 
to province, spreading terror and slaughter throughout 
Franconia, Bavaria, and Austria. Nothing remained for the 
Jews except to die Heroically for their faith; only the craven 
saved their lives by baptism. The large community of Wiirz- 
burg was exterminated (July 23). At Nuremberg, the Jews 
sought refuge in the castle, but were overpowered and 
butchered (August 1). Among the six hundred and twenty- 
eight martyrs was Mordecai son of Hillel with his wife and 
their five children. He was a pupil of Meir of Rothenburg 
and the author of a ritual work in which the decisions of the 
Franco-German schools were summed up. 


402 


ISCH-AND THE 'ARMLADER’ 4038 


only two communities escaped, 
uy uaeang, , thanks to the protection of the 
ut passed on to Austria. All told 

t “Tewsh communities were wiped out 
thous: | persons siniy. Albert }. (1298~- 
Sie: on the ingpetial cities in which 
ad. As Roman emperor, in succession 
< /Charlemagne. he claimed sole own- 
said that he even demanded of Philip 
French Jewry. However, both Albert 
Rudolph, dealt much more leniently 
excesses in their wen Austrian 
ww these evil times cer Asher son of 
of the martyred Morsivs:, oe 


» for the inner le of German 
a “Teel in old vigor under such eandi- 
Lof Damocles hung continually over thee. 
“persecutions in Alsace, Swabia, and 
1338), led by two noblemen, ‘Armleder’y(so 
ce om eathaewhich they wore around their 
Louis the Bavarian (1314-1347) com- 
} the care of the count of Nuremberg. He 
her princes that no excesses would be teser- 
gs, however, did not check the bloody riots. 
isbo oe d Vienna the council and citizens protected 
s But at Deckendorf (1337), a awe mp charge 
ing the host led to an attack by the «ry council 
1€ knights of the vicinity. “ bes “tel upon 
ewe and litifed ov burned (hem; they ther” 
t’ thereby not only ridd:ug chetsieiiide of 
38 6 the Jews but even acquiring riches. 
ved the claim of succession to the Reman em- 
3 he instituted a new levy, the gute: penny 
| This was, aside from any pe igaes the Jews 
ng, a poll-tax of one guiden a year teom every Jew 
B, above the age of twelve, pxisaeseing property 
east twenty guides. : 


“Ane gery caowcedge, 
pad He iis in Da 


7 ‘eo Fe oe = # i 
Paticgnialiain. we. fae . a 
fayore) by the Gap 
ol the gre a Lteg deere + 


Qui soma Tipe ae reine’ % ¥ 
mnistortives af shed Cseeranalt 


his f rvs Adelob 9) N aceon, ¥ 
defested in batt aad we. € 
Franconi. ert harrgee wit 

erator i a cea wat i the 


tite 3 oe iionay 


eet at tha Spare a 
aukiey suttored clea a ‘whe ¢ 
ng i : fedike vee 4 west ft 
 RrovwiTras anda 


(rancestia, Bavaro) sel A 
lews except am Heedcally: For 
saved their lives ty Bape The 
bUrE Wes GUtANAy nated § (july 2 
sought reluge a Che pestle’ 
raitchere] ( Aare. ee Among. t 
erght Foarc yrs Wee Mordecai son . 
their Aye children. He was a pit 
and ‘the author of a ritual woe ie 
rman schoots were sun 


5 9hry ee fory 
j re Tearee 
> ~ 


1342] RINDFLEISCH AND THE ‘ARMLEDER’ 403 


‘In the whole of Bavaria only two communities escaped, 
Ratisbon and Augsburg, thanks to the protection of the 
magistrates. The slaughter passed on to Austria. All told 
a hundred and forty Jewish communities were wiped out 
and one hundred thousand persons slain. Albert I. (1298- 
1308) imposed heavy fines on the imperial cities in which 
massacres had occurred. As Roman emperor, in succession 
to Vespasian, Titus, and Charlemagne, he claimed sole own- 
ership of all Jews. It is said that he even demanded of Philip 
IV. the surrender of all French Jewry. However, both Albert 
and his son, the duke Rudolph, dealt much more leniently 
with the perpetrators of excesses in their own Austrian 
dominions. It was during these evil times that Asher son of 
Jehiel, a fellow-student of the martyred Mordecai, together 
with his family, forsook Germany. 

It was next to impossible for the inner life of German 
Jewry to maintain itself in old vigor under such condi- 
tions. The sword of Damocles hung continually over them. 
During the fearful persecutions in Alsace, Swabia, and 
Franconia (1336-1338), led by two noblemen, ‘Armleder’y(so 
called from the piece of leather which they wore around their 
arms), the emperor Louis the Bavarian (1314-1347) com- 
mitted the Jews to the care of the count of Nuremberg. He 
also warned the other princes that no excesses would be toler- 
ated. Such warnings, however, did not check the bloody riots. 
In Ratisbon and Vienna the council and citizens protected 
the Jews. But at Deckendorf (1337), a trumped up charge 
of desecrating the host led to an attack by the city council 
in league with the knights of the vicinity. They fell upon 
the unsuspecting Jews and killed or burned them; they then 
seized their property, thereby not only ridding themselves of 
their indebtedness to the Jews but even acquiring riches. 

Louis renewed the claim of succession to the Roman em- 
perors. In 1342, he instituted a new levy, the ‘golden penny 
of offering.’ This was, aside from any other taxes the Jews 
were paying, a poll-tax of one gulden a year from every Jew 
and Jewess, above the age of twelve, possessing property 
worth at least twenty gulden. | 


404 GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY [1348 


Duke Albert II. of Austria (1330-1358) saw through the 
real cause of the excesses against the Jews, which was noth- 
ing but lust for pillage. In answer to his appeal, Pope Bene- 
dict XII. (1334-1342) ordered that charges of Jewish dese- 
cration of the host and similar offenses must be substan- 
tiated by a court of inquiry and that, failing to support their 
accusation by evidence, the authors of the dastardly libel 
should be proceeded against with all canonical rigor. On the 
other hand, duke Henry of Bavaria granted to the citizens 
of Deckendorf amnesty for the crimes committed against the 
Jews. He also exempted them from the payments of debts 
due to Jewish creditors, and gave them permission to retain 
all pillaged goods. Yet all these persecutions were trifling as 
compared with the most general and devastating outbreaks 
against the Jews in’ western and central Europe which 
occurred in 1348 and in the following years, particularly in 
1349. 

The Black Death, that terrible epidemic, essentially the 
same as bubonic plague, was imported into the West from 
India and carried off more than one-third of the population. 
In the credulous and superstitious minds of the terror- 
stricken masses the notion arose that the Jews were causing 
the disease by poisoning the wells and rivers which sup- 
plied the drinking-water. As in 1320 and 1322 (p. 399), weird 
stories were circulated concerning a universal plot on the 
part of Jewry to destroy the Christians. It was fabled that 
the conspiracy originated in Toledo, the capital of Castile, 
and that in southern France certain Jews were commissioned 
to compound the poison and have it conveyed to all parts 
of Christendom. The ingredients of the poison were sup- 
posed to be spiders, lizards, frogs, human flesh, the hearts of 
Christians mixed with the dough of sacred hosts. By means 
of inhuman torture confessions were wrung from some Jews, 
who confirmed any and every suggestion put to them. 

In vain did Pope Clement VI. (1342-1352) set himself 
against the popular obsession; in vain was the solicitude of 
the German emperor, Charles IV. (1347-1378), for his serfs 
of the exchequer. In Strassburg, the mayor and the city 


2 THE BLACK DEATH _ 405 


dt by letters from ether city councils such 

, Iterposed ake the Jew-haiters and 
vey feared that once the mob had its way 
‘it might turn against the patrician masters. 
it at is intercession, the coun? was charged: by 
Db wit » being bribed hy the jews aid speedily re- 
ie ice. The new cousicil brow ght the whole Jew- 
Bid Hierebbrned thentall alive: i+ then ordered all 
¥ On indebtedness to = hl fess destrored, 
Be vetted, and the sums of more teft by those 
to be distributed among the artieeu:. Thev aiso 

| gorene with thé neighboring geeers and Joreds, 


f called to account. 
imonies of the tortured wer sjqerul from 
4 The obsession gained moments se toe dread 
ed through Europe. It macte the geet: vrcatteae 
e fatred against the Jews, who mcauee 
ie habits of life and their natural sewveratior 
Wha’ less exposed to the ravages Te (4a 
ulace histed for the blood of the Jews, aad reore 
treasures. A contemporary Christian chaqnaies 
3 teases that the DO h30N which killed Ln. we 
Wealth! What took place was in tik » mlal 
+ The Jews, by their joans to the eee »aodity, 


P 
ak * homes 
“ot the Paras i. 


spremacy. de the cities proper, che few sted with 
wn class in i itsstrugeie against tie gcuiidu. Thus the 
came the pit ter enemies of the [ews and, where 
ded in. vetting control of the government as in 
1 ey destroyed 1 the Je wish communtiy: Yet, the 
snot quite as desire, siece mobiltey apd pat sweians, 
ees Limi t it tke stronger, ‘This much 
n a that every cee. wictred bine? at the 
nf the hapless victims. 
Her persecutions, those of 1645-1349 were gen- 
ad: out ystematic alty hy the order of the city 


Bighteen hundred souls, vo ihe cemetery on 


f te Strassburg Jews, for wtitew ge otection | 


“Sit E to resist successfully | thes eto <4 rhe Ses 


ie | ORRMAN JEWS . sie sh ‘ 


“A MOE 


‘ A ; a Bh ‘ 
Oratian of tae, Momt ae sirailar 


Recetas A 

a - nen, bi 
SESE Dt Lee ee se pe P tN eT 
ni eaeye Sa rigd gh tee a 
eee «on Liselabdie Sa WEBER DRG 

— z a ets att bn 

2 ee Bs ee ee ae wf an seh ey 

4 , 


fot, Tig Meet 


fhe tee Hany pyose 


- zs i- = ; 
Lae Cisse Spe: feat, ¥ rhe, righ C Pinte ay bees 


Satake the ido 
of inhuman torture confessions: 
ny and every St 


whe conirnied a 
Pooe Clement: ¥ 


in vain did 


Pe Giaerm Stax — 
i Tee SXCvReg ve; Be Bee 


ji eae ee ——— ee ee eg 


1349] THE BLACK DEATH 405 


council, encouraged by letters from other city councils such 
as that of Cologne, interposed between the Jew-baiters and 
their victims. They feared that once the mob had its way 
with the Jews, it might turn against the patrician masters. 
As a result of this intercession, the council was charged by 
the mob with being bribed by the Jews and speedily re- 
moved from office. The new council brought the whole Jew- 
ish community, eighteen hundred souls, to the cemetery on 
a sabbath and there burned themall alive. It then ordered all 
documents bearing on indebtedness to the Jews destroyed, 
pledges to be returned, and the sums of money left by those 
massacred to be distributed among the artisans. They also 
entered into a league with the neighboring princes and lords, 
who owed money to Strassburg Jews, for mutual protection 
should they be called to account. 

The alleged testimonies of the tortured were spread from 
city to city. The obsession gained momentum as the dread 
disease raged through Europe. It made the people restless 
and fanned the hatred against.the Jews, who, because of 
their abstemious habits of life and their natural segregation, 
were somewhat less exposed to the ravages of the plague. 
The populace lusted for the blood of the Jews, and more 
so for their treasures. A contemporary Christian chronicler 


honestly confesses that the poison which killed the Jews 


was their wealth. What took place was in truth a social 
revolution. The Jews, by their loans to the lower nobility, 
enabled these to resist successfully the efforts of the cities 
to gain supremacy. In the cities proper, the Jews sided with 
the patrician class in its struggle against the guilds. Thus the 
guilds became the bitter enemies of the Jews and, where 
they succeeded in getting control of the government as in 
Strassburg, they destroyed the Jewish community. Yet, the 
result was not quite as desired, since nobility and patricians, 
once rid of their debts, became only the stronger. This much 
Was accomplished that every one enriched himself at the 
expense of the hapless victims. 

Unlike earlier persecutions, those of 1348-1349 were gen- 
erally carried out systematically by the order of the city 


406 GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 


councils. The deadly massacres started in northern Spain 
(Barcelona, Cervera, Tarrega, June and July, 1348), passed 
on to Switzerland (Chillon, Bern, Zurich, in September), 
thence to Bavaria (Augsburg, Wtirzburg, Munich, and eighty 
smaller towns, in November), then up the Rhine (Freiburg 
in Breisgau, Spires, Strassburg, Worms, Frankfort, May- 
ence, Cologne, January to August 1349), on to Breslau 
(in May) and later to Magdeburg and Berlin; the turn of 
Erfurt and Nuremberg came last. In Austria, thanks to the 
energetic measures of duke Albert II., after the bloody 
attack on the Jews of Krems (September 1349), the mad- 
ness was thoroughly checked. As the epitaph on the tomb 
of this distinguished prince puts it, the Jews had cause to 
shed tears over their departed protector. 

The emperor Charles IV., however he may have shielded 
the Jews in his own domains, was both lukewarm and power- 
less to withstand the upheaval from below. He was ready 
with amnesties to the good citizens for past wrongs, and in 
several instances he granted immunity to the attacking 
forces on the eve of their excesses, or made disposition of the 
property of the victims ahead of time. In general, the goods 
left behind by those who met their death in the massacres 
were confiscated by the emperor or by the reigning prince of 
the locality. All debts owed to them were canceled or col- 
lected by the sovereign; synagogues and burial-places ad- 
verted to the communes; Jewish dwellings were sold or 
bestowed upon the emperor’s favorites. The gain was enor- 
mous, but still more so was the loss of the rich revenue 
hitherto paid annually by the Jews. Many a town was in 
ashes by reason of the conflagration in which the Jews 
heroically destroyed themselves. 

Coincidently with the upheaval produced by the dread 
disease, the passions of the mobs were further incited against 
the Jews by the Flagellants. These bands of fanatics went 
from town to town, in advance of the dread plague, urging 
the people to piety and penance, and scourging themselves 
so as to appease the divine wrath and thus stay the plague. — 
Frequently they incited the people to kill the Jews. The 


om GOLDEN BULL. sake 407 


butchered or resorting to self- 
; the loss of property staggering. 
dred and fl ty small commnumities were 
sritors of dead Jews’ fortunes pleased 
ng statutes that ae ving Jews should 
as residents i in. their enemies, 

princes and magistrate, ihougit better 
er “the drastic measures~-et because the 
ut because taxes were high and credit 
ed. The bishop of Ange targ craved 
‘mission ‘to receive the Jews used give them 
n see. Tn the constitution @ c>< German 
1¢ Golden Bull, which wit puamulgated 
» lay and a sere gee = whem- 


| Edi encush they a are awiegrad eo 306 
n the right to exploit etait’ a 
were ar mine out of whie h eS! at we 


still eel the Tews tp ree Bey ye en 
{in the imperial cities as fils sae sebiecn 


| , as of old, Scarcely had the grimurs lett 
berg, whence the Golden bet (TSA. +e moved, 


a a bi hop of Bia} rence, COE EE uacwooth al ow 
tb coreligionists the tes Wg ea 2 seed us went 
yal domain. Soon the Cen wae 20.4 ving 

in most of the oid ae: fh : = i ary. Fog 
they as) joved t trasgy cts } hey wete 


g-spell to recover and w gather sew 
sition Wie greaths sii Pair eek. Lhe eRe 
be Crusade 2 fad reached ne culmitiation, 
r of 4348-1349. From that time mi, the 
age special rinar ters, the gates athnttting 
ig locked éach night that gene waight leave 
sino ee a enacted jawy requiring 
in lawsuits thus forties frumiliating 


4) 


i 8, ti tre f i€ q : ; ba g neti by Regganpaseci 3 


So Ady) | ater t » Mag : 
bt al esi rare 
sack on the bows a? eal 
nee Yeas thorsnagtly i 


7 bas #7 

: ae. 
oy 7 
st . 


i Sis CREE 
f * ee 
ping 7 ’ i eget 
1 20k ore rie 4 boas hey MVS ry 


Cee 1 ae ty Hes eer i domaine, 


the vaodaty, Ag it diebes pe 
inched by he sOrOre en? Syme 
ee }O tie cnunmnveny JA 
Lestoeed upon ae eaperar’s 
‘es, ORT ee i weqwe wy wus 
hitherto paid goofy by the 
ashes by reeset Of the oom a 
cally destroyed themselves 
Cone denthy wy nH Ge pte va 


ae F Finglas: Ti 
thom town te. tote it adnunct z 

the people to piely and. penance, rn 
e0 as to appease the divige gas 


Frequently they incited the | 


H bie } PS &, 4 SY eae 


, 
2 
z. 
f 
3 
: 
‘ 
au 
x 


a. - i dle ic i he eae i iv 


1356] THE GOLDEN BULL 407 


death-toll of Jews, cruelly butchered or resorting to self- 
immolation, was enormous; the loss of property staggering. 
Sixty large and one hundred and fifty small communities were 
destroyed. The inheritors of dead Jews’ fortunes pleased 
themselves in enacting statutes that no living Jews should 
be further admitted as residents in their communes. 

Soon, however, princes and magistrates thought better 
of it and rescinded the drastic measures—not because the 
Jews were loved, but because taxes were high and credit 
conditions disorganized. The bishop of Augsburg craved 
the emperor’s permission to receive the Jews and give them 
a home in his own see. In the constitution of the German 
empire, known as the Golden Bull, which was promulgated 
in 1356, the electors, lay and spiritual, obtained for them- 
selves the privilege of keeping Jews and, of course, of taxing 
them. Characteristically enough they are mentioned in the 
constitution between the right to exploit mines and to col- 
lect taxes. They were a mine out of which precious metal 
could be won by mere pressure without any work. The 
emperor, however, still claimed the Jews in the smaller 
principalities and in the imperial cities as his own subjects, 
serfs of the treasury, as of old. Scarcely had the princes left 
the diet of Nuremberg, whence the Golden Bull was issued, 
when Gerlach, archbishop of Mayence, commissioned a Jew 
to negotiate with his coreligionists the terms of resettlement 
in the archiepiscopal domain. Soon the remnant of surviving 
Jews was established in most of the old seats of Jewry. For 
nearly three decades they enjoyed tranquillity. They were 


given a breathing-spell to recover and to gather new 
fortunes, but their position was greatly impaired. The move- 


ment started by the Crusades had reached its culmination 
in the persecutions of 1348-1349. From that time on, the 
Jews were enclosed in special quarters, the gates admitting 
to their abode being locked each night that none might leave 
or enter. Every city and dukedom enacted laws requiring 
special ‘Jewish oaths’ in lawsuits, thus further humiliating 
the Jews. 


408 GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY [1388 


On the intellectual side, it was an ‘orphaned generation.’ 
Spiritual decay was a natural consequence of the social and 
economic conditions. Talmudic knowledge among the laity 
was beginning to be scarce. The rabbis themselves were not 
always sufficiently trained and often gained their position 
by the aid of the secular powers. Meir son of Baruch ha- 
Levi, chief rabbi of Vienna (1393-1408), introduced the sys- 
tem of ordination which conferred upon the holder the title 
‘Our Teacher’ (Morenu) and the right to exercise rabbinical 
functions. With the schools moribund or quite extinct in 
France and Germany, the Torah found for itself a nook in 
Austria. In the capital, by the side of Meir, was active 
Abraham Klausner. Near by, at Neustadt, Shalom son of 
Isaac conducted a famous talmudical school. Of his disciples 
the most distinguished were Jacob Levi Mélln (died 1427), 
at Mayence, and Israel Isserlein (died 1460), who succeeded 
his teacher at Neustadt. 

All these scholars busied themselves with collecting the 
ritual customs (minhagim) current in Germany and invest- 
ing them with authority. It was during this time that the 
differences in customs between western and eastern Ger- 
many developed. Others wrote glosses on older ritual codes; 
so Samuel son of Aaron Schlettstadt on the code of Mordecai 
(p. 402). Samuel officiated as rabbi at Strassburg; here he 
had an informer, by due process of Jewish law, put to death, 
while an accomplice saved himself by baptism. The Jews of 
the community placed the responsibility upon the rabbi, who 
had to seek safety in a castle near Colmar together with his 
pupils. Later, he went to the Orient with recommendations 
from the prominent German rabbis and returned armed 
with a ban issued by Babylonia and Jerusalem against the 
community which had wronged him. The Jews of Strass- 
burg tried to make amends, but the community was soon 
subjected to a fresh spoliation of twenty thousand gulden 
(1386) and a general expulsion (1388) with complete con- 
fiscation of their property. 

During the disorders under the reign of Wenceslaus (1378- 
1400), the guilds in some cities overthrew the patrician 


Se le a a 


ra i 


ais he ‘tHe Diet ‘AT ULM. 409 


d mes Jewish, blood at Nore Se, Winds- 
Jeis (1384). The S rabian federation of 
¢ the old -régiese and te punish the 
| i severely. Neverthelegs, vat Augs- 
nd ‘ Reco seized and meade to pay eventy- 

: gulc en: a similar impos had beew levied on 


he anes! by three voluntary eifta (7485.98). 

ouncil-energetically suzpresse? the mcwve- 
i od the — who made ceuly to lee the 
VGrdlingen refused to yivl} to the Pacers. 


re digsolution, the Feceratiog acorn tyne 
Beslausiand, at a dict of the Sheeting 
BS, ope-fourth of #% detirs ce ite Saws 
right, while the orhe: three-fourths were 
1 4 cities. The Jews were leit in the games 

| eto be prevented irom emigrating, “x 


atiified. to the amcuac: of forty Chovmnaectt } 


mer twas ene vedi law - the CORBET: Bn’ 


yh ich now ks Gieir: own. 1 Aragon 
a Sewish capitaiews and as often av met 
18e eyes the untemccked residue. The eee 


¢ : 


“ith al a anenyr jerine: 
e > the Swabjast iil rion was € 


: i the sisere, eeant: on — 
ived the Fedeca iio # 1439 and in the fallew- 


ena . fa new and awmasia remission of debte dur 


¢ without! segs! for the interests of the 
ptesieto ei wes site er 


6 Jews of Nuremberg purchased the pro-. “ 


‘amnesty freia the erapencr. Fo. 


oe except, «their eaee 


~~ 
+. 
. 
ae 
‘ 
4 
> 
fi 
3 
? 
~ 
: Tw, 
2 
6 “sit 
n 
1 
‘ 


bhi me) 5 ae + seools ps, 


Ren ads Orhors wrote g 
it: Wace * aaah’ . Schietts : 
cara tGeinied as, 


a + ee ae 
a rey gs 


ugh: \ and al 


1385] THE DIET AT ULM 409 


rulers and shed much Jewish blood at Nérdlingen, Winds- 
heim, and Weissenburg (1384). The Swabian federation of 
cities tried to restore the old régime and to punish the 
leaders of the outbreaks severely. Nevertheless, at Augs- 
burg, two hundred Jews were seized and made to pay twenty- 
two thousand gulden; a similar impost had been levied on 
them in 1381. The Jews of Nuremberg purchased the pro- 
tection of the council by three voluntary gifts (1384-1385). 
In Ratisbon the council energetically suppressed the move- 
ment and compelled the Jews, who made ready to leave the 
city, to remain. Nérdlingen refused to yield to the Federa- 
tion and secretly secured amnesty from the emperor. To 
prevent its complete dissolution, the Federation accepted 
the proposal of Wenceslaus and, at a diet of the Swabian 
cities at Ulm in 1385, one-fourth of all debts due to Jews 
was canceled outright, while the other three-fourths were 
ordered paid to the cities. The Jews were left in the power 
of the cities and were to be prevented from emigrating. The 
emperor was indemnified to the amount of forty thousand 
gulden. This agreement was made the law of the country and 
was guaranteed by the emperor. Suddenly the Jews were 
imprisoned and their deeds and valuable securities were 
seized by the cities which now made their own arrangements 
with the individual Jewish capitalists and as often as not 
retained for themselves the uncanceled residue. The Jews 
thereby lost practically everything except their ready 
money, while the cities acquired a powerful weapon against 
the nobility and withal a large income. 

In the meantime the Swabian Federation was defeated in 
iis war against a counter-federation of knights and princes. 
Wenceslaus went with the victors. Intent on despoiling the 
Jews, he dissolved the Federation in 1389 and in the follow- 
ing year enacted a new and complete remission of debts due 
to Jews, this time without regard for the interests of the 
cities. The heavily indebted nobility was greatly benefited, 
while the incomes of the cities were considerably reduced. 
However, separate agreements had to be made with all the 
powers owning Jews, and these, to prevent the entire disin- 


410 GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY [1385-1390 


tegration of their Jewries, sometimes insisted on concessions 
favoring the Jews. Thus Nuremberg did not extend the 
remission to its own citizens. Much more sweeping was 
the decree of 1390, which robbed the Jews in the southwest- 
ern territories of the empire not only of outstanding debts 
in the localities in which they resided, but also of any money 
due them outside these localities. The gain which in this 
way accrued to burghers and others who were indebted to the 
Jews was enormous, while the emperor received for himself 
a goodly portion of the obligations thus canceled. Yet the 
division of Germany saved the Jews from the complete eco- 
nomic destruction which might have resulted from a simul- 
taneous and thorough carrying out of the policy of Wen- 
ceslaus. Moreover, the growing world commerce made Jewish 
banking indispensable so long as the Church prohibition 
against usury prevented Christian competition. Thus, be- 
tween 1385 and 1390 some Jewish bankers, operating with 
the capital they had retained and whatever money was 
returned to them, managed to recover parts of their fortune. 

Nevertheless, the position of the Jews was becoming more 
precarious. Remission of debts became a regular occurrence, 
though the king, as a sign of especial grace, might now and 
then promise individual communities not to resort to this 
form of spoliation for a certain number of years. Nor were 
the Jews immune from mob attacks on their life and prop- 
erty. In 1389, the imperial capital Prague witnessed a bloody 
massacre on Easter Sunday, which coincided with the last 
day of Passover. It happened that, during a procession with 
the host which passed through the Jewish quarter, Jewish 
children, in play, were throwing sand at each other and the 
host was accidentally besprinkled with some of it. Imme- 
diately the mob surrounded the Jews in their homes, shout- 
ing, Death or baptism! Many slew themselves; three thou- 
sand were put to death by the populace. The synagogue was 
burned down; the scrolls were torn to shreds and trampled 
under foot. Even the dead were exhumed from their burial- 
place and their tombstones shattered. The property of the 
slain was confiscated by Wenceslaus as king of Bohemia. In 


ica Jews were imprizoned, burt, on 
fines, the king ordered their release 


ot the i. as a tesiilt of the denuncia- 
Jew by the name ot Peter (his Jewish 
He chese for the varyet of his accusa- 
fof Adnration {(Alenu), which forms an 
e liturgy of the New Year and is also 
usi on a the anid ~umnkd preyem: aa 


they wey 18, the sahara ioe seri 
rel Wanity, unte « ~>4 that canact 
4 is taken from isa® ch $4, 1, and the 
& the thind 


ayn te Palys, but ak 46 ol Latin. : Hes was 
ite literature and in the New ‘Testament, 
| controversial work directed against iis 
ho patedetinine faith, and especially againar 
bation of Scriptural passages (Hook «f 
Wizzahon), Lipmann wecrets! in 


his coreligion ie, however, weird 4 ied and, 
three more wert Lerrmed at ye otce (1400), 
was Row on the impema! throne. neutralized 


n communities, to that of Mayence (1401), 
B, giving assurance to Jewish crediters.that their 

d be honored by their debtors. Nevertheless, 
AL. of Mayence ordered (1405) alt debrs to 
2 of one-fifth and the remainder t be pay- 
3. As the emperor met only with a partial 


aes 
. ry of the ‘golden penny’ by eppomting two Jews 
sof this tax (}403). There was ne other means of 


‘ 


y OK THR ‘ALEND' PRAYER “| 441i. 


Sea's PHpHILD ans atul dion Be irees 


re : measures of fity tredecessor by granting, 


lehe empire, he rook pains to tmaure the uni- 


i, 


© 


hey lh sed ike a Bt 


‘en terniores Ob the empire ‘not 


olla ty > eel ee 5 rr ee 

‘ene moo A peo ti gee 

zh : Sod ie Ae 
‘ 4 : 


* Y Vie 3 . r 


6t) CRAIAN (EWS ON VRE POURTER 


epention of their J ewries, somett 
pews the pews. Chas Nuremb 
remmaon tO its Aen Citizen... i 
phe decree of 1494), wih job To rbed: 


wo the loceliies te which thevres 
Hine: thee cut at le these. loraliti 

wavacerued te tis whe rsand oth 

perk HAs ERAS while the. ow ri 
, goodiv. perctieny of the obliga } 
Ave ~~ nid Thay sawed the 
oe oh met 


& Ps We } Kit 
| 
Hien i is 
ye : ‘ 
‘ o jeeraawost af delet 


cogs he leat, en gona 


Li 


Ree vane) rah 


orem: i vies bean hor a4 


1394] DENUNCIATION OF THE ‘ALENU’ PRAYER © ° 411 


the rest of that kingdom the Jews were imprisoned, but, on 
the payment of heavy fines, the king ordered their release 
and afforded them protection. 

Fresh troubles beset the Jews as a result of the denuncia- 
tions of a converted Jew by the name of Peter (his Jewish 
name had been Pesah). He chose for the target of his accusa- 
tions the prayer of Adoration (Alenu), which forms an 
ancient part of the liturgy of the New Year and is also 
repeated at the conclusion of the three daily prayers. This 
prayer was declared by the convert to contain aspersions 
on the founder of the Christian Church. It is true, the expres- 
sion occurs there: ‘For they (that is, the idolaters) bow down 
and pray to naught and vanity, unto a god that cannot 
save.’ But the language is taken from Isaiah 45, 20, and the 
prayer was composed by Rab in the first half of the third 
century (p. 239) in Babylonia, where Christianity was prac- 
tically non-existent. The Jews were imprisoned (August 3, 
1394). Among them was Yom Tob Lipmann of Miihlhausen, 
a student not only of the Talmud, but also of Latin. He was 
well versed in Karaite literature and in the New Testament, 
and author of a controversial work directed against the 
philosophers who undermine faith, and especially against 
Christian interpretation of Scriptural passages (‘Book of 
Refutation,’ Sepher Nizzahon). Lipmann succeeded in 
countering the convert’s imputations and was set free; 
seventy-seven of his coreligionists, however, were killed and, 
three weeks later, three more were burned at the stake (1400). 

Rupert, who was now on the imperial throne, neutralized 
in part the severe measures of his predecessor by granting 
charters to certain communities, to that of Mayence (1401), 
for example, giving assurance to Jewish creditors that their 
claims would be honored by their debtors. Nevertheless, 
archbishop John II. of Mayence ordered (1405) all debts to 
Jews to be shorn of one-fifth and the remainder to be pay- 
able in four terms. As the emperor met only with a partial 
recognition in the empire, he took pains to insure the un1- 
versal levy of the ‘golden penny’ by appointing two Jews 
collectors of this tax (1403). There was no other means of 


412 GERMAN JEWS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 


coercing the Jews save by excommunication; accordingly 
Rupert named Israel of Krems, residing at Nuremberg, 
‘chief master of all rabbis and the Jews and ITewesses of 
the German empire.’ The institution of a chief rabbi by 
the grace of the emperor met with opposition on the part of 
the other rabbis, which Rupert, though he imposed a heavy 
fine upon the recalcitrant Jews (1407), was powerless to 
overcome. 


_CHAPTE R 
DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
1419- 1480)- 


, (1410-1437) was  Alagedag cw ularly inveritive in 
ting money from the Jes ws. He thought that his 
u bjects should meei his own expenses in con- 
5 the Council of Constanc ©. In some places the 
ed to give up a third, and in ovher places as 
of their fortunes. At a time when the regular 
{ the empire amounted to thirtes » thousand guikden 
Hine Jewish families in Frankiors were required to 

five thousand guiden. The jews of Cologne vainty 
thousand, in orler to escape the necessity of 
exact suin of their possessivns (1414). Martin 
. ‘elected fat pcocimnaigil issuied it 1418 a 


The emperor, hid ucted as jovernliens 
cer's fee, espee jaliv because, ae the te lows must 


ite Wars 440-1486 irtaght im » the train 


eachers. 

| coupled with greed of Jewish possessions, ed 
Catastrophe in Austria. Alber: VY impoverished 
dily lent ear to the popular obsession that 
‘pwr’ conimee cHuse with the’ Biismeftes. 


i of: Bass, b had poeeaty fount a sexton's siaite 
ted wafer in order to profane it. At the dukes or- 
he Jews of the ducal territory were placed in prison 

1420). The poor were iromediately banished, while 
ined in custeedy. Many died by their own 
we who had saved theruseives by accepting bap- 
413 


sh >. daeOMAN JEWS BS ete! Fou ? 


a the es ews save by ekeot 
Wipers named. Israel of Krems, 
sina saaster of alt rabbws and re 
Coey'y TAT empire.’ The wrstit 
. a grace of the emperor mht with, ) 
the other rabbis, ehieh hi 
tare upon the reals ftrane t sone 


Byer... 


CHAPTER LVII 
GERMAN JEWS DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
(1410-1480) 


IGISMUND (1410-1437) was particularly inventive in 
S extorting money from the Jews. He thought that his 

Jewish subjects should meet his own expenses in con- 
nection with the Council of Constance. In some places the 
Jews were asked to give up a third, and in other places as 
much as half, of their fortunes. At a time when the regular 
revenue of the empire amounted to thirteen thousand gulden 
annually, nine Jewish families in Frankfort were required to 
contribute five thousand gulden. The Jews of Cologne vainly 
offered twelve thousand, in order to escape the necessity of 
disclosing the exact sum of their possessions (1414). Martin 
V., the new pope elected at Constance, issued in 1418 a 
friendly bull in which the Jews were confirmed in all the 
old privileges. The emperor, who acted as intermediary, 
claimed the broker’s fee, especially because, as the Jews must 
themselves know, papal favors were not to be had for noth- 
ing. The Hussite wars (1419-1436) brought in their train 
new troubles to the Jews. Along with the heretics they were 
set upon by the Catholic party at the instigation of the 
Dominican preachers. 

Fanaticism, coupled with greed of Jewish possessions, led 
to a similar catastrophe in Austria. Albert V., impoverished 
as he was, readily lent ear to the popular obsession that 
the Jews were making common cause with the Hussites. 
The people’s excitement was further fed by a story that a 
rich Jew, Israel of Enns, had purchased from a sexton’s wife 
a consecrated wafer in order to profane it. At the duke’s or- 
der, all the Jews of the ducal territory were placed in prison 
(May 23, 1420). The poor were immediately banished, while 
the rich remained in custody. Many died by their own 
hands; of those who had saved themselves by accepting bap- 


413 


414. GERMAN JEWS DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 


tism, a few, on reverting to their old faith, were burned at 
the stake. An appeal to the pope brought forth a renewed 


bull (December 23) forbidding the baptism of Jewish chil- — 


dren under the age of twelve. But the fate of Austrian Jewry 
could not be averted. As many as had survived the Inqui- 
sition and its tortures were burned near Vienna (March 12, 
1421); for a long time no Jew was to be found in Austria. 
The property of the Jews was confiscated by the duke; 
their houses were bestowed upon Christians. The synagogue 
at Vienna was destroyed and its stones were turned over to 
the university for the construction of a new building. Dra- 
conic as these measures were, they failed of their effect to 
keep the Jews out of Austria entirely. The duke himself made 
exceptions in individual cases; in 1438 he granted to Isser- 
lein a safe-conduct to dwell and go about wherever he chose. 

Excesses against the Jews were enacted by the anti- 
Hussite crusadersin Thuringia, Bavaria, and along the Rhine. 
Jacob Mdlln ordered a public fast of three consecutive days. 
The pope was once more entreated to check the fanaticism 
of the Dominican monks (1422). Nevertheless, the Jews of 
Cologne were banished (1426); expulsion befell also many 
other communities. The Council of Basel (1431-1443), which 
was convoked to reform ecclesiastical abuses, found time to 
reiterate the anti-Jewish measures of former councils. In 
addition it was ruled that Jews should not be admitted to 
scholastic degrees in the universities and that baptized Jews 
should by all means be kept in the Catholic faith and pre- 
vented from marrying among themselves. Sigismund’s suc- 
cessor, Albert II. of Austria, for a consideration of nine 
hundred gulden, granted the city of Augsburg the permission 
to drive out its Jews (1439). 

When, in 1450, pope Nicholas V. held a subilee i in Rome, 
the Jews were fearful that the pilgrims on their way to the 
eternal city might commit excesses, and Israel-Isserlein, the 
outstanding authority in Germany, ordered. a fast day. 
Nicholas V. and his predecessor Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) 
had both suffered the fanatical Franciscan monk, John 
Capistrano, to gain ascendancy. over them, Evil days struck 


9, he SCOURGE OF THE yEWS'\ |) 415 


chin wae made legate to the 
k Sie the purpese of carrying into 
e Kol the. Counci!. af Basel against the 
2. aie i the disbelieving fews. This eloquent 
‘ me ov s called by his admnrers ‘the seaurge of 
. aria a dukes, Louis-and Albert, sere con- 
eee unfriendlines: against the Jews, 
4 d completely from their duchies: 
efiini to let its Jews go, bur the 
Wearing the Jews badge, and the 
a ame ‘Upee them vemetvatis 


urg, foe reigning duke of Feacbunke 
‘tothe Jews and had granted them the 
| “persuaded by Cararrano to expel 
ik claimed to have performed many 
ne to Neustadt, leraei Ise tlein offered 
: s burning stake and tet (sani decide be- 

ed the emperor would tale er secessary 
entitrickery. Capistrane svevuratly de- 
“The worat fate befell che jase of Silesia, 
Bs after his arrival in Beeston, ie inflamed 
it credence to a iale thie & dead Jew, 
had desecrated tiv: kh iced. }muaadiately the 
the Jewish vammenwirs were placed i 
instituted @ cotirt of Avquny in the pre 
b gshe court of his tenitea. ay means of; sanp 


@ harassed nate vitor 44%  persecneiaia share 
ied to thrive. Erfurt, ‘Nuremberg; Ratiebon, 
. 1 other cities maintained colleges fm jewish 
| e of the Outstanding figures of this peckad. was the 
Neustadt near Vienna, Israel tapatede, whose 


£24. ERMAN JEWS DURING THEE 


mh, a few, on reverting to thelr 0 4 
she MAKE. An appeal He the. pope b 


tel (December 23) peri 
deen under the age of twelve. But a 


meee not i averted, Ag many rs é 
ition and its tortures were bu 
1421): for a Jong time ae Jew 
The property of the Jews was 


their houses were bestowed aipom 


the university for the @onetriet 
Conic as these CASLUILES Were, 
ke ep the} Teweaut's bus i 


joint a sale REP ae Us ‘sau ade 

i RCAC ayer ret the jews 
Hussine crunacersae hairingia, . 
lacob Miihy ordered a public f 
~~ DOE Wak CMe, more entre 


S; Golosae: were weeded (1426)8 

ther commuwities, The Cometh 
was convolet t6 eeform eccle 
reiterate the anti-fewish 


: bane ID from rors eehveed eae 
cessor, Albert tt. of Austria; 
hun widedk guides, aranted {he ei ! 
to drive out ite fewe (1499). 2 
When, in. 1450, pepe Nichola 
the Jews were fearful thatthe’ 
etermal city might comnrt exe se 
Gatstanding authority i; ser 
Nicholas V. and his predecessor E 


i 


1452-3]. CAPISTRANO, THE ‘SCOURGE OF THE JEWS’ 415 


German Jewry when this Capuchin was made legate to the 
German and Slavonic lands for the purpose of carrying into 
execution the measures of the Council of Basel against the 
heretical Hussites and the disbelieving Jews. This eloquent 
and fiery preacher was called by his admirers ‘the scourge of 
the Jews.’ The Bavarian dukes, Louis and Albert, were con- 
firmed by the monk in their unfriendliness against the Jews, 
whom they therefore banished completely from their duchies. 
The city of Ratisbon alone refused to let its Jews go, but the 
duke insisted upon their wearing the Jews’ badge, and the 
city authorities otherwise imposed upon them vexatious 
discriminations (1452). 

Godfrey of Wiirzburg, the reigning duke of Franconia, 
who had been friendly to the Jews and had granted them the 
fullest privileges, was persuaded by Capistrano to expel 
them (1453). The monk claimed to have performed many 
miracles. When he came to Neustadt, Israel Isserlein offered 
to follow him to the burning stake and let God decide be- 
tween them, provided the emperor would take the necessary 
precautions to prevent trickery. Capistrano naturally de- 
clined the offer. The worst fate befell the Jews of Silesia, 
where four months after his arrival in Breslau, the inflamed 
mob readily lent credence to a tale that a wealthy Jew, 
Meyer by name, had desecrated the host. Immediately the 
representatives of the Jewish community were placed in 
prison. Capistrano instituted a court of inquiry in the pres- 
ence of legates from the court of Vienna. By means of the 
usual method of torture confessions were extracted, and 
more than forty Jews suffered death by burning (July 4, 
1453) and over three hundred were expelled. Ladislas con- 
firmed the act of perpetual banishment passed by the city. 
council. 

It is remarkable that in those evil times, when the Jews of 
Germany were harassed by malicious persecutions, Jewish 
studies continued to thrive. Erfurt, Nuremberg, Ratisbon, 
Prague, and other cities maintained colleges for Jewish . 
studies. One of the outstanding figures of this period was the 
rabbi of Neustadt near Vienna, Israel Isserlein, whose 


: 


416 GERMAN JEWS DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY [1474 


mother had been one of the Vienna martyrs of 1421. His 
responsa reflect throughout the uncertain position of the 
Jews in his day. We hear of strife within German Jewry; to 
this, the prominent leaders, like Isserlein and others, opposed 
their full authority. 

The impotent reign of Frederick III. (1440-1486; died 
1493) during which the central authority was ignored by 
warring princes and cities, was not conducive to Jewish 
tranquillity. A Jew, leaving the walls of the city in which he 
resided, took his life into his hands. The warfare at Mayence 
between the two rival archbishops, Dietrich II. of Isenburg 
and Adolph II. of Nassau, ended disastrously for the Jews, 
who, having espoused the cause of the former, were driven 
out by the victorious rival (1461). Duke Louis IX. of Bava- 
ria had expelled the Jews from his kingdom and then asked 
the council of Ratisbon to do similarly with its Jews. The 
council, prompted by somewhat friendly feelings for the 
Jews and by an unwillingness to lose this valuable source of 
income, refused to grant the ducal request. Louis then joined 
forces with the bishop of Ratisbon, who shared his hatred of 
the Jews. 

Two men, one a converted Jew, placed themselves at their 
service. Peter Schwarz preached conversionist sermons 
to which the Jews were forced to listen during the Passover 
festival. Hans Vavol, the erstwhile Jew, fastened upon the 
rabbi, Israel Bruna, the libel of ritual murder. The rabbi had 
come from Briinn at the time of the expulsion of the Jews 
from that city. At Ratisbon, where he settled, he was opposed 
by an older incumbent of the rabbinate, Anshel by name. 
The community was divided until at last Israel, by his great 
learning, won universal recognition. The aged scholar was 
imprisoned, charged with the murder of a Christian lad for 
religious purposes (1474). Both the emperor and Vladislav, 
king of Poland and Bohemia, who claimed Israel as his 
‘serf,’ gave peremptory orders for the rabbi’s release. It was 
effected after Vayol, having been imprisoned and carefully 
examined, publicly retracted his accusation. Vayol was then 
burned alive. 


ai Tue TRENT LIBE!. 417 


IF ettetel ance uate, aE 
n aatag #% duis Lenien «ermone (1475) he 
e he. pevple against the Jeng; when the 
he. predicted that ao che agireaching 
they would come round 1 his agemion. A 
& thristian boy wf shree yeiere old, 
(was drowned 7 ga the river Adige Ax qoan 2 as 
d the ¢ preaches warged the jews He MAMAS 
Tw O days ferer. the body wer Hamed oF Dre . 
-, close tothe dwelling of a bes Rites Tees 
the Acctiseation so rea adits Faye NF ag ei 
apprised the bien His Son i ics Wig fete 
. body wae taken to the sie) 2. fot cts 


gts owe! of -aeeintanee: ok 
pew, upon whom chiefly y the “ctone Py Tea 
ted his guilt or phe rac k, but agvGi we soins 


cilitate Fiatters Lor fre Lyisbaciy ht ee 
eal) the jews of Trent, hateiey oo 

ism, were burned at the stake. 

Gand the Dominican monks apres< 9.05 af 
Westations at the grave of Mir areored? 
ie a that an vestigate io be papal 
| a the wile affair o. titam o beans and 
S9¥-in his Well of Occehes t., IFS Mrhade 
10 sotthe child. A seciol promenhog 9 Cleared | 
€ vertheless; a commission of candenals, headed 
te friend of Rernardinus, fowls wevfict excul- 
ne: fi. Ina “gen of june BO) 4208, the pope 
co Ristion. All throoph Geragatay tee Nbel was 
: ey Frankfort, Be the gale of fie Sige leading 
e Main, a 4a memorial coin was wected, with pic- 


~~ 


Kane of Foren bri Boh é 


et. GRBRMAN TEWS DURING THe et 


jeother had been one of the Vis 
reaponsa reflect throughout the 
iewain his day. We hear of strife 
ths , the pronun Srey leaders tke Ts . 
heir ful! authority. 4 
The impotent say of Frede 
1493) during which the: central 
Warring primes an 4 cities, We 
tranquillity. A Jew, leaving the 
resided took i pulgir’ mb >big is 


a a 


We ve, wat 


and . i - Wain eided € : 
ee ot isa oS ie, fn 


the coud of Rea thetic to de 
council, prosipted: by gor 
fews and by ain wiveiineaeae 
OUIe, eee tG grantthe dt 
forces the bishop of Ray | 


oF z's NS 
taj : bow ayy ‘ ; 


Ewe — cnae B. a converted 


Oe Israel iain the libel 
tasere fom Ponies at he tim | 


by aa pre, ine sac wet of : 
The community was divided 
learning, won universpl t 5 
“ie isuned, chaxged with ae 

ligious purpones (1474), B 


Hehe alter V ae having’ 
examined, pathlicly recractan 
burned alive. 


L 


1475-8] THE TRENT LIBEL 417 


Into the midst of these commotions came the news of the 
affair at Trent. The Jews of the Tirolean city were living in 
harmonious and amicable relations with their Christian 
neighbors, when the fanatical Franciscan monk, Bernardinus 
of Feltre, came to town. In his Lenten sermons (1475) he 
endeavored to incite the people against the Jews; when the 
citizens demurred, he predicted that on the approaching 
Easter Sunday they would come round to his opinion. A 
week before Easter, a Christian boy of three years old, 
Simon by name, was drowned in the river Adige. As soon as 
he was missed the preacher charged the Jews with having 
crucified him. Two days later, the body was found on the 
bank of the river, close to the dwelling of a Jew. The Jew, in 
order to forestall the accusation so readily fastened upon his 
people, forthwith apprised the bishop Hinderbach of the 
gruesome find. The body was taken to the church, and the 
bishop pointed to the Jews as the murderers of the child. A 
Jewish apostate testified to the use of Christian blood by 
the Jews. For many days the accused withstood the most 
terrible tortures. At last, their power of resistance was 
broken. The Jew, upon whom chiefly the accusation was 
fastened, admitted his guilt on the rack, but again and again 
denied it when taken down. Finally his evidence was so dis- 
torted as to facilitate matters for the bishop’s court. The 
result was that all the Jews of Trent, barring four who 
accepted baptism, were burned at the stake. 

Hinderbach and the Dominican monks spread stories of 
miraculous manifestations at the grave of the ‘martyred’ 
boy. It made no difference that an investigation by the papal 
legate proved the whole affair a tissue of falsehoods and 
that pope Sixtus IV. in his bull of October 10, 1475 forbade 
the veneration of the child. A second proceeding also cleared 
the Jews. Nevertheless, a commission of cardinals, headed 
by an intimate friend of Bernardinus, found a verdict excul- 
pating the bishop. In a decree of June 20, 1478, the pope 
gave it confirmation. All through Germany the libel was 
believed. At Frankfort, by the side of the bridge leading 
across the Main, a memorial column was erected, with pic- 


418 GERMAN JEWS DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY [1480 


tures of Christian children being tortured by unsightly Jews 
and an inscription breathing hatred against the Jewish people. 

It happened that bishop Henry of Ratisbon passed through 
Trent on his way to and from Rome. He was immediately 
convinced that eight years before a similar deed had been 
perpetrated by the Jews of Ratisbon. The entire community 
was imprisoned; later, all but seventeen were freed, and 
these remained in prison for four years. Henry prevailed 
upon the city council to put these seventeen Jews to trial, 
after receiving assurance from the duke that he would stand 
by him (1476). The usual methods of torture were applied. 

The Jews knew that if they were to obtain the intercession 
of the emperor much money was needed. The rabbis of 
Bavaria convened at Nuremberg and, under the presidency 
of Jacob Margalioth, authorized a collection from all the 
communities under their spiritual guidance for the purpose 
of effecting a release of the imprisoned Jews at Ratisbon. 
The emperor found the city councilors obdurate; he threat- 
ened the city with the loss of its charter, and summoned the 
magistrates to appear before the imperial court. In vain did 
the city authorities appeal to the pope. Though a papal 
legate was sent to sustain the charges against the Jews, the 
emperor insisted that the Jews kept in jail should be set free. 
The Jews, however, were to pay a fine of ten thousand 
gulden; just for what reason, no one knew. At last the pris- 
oners were set free, on the condition that the Jews would not 
depart nor take their fortunes out of the city (1480). The 
dukes of Bavaria bided their time when they might banish 
all of the Jews from their territory. 


‘CHRISTIAN SPAIN, ALM ANT 
*. fai0s-1293) : 

ol Gpacich lewish history « Luring the three 
tiie the-expulsion wae mainly Chris- 
and as the reconquest af Aicurish terri- 
engi ye final act was hastened. ‘Th thirteenth 
ened with the asceudancy of Rone, vi the affairs 
sul , Peter ik of Aragon——th¢ beegiom ‘coni- 
italonian coast with the proapercm seaport 
Ate to Aragon since 1137—<strrenaried his 
pe Innocent Til, in 1203, and recemet x back 
Holy See. On bis return from Rome, the jews 
crells of the Law in their hands, trembling 
e States’ Council, however, pronounced os 
aull and void. In a pastoral ae ter, the pot 
na onse saben of pare: aa §8- she ie 


feeiort um a sales of Breen! st 7} . 
, who at the Waking of the pope had come 
e mountains, wade good the opporrunmciy by 

igh community of Toledo, Ariavit, arch. 


> kir A ees ate to thes: fa iis uanaught i 
tera praca tes short, tebe cenvened, the 
Phy daiek: Benverdete, physician to 


i. ring 1 badge 9 was ‘eine tapien the fee 
theless Benveniste auteended in having the 
this measure fib te teen, Alphonso 
“hanagaa to <r Senta to wear the 


419 


e, did his worst  jecite the rdie <ithiresty 


: 31276), Wises hoviiiean cause with heir 
. to brent i inks on xtion te : Rose: ook the. 


ee ee 


a 


$04 GERMAN JEWS S DURING THE 


ee of Christian children being’ : 
yiter ar insct 31 tion breathing hatred z 

it happened that bishop Hetiryel 
Trent on his way to and from. R 
oarviaced that eight sears before 
nerpetrared by the Jews of Ratis 
Whe Guprisoned;. later, ail bet 
hence | remained my pe sen for nr 
won the city councH to put ¢ 
Jter receiving assurance from @ 
by hin (1474), Tie tisual metin 


The Jews knew that ple phon were f 


of Jacob Mens milioth, ‘outhor 
COM Tri ced satheg theit spiri : 
of effecting a ralenee of the im 

ine emperor fey pig phe elty coun 
ened the ee wits tee wih: 


emperor maietawd ne the ont ‘ 
The Jews, howeser) Were to 
yvuldens just «what neason, by 


gEepart ris 2 pis er. fortunes 
dukes of mihi pe bided their tt 
aiof the Tews ingey their tere 


sett 
4 


PrHae tER CVI 
JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN. NAHMANL 


(1203-1293) 


Pr AuHE scene of Spanish Jewish history during the three 
centuries preceding the expulsion was mainly Chris- 
tian Spain, and as the reconquest of Moorish terri- 

tory progressed the final act was hastened. The thirteenth 

century opened with the ascendancy of Rome in the affairs 
of the peninsula. Peter II. of Aragon—the kingdom com- 
prised also the Catalonian coast with the prosperous seaport 

Barcelona, united to Aragon since 1137—surrendered his 

kingdom to pope Innocent IIT. in 1203, and received it back 

as a fief of the Holy See. On his return from Rome, the Jews 
met him with scrolls of the Law in their hands, trembling 
for their fate. The States’ Council, however, pronounced the 
royal surrender null and void. In a pastoral letter, the pope 
reprimanded Alphonso VIII. of Castile (1158-1214) for 
favors shown to the Jews (1205). A coalition of Christian 
forces against the Moslems was led by the Castilian king 

and ended in the victory in the valley of Tortosa (1212). 

The crusaders, who at the bidding of the pope had come 

from across the mountains, made good the opportunity by 

harassing the Jewish community of Toledo. Arnault, arch- 

bishop of Narbonne, did his worst to incite the bloodthirsty 

mob; but the king put a stop to their fanatic onslaught. 
When the Lateran Council was about to be convened, the 

Jews of Aragon, headed by Isaac Benveniste, physician to 

king James J. (1213-1276), made common cause with their 

brethren in Provence to send a delegation to Rome for the 
purpose of preventing anti-Jewish measures. Their effort was 
in vain; the dishonoring badge was fastened upon the Jew 

(p. 375). Nevertheless Benveniste succeeded in having the 

enforcement of this measure postponed. In Leon, Alphonso 

IX. (1188-1230) forbore to compel the Jews to wear the 


419 


4 
i 
; 


badge. Honorius III. (1216-1227) found it necessary to 
remind the bishop of Valencia (in Aragon) and two other 
ecclesiastical chiefs of their duty to have the measure car- 
ried into effect, incidentally also to keep Jews from public 
offices (1217). ‘It isimpossible for disbelievers in the Catholic 
truth,’ argued the pope, ‘to serve faithfully the sons of 
Catholicism.’ Therefore he admonished King James not to 
employ Jews as diplomatic agents between himself and the 
Mohammedan states. 

In Aragon, in the southern part more than in the northern, 
wealthy Jews owned plantations, which they leased to 
Saracens; in the north they employed Christian labor. 
Smaller parcels of land were tilled by the Jewish owners 
themselves. Jews of wealth also raised cattle, tended by 
Christian shepherds. Some held in lease from the king salt- 
pits and mines. The great number engaged in all kinds of 
manual labor, from the meanest to the most artistic. At 
Saragossa, in 1336, the Jewish shoe-makers formed an asso- 
ciation with activities both religious and social; at Catalayud 
the weavers had their own synagogue. The dyeing of wool, 
cotton, and silk was quite a general occupation. Jews worked 
as smiths, potters, bookbinders, and watch-makers. So con- 
siderable was the number of Jewish silversmiths and gold- 
smiths that, in 1415, pope Benedict XIII. found it neces- 
sary to forbid having crosses, chalices, and other church 
utensils made by Jews. Those that did not work at a trade, 
trafficked with garments, cloths, and other ware. These ob- 
jects were sold, in the bazaars, in shops leased by the king 
to the Jewish traders. The cloth halls of the Jews made up 
a considerable portion of the community wealth; frequently 
they were seized by the king when the community wasslowin 
paying a tallage. The Jews acted as brokersand auctioneers; 
as such they were municipal officials, sworn in by the bailiff. 

Beyond their immediate domicile, the Jews carried on an 
extensive commerce in grain, wine, oil, saffron, flax, wool, 
and cattle. Often they sought permission to journey across 
the frontier. At an early period, the Jews of the coast cities 
put to sea, and during the entire thirteenth and fourteenth 


420 JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN 


BCAND COMMUNAL LIFF, 421 


ok an active part in Meditetranean com- 
of the island Mallorca <lid business with the 
Is sae Africa tind the Onent. Naturally, as 
— Middle Ages, the capital accumulated 
ewes isa in jonas GINORE: ot hris- 


y ands Sicily and eatin tly in the Wewtical 


6 not Titerallly. hess: ouly for ceriamperimes 
op ert bé confiscated or ee: person etele vad. 
. inte over him excluded subsets co 
‘i Certainly as a body the Jews were 
leasure of the king, whose eee was 
cee charters, always revece ble. Taxes 
€ paid by the Jewish cc MAD ee Gee ‘otir 
div dual assessments were calls hie bye the | 
zations from the membere « ing toa 


e territorial lords, the neste, and 
4 additions! taxes lpeth se -cae, Sunts 


sand d Christinas were settied tie aod offounals 
ewish and Christian judges 

cement {ai-jama) forme «2 2: fapendent 
ith jurisdiction over its ows eve bers in all 
‘ eee had their adiminiaienis vastesls and 
ae ne was the natural! - ~ or rnetmmunal 
1 Be chanitias boasted 0 octal conned 
oil was usually a dansk bawdy gi mmating of 
yemibers. Sometimes the cosa ities met bo 
te ganization covering a distye: especially fac 
jose Of an equitabie distribution of the royal tases, 
aseach community was electe! by the menibers 
d by the king: be was salarve. Though he had 
ge in the adtninistration uf the community, 
peoupht by-cotunci! and judges and his moral 
aS paramount. Me ; 
i Re erscity in Israel,’ was che home of Jewish 
i sities the birthplace of Jonah son of Abraham 
a pupil of Solomon of Montpether (p. 394). He 


4 


vitoce he adma 

MS Boe He aa. 
Dae sg ee digabuchoek sas Hr 
PT aieagir Peal — vapor f 


Wa? F 


: : 
os 


ECONOMIC AND COMMUNAL LIFE 421 


centuries they took an active part in Mediterranean com- 
merce. The Jews of the island Mallorca did business with the 
mainland, but also with Africa and the Orient. Naturally, as 
elsewhere through the Middle Ages, the capital accumulated 
in profitable business was invested in loans among the Chris- 
tian population. 

As in Germany and Sicily and exactly in the identical 
sense, the Jews were regarded as the king’s serfs. The indi- 
vidual Jew was not literally unfree; only for certain crimes 
could his property be confiscated or his person enslaved. 
Still the king’s jurisdiction over him excluded subjection to 
any other authority. Certainly as a body the Jews were 

_ subject to the pleasure of the king, whose protection was 
_ obtained through specific charters, always revocable. Taxes 
- and tallages were paid by the Jewish communities cor- 
porately; the individual assessments were collected by the 
communal organizations from the members according to a 
graded scale. The territorial lords, the municipalities, and 
the Church levied additional taxes upon the Jews. Suits 
between Jews and Christians were settled by mixed tribunals 
consisting of Jewish and Christian judges. 

The Jewish community (al-jama) formed an independent 
corporation, with jurisdiction over its own members in all 
internal affairs. They had their administrative councils and 
officers. The synagogue was the natural place for communal 
meetings; certain communities boasted of a special council 
house. The council was usually a small body, consisting of 
six to thirty members. Sometimes the communities met to 
form a larger organization covering a district, especially for 
the purpose of an equitable distribution of the royal taxes. 
The rabbi in each community was elected by the members 
and confirmed by the king; he was salaried. Though he had 
no official voice in the administration of the community, 
_ his advice was sought by council as judges and his moral 
influence was paramount. 

Gerona, ‘a mother-city in Israel,’ was the home of Jewish 
scholarship. It was the birthplace of Jonah son of Abraham 
(the Elder), a pupil of Solomon of Montpellier (p. 394). He 


422 JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN 


took part in the controversy about Maimonides on the side 
of his opponents and subsequently lived to regret his opposi- 
tion to the great teacher. Penitently he vowed that he would 
depart for the Holy Land and there, on the grave of the peer- 
less scholar, pray for forgiveness. He was, however, detained 
by the community of Toledo, with whom he remained until 
his death (1263), surrounded by disciples and engaged in 
writing books. A still greater son of Gerona was Jonah’s kins- 
man, Moses son of Nahman (Nahmani, Nahmanides), who 
spent the greater part of his life in his native city as the 
rabbi of the community. 

Nahmani was the outstanding personality in Jewry during 
the middle of the thirteenth century. Through his teachers, 
he became heir to the traditions and methods of the Franco- 
German school of “Supplementers’ (Tosaphists), and he 
transplanted these to the soil of Spain. From that time on, 
the study of the Talmud was made in Spain, as had been 
the case in France and Germany, the principal business of 
the Jewish students, to which everything else was subordi- 
nated. The dialectics of the northerners took root in the 
southern peninsula, though here they were modified by the 
secular training of the Spanish Jews. Nahmani had a pro- 
found reverence for the ‘ancients’; with the teachers in the 
Mishnah he believed that to learn from the elders was to 
drink old and seasoned wine. Spaniard that he was, he was 
greatly impressed with the talmudic epitome of al-Fasi, 
which he defended against criticism and to which he 
added his own supplements. At twenty he began his series of 
commentaries upon the greater part of the Talmud, which 
partake of the nature of glosses. 

True to his Spanish training, again, Nahmani was at home 
in the secular sciences; as a matter of fact, he practised 
medicine as a means of livelihood, spurning the emoluments 
of his rabbinical office. But, unlike Maimonides, he refused 
to regard philosophy as the touchstone of religious truth. 
The teachings of Bible and Talmud were for him the ulti- 
mate authority, no matter what reason might say. Nature, 
order of the world—they meant nothing to his religious 


ae es Fa. Huy ss Gee Seeks 


CABALA 423 


: eat Rappens wae to him a tmiraculous 
0 Diets: Sox Some miracies were vieible, others 
oo ot same real. Three things he held to be 
af the belief in creation oat of nothing--the frat 

et suitacice—C ed 3 Providente; and His 


a “imperturbebilty of sii philosophers lo are 
ither by good nor by evil, was oot to His: liming. 
y and sorrow in the life ef man, & ute for 
she for weeping. Nahmani was mepecent 
; id e8, who, with Aristotle. disymraged the hety 
rance to spiritual perfection. Hedy and seul were 
4; ; whatever God créated must be ecoounted pure 
tidaism, which to the rationalists was an open 
id of hidden meanings, wes i the opinion of 
fill of mysteries, above the chew orehension af 
fom, WNahmani was still far away beorw the full 
é en of the Cabala developed © ‘yoke who cane 


e time | was nolL come yet for m wystic lore to be 


la, as the mene indicates, was stil} «: oral traditian, 
‘ wor c of mouth and secretives) 4 ard ded by. thi 
wa s of ancient antecedents, fasting up me tht 
Bible times. Some teachers © cit Misha hy ed 
. a0 by mystic spec. ulations, Tie ‘Tale one- 
notions serving to brid, ge Over ine ¢ it Tapia 
vo eae conversely to fatsivate the gapeege 
God, It knows of intermuexls: aris a anda Hytagy 
% peoples heaven and earth with gate an) 
In gaonic times, the ‘Book of (re: sense no 
» Sept! (numberings) aa fundame: tm all 
; . Was preparing that creation: Wee out.a 
Steel emanations ; APOC eeding f form § od and4 a king 
ar gible work. Al talong there had ganmon a be- 
of favored fersons to work oriraclés through - 
As Be iaece, pace ay amulets ard incantations. ©. 
le lore, theosopiic and thaanaturgic, had been 
m eeeonie be \ aly, and from thence to Ger- 


omer of the word 


‘ss Let 


a ae ee ee 


aw. a ee 


> 


CABALA 423 


mind; everything that happens was to him a miraculous 
working of the Deity. Some miracles were visible, others 
invisible, but just the same real. Three things he held to be 
fundamental: the belief in creation out of nothing—the first 
link in the chain of miracles—-God’s Providence, and His 
Omniscience. 

The stoic imperturbability of the philosophers, who are 
affected neither by good nor by evil, was not to his liking. 
There was joy and sorrow in the life of man, a time for 
laughter and a time for weeping. Nahmani was impatient 
with Maimonides, who, with Aristotle, disparaged the body 
as a hindrance to spiritual perfection. Body and soul were 
both of God; whatever God created must be accounted pure 
and good. Judaism, which to the rationalists was an open 
book, devoid of hidden meanings, was in the opinion of 
Nahmani full of mysteries, above the comprehension of 
human reason. Nahmani was still far away from the full- 
fledged system of the Cabala developed by those who came 


after him. The time was not come yet for mystic lore to be 


reduced to writing. | 

Cabala, as the name indicates, was still an oral tradition, 
received by word of mouth and secretively guarded by the 
initiates. It was of ancient antecedents, mounting up to the 
‘wise men’ of Bible times. Some teachers of the Mishnah had 
been entranced by mystic speculations. The Talmud con- 
tains mystic notions serving to bridge over the gulf between 
God and the world, and conversely to facilitate the passage 
of the soul to God. It knows of intermediaries and of things 
pre-mundane; it peoples heaven and earth with good and 
evil spirits. In gaonic times, the ‘Book of Creation’ operated 
with the ten Sephiroth (numberings) as fundamental to all 
existence. A view was preparing that creation was but a 
series of graded emanations proceeding from God and taking 
form in the tangible world. All along there had gone on a be- 
lief in the power of favored persons to work miracles through . 
combinations of letters, through amulets and incantations. 

This double lore, theosophic and thaumaturgic, had been 
imported from Babylonia to Italy, and from thence to Ger- 


“a 


424 JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN [1238 


many. Eleazar of Worms (died 1238), pupil of Judah the 
Saint (p. 370), operated with alphabetical and numerical 
combinations, but gave himself also to contemplation and 
to the exaltation of prayer. The Cabala was then given a 
philosophic turn, in opposition to Aristotelianism, in the 
schools of Provence. For if Aristotle dominated Jewish 
rationalism, Platonic thoughts, as worked out by Philo and 
deepened by Ibn Gabirol, influenced Jewish mysticism. In 
the work called ‘The Bright’ (Bahir), the doctrine of emana- 
tion was clearly taught. Under the hand of Azriel (1160- 
1238), who was largely influenced by Ibn Gabirol, the specu- 
lations were still further perfected. God became the One 
without End, who can be comprehended only by the negation 
of all attributes, in whom all existence has its being and who 
radiates it by His free will and makes the potential actual. 
Azriel, it appears, initiated his younger townsman Nahmani; 
but the pupil was not quite ready to follow the master the 
entire length. 

It was to be expected of Nahmani, so diametrically at 
variance with Maimonides intellectually and emotionally, 
that he would lean to the side of the opponents of philosophi- 
cal studies in the controversy which was stirred up by the 
Provencal zealots. Nevertheless, he disliked the quarrel and 
pleaded for a hearing of both sides before a court. In this 
sense he addressed a letter to the communities of Aragon, 
Navarre, and Castile. It had no effect on Saragossa, the chief 
community in Aragon. Its distinguished head, Bahye son 
of Moses, physician to King James, cited the encouragement 
which the ancients had given to the study of secular sciences. 
As the quarrel increased in virulence and the Provencal 
rabbis became more and more divided, Nahmani again tried 
his conciliatory efforts. While acquiescing in the strictures 
against the ‘Guide,’ he was horrified at the disparagement 
of the Maimonidian Code merely on account of its intro- 
ductory book. He also pleaded with the liberals to concede 
to the orthodox purity of motive. But the difference was too 
fundamental to be thus settled by compromise; the bitter 
feud proceeded to its disastrous end. Jewish liberalism was 


> 8 LCA patent 7. me 5 
at wl > ah ec ‘ta pi : 
THE tasrwsAciON AT BARCELONA 425 


‘8 ig strangled by the aid of the Taquisition, 
d over the Albigensian harptics (p. 396) 
gout to ‘crush the j prog a Chijs- 


| Hilore the eiciiien of Maimnobies were 
sets of Paris, the lnquiaition war urteenduced 
a committed to the haudy of the-feiars 
blished by Dominic. Kavowntl of Peia- 
miessor.of King James, wos appeiaked by 
agent of the Inquisirion for Aragon eh 
fic general erected wininaries far the 
-in order. to refute the divheveving Jews 
n : Among his disciiee was oe baptined 
i. Failing to. anaes prodely ter anoLy 
ence, he persuaded Kai. Lette bo order 
@t an advanced age was er sete ~aiversal 
“to take part i in a public disp intima? Sagcetona 
aged scholar stipulated comek > Cendem of 
four days in July, the ther ywel fourna- 


pain the presence of the king. 4. court, and 
taries 5 of the Church, At the oor © «tars. when the 
meral Admonished the tease: “ionvtant net 


S upon the dominwet \ cm), Nahmani 


Spa anish, speech ami cgertia! bimeelf with 
Hliness. Pablo comtuncter| tar che Messiah had 
called to witness etreace boygecdie statements. 
Teply, set forth Bee, / tur ‘lines apecies of 
ands of the few’. ire ews, tt Seriptures 
abr ud- — the latter b Seg ES My eae ‘yan of the duties 
din the Torah--e2k aeentetine, while the 
id rash ‘with its haga’ ike. “octeents but hom- 
Jew may accept if he «he pen edie as merely 
18. These were berating wow to the apostate, 
at of meager kit ituligey kad grown up in 
ll the vagaries of mahaetie utterances. 


% know the rules of penpciety. Fle Com-- 


: an 


* Ryeh by 
oe 


» 


su alc esha: 


tot ap 


end 


Coleen aut as ype po 


thet fe, ete 
ie was 


ee ee er ee ee 
be F ie ae 


1263] THE DISPUTATION AT BARCELONA 425 


for the time being strangled by the aid of the Inquisition, 
which had triumphed over the Albigensian heretics (p. 396) 
and was now setting out to crush the progress of Chris- 
tian liberalism, the heretical movements foreshadowing 
Protestantism. 

In 1233, a year before the writings of Maimonides were 
burned in the streets of Paris, the Inquisition was introduced 
into Aragon. It was committed to the hands of the friars 
of the Order established by Dominic. Raymund of Pefia- 
forte, the father-confessor of King James, was appointed by 
Gregory IX. chief agent of the Inquisition for Aragon and 
Castile. This Dominican general erected seminaries for the 
teaching of Hebrew, in order to refute the disbelieving Jews 
with their own weapons. Among his disciples was a baptized 
Jew, Pablo Christiani. Failing to make proselytes among 
the Jews of Provence, he persuaded King James to order 
Nahmani, who at an advanced age was enjoying universal 
reputation, to take part in a public disputation at Barcelona 
(1263). The aged scholar stipulated complete freedom of 
speech. For four days in July, the theological tourna- 
ment continued in the presence of the king, the court, and 
many dignitaries of the Church. At the very start, when the 


‘Dominican general admonished the Jewish disputant not 


to cast aspersions upon the dominant Church, Nahmani 
retorted: I likewise know the rules of propriety. He com- 
manded the Spanish speech and comported himself with | 
Spanish knightliness. Pablo contended that the Messiah had 
appeared and called to witness certain haggadic statements. 
Nahmani, in reply, set forth that, of the three species of 
literature in the hands of the Jews, only two, the Scriptures 
and the Talmud—the latter being an exposition of the duties 
commanded in the Torah—were authoritative, while the 
third, the Midrash with its haggadahs, represents but hom- 
ilies, which a Jew may accept if he chooses or reject as merely 
private opinions. These were heretical words to the apostate, 
who, possessed but of meager knowledge, had grown up in 
reverence for all the vagaries of midrashic utterances. 


426 JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN [1267 


As the disputation progressed, the Jews were apprehen- 
sive of danger, no matter how the result came out. They 
begged Nahmani to discontinue. But the king, after a recess 
of several days, ordered the contest resumed. Nahmani held 
his own. He was dismissed by the king with a gift of three 
hundred maravedis. Pablo, on his side, received permission 
from the king to renew his disputations with the Jews 
throughout Aragon and the royal dominions beyond the 
Pyrenees, the Jews being ordered to defray the expense out 
of the taxes due to the king and to supply him with books. 
Unable to make headway in winning over the Jews, he 
denounced the Talmud to Pope Clement IV. (1265-1268). 
As a consequence, a censorship was instituted over all books 
possessed by the Jews, with a view to expurgating all sup- 
posed objectionable passages. On the commission of censors 
there served among others the Dominican Raymund Mar- 
tini, a scholar widely read in Jewish literature. He wrote 
polemical works against the Jews; but withal he contended 
that the Talmud contained many statements in confirma- 
tion of the Christian truth and should therefore not be 
burned entirely. 

For Nahmani the disputation had an evil sequel. At the 


request of the bishop of his native town Gerona, he furnished 


him an account of the contest. The Dominicans fumed. The 
author was summoned before the king and was condemned 
to two years’ exile, while his book was ordered to be burned. 
Nahmani left behind his family and friends and in 1267 
arrived in the Holy Land. . 

The Mongolian invasion of 1260 had left the land waste 
and its cities in ruins. Jerusalem had suffered most of all. 
Everywhere was the wrack of demolished dwellings; the city 
was depopulated. Only two self-supporting Jews were to be 
found in the Holy City, dyers by trade; in the house of these 
two brothers ten more men were in the habit of assembling 
on the sabbath for worship. The other Jews had either been 
slain by the Tatars or had fled, taking the sacred scrolls with 
them to Shechem (Nablus). Nahmani had these fetched 
back. One of the demolished residences, with marble columns 


427 


, Waa repaired and made into a syna- 
nef tof the many pilerims from Damascus, 
3 rere e. On the bolicarinn New iin the first 


i studies, which srasaal young stu- 
nd the Euphrates. — 

ra acuity, however, dur) tux these frat shies 
, was centered not in the Tximaud, bud in the 
Dn the sacred soil of Palestine was completed 
ry on the oceania a ' re hegim ist his 


iF 1 those dive and in toncentrated Jewish 
a long time after, poséises? both the pee- 
Sling and the interest to deve an exposition 

of God. Nahmani’s stricttires on Ibn Pave, 


4 


ei wena rebuke and sipeepe lave. were of tent 


foe ‘is brief sojourn ser wae prop Av the 
the scant conimiunities in Paiewiine. At beens, 
r, his teachings had Biv ii¢ Kk root p¥ ae che 


ata C cineae WwW i the nor prretosy i sii 
seemed! a paracdize. n Castile, Aipheaves 


ae 8 already as cnywn-; pre ee. showed hie Fb 
ion for ‘the Jewish solvers wo ook part 1 the eon 
Sev > (1248) by enon & % the m with jan im a 


at known as the “Vitiave of the Tews.” The 
“the conquered oily; who duriag the 
on had been eermpe led to affect cenversion 
all likelihood had aicted the Ring in the 
f ty, were rewarded ix rhe grant of a large 
of residence. Three of he mosques were turned 
n for use as synagogues. The grateful Jews pre- 


at sews iN costa 


feeied Nahimmani to Aiscomstinns 
af several days, ordertd the | contest res 
at “awn, He was page bi the . 


from ie. srbains te: renew hiv 

here eit sit Aragon gnd the © 
Pyrenees, the Jews being orde 
of the takes due to the king a 
i'nabie tm make headway {n 
denounced the Talend te Pope 
AS 3 Core. TUENOS, & vensorsitip, 
possessed by the jews, ith we 
poned « obrer ti onable ¢ pre 
there setved ameng: ident eh 
eh & scholat widely read i inh 
polemical works against the: Jew 
ches the Talmud contained man 
tion of the Christian cruch, ane 
burned entirely, ae aA ion 
Pos Nahsnani the conte 
réquest of the Psi rhop of iyts $a | 
him an account.of the contest. 
nia Lor was sullen befane: | 


Nabmani te rene his ¢ tars 

4 ven! in the Healy Land. 

The Mongolian invasion ‘af 

and Aki cities in ruins. Jerus 
vi 


E 1ere was the Cee of 


a 


found int} the ‘Holy Ci ivy, dyer by - 
pen) nae E08 eh MOTE men To 


as 
e 


1270] - NAHMANI IN THE HOLY LAND 427 


and a beautiful cupola, was repaired and made into a syna- 
gogue for the benefit of the many pilgrims from Damascus, 
Aleppo, and elsewhere. On the following New Year the first 
public worship was held there. In addition, Nahmani opened 
a school for talmudic studies, which attracted young stu- 
dents from beyond the Euphrates. 

His own literary activity, however, during these last three 
years of his life, was centered not in the Talmud, but in the 
Scriptures. On the sacred soil of Palestine was completed 
his commentary on the Pentateuch, which was begun in his 
native Catalonia. The author had in mind the layman, who, 
as it happened in those days and in concentrated Jewish 
settlements for a long time after, possessed both the pre- 
requisite schooling and the interest to desire an exposition 
of the Word of God. Nahmani’s strictures on Ibn Ezra, 
delivered with ‘open rebuke and hidden love,’ were often 
enough quite justified. Nahmani was less subtle and scintil- 
lating, but his very plainness carried him more than once 
beyond the shallow rationalism of his predecessor and much 
nearer the truth. 

Nahmani’s activity in the Holy Land was cut short by 
death (1270); he was laid to rest at Haifa beside the grave 
of Jehiel of Paris. His brief sojourn served to prop up the 
Torah among the scant communities in Palestine. At home, 
in far-away Spain, his teachings had struck root in a circle 
of disciples. Conditions in the Pyrenean peninsula were not 
unfavorable to the Jews. Compared with the northern lands, 
Spain must have seemed a paradise. In Castile, Alphonso 
X. (1252-1284), already as crown-prince, showed his con- 
sideration for the Jewish soldiers who took part in the con- 
quest of Seville (1248) by endowing them with land in a 
separate settlement known as the ‘Village of the Jews.’ The 
Jewish residents of the conquered city, who during the 


_ Almohade dominion had been compelled to affect conversion 


to Islam and in all likelihood had aided the king in the 
taking of the city, were rewarded by the grant of a large 
quarter for residence. Three of the mosques were turned 
over to them for use as synagogues. The grateful Jews pre- 


428 JEWS IN CHRISTIAN SPAIN [1288-90 


sented the victorious prince with a golden key upon which 
was inscribed in Hebrew and Spanish: ‘The King of kings 
will open, the king of all the earth will enter.’ 

Upon his accession to the throne, Alphonso surrounded 
himself with Jewish officials. Meir de Malea and his sons, 
Isaac (Zag) and Joseph, were in charge of the treasury, 
while other Jews served as collectors of taxes. A lover of 
the sciences (he was surnamed ‘the Wise’), the king had 
astronomical and astrological writings translated from Arabic 
into Spanish by Judah son of Moses Cohen, a physician of 
Toledo, and by the physicians Abraham and Samuel Levi. 
Zag (Isaac) Ibn Sid, the reader at the synagogue of Toledo, 
was the editor of the famous astronomical tables, the Alphon- 
sine Tables, as they were named after the king. All these 
evidences of friendly relations did not prevent the king from 
incorporating in the Code (known as the ‘Seven Sets’) com- 
piled under his direction, all the old and new ecclesiastical 
canons against the Jews. It was not, however, until a century 
later that it was promulgated, to remain for centuries the 
text-book of Spanish jurisprudence with its necessarily bane- 
ful influence upon the life of the Jewish people. 

Alphonso’s younger son Sancho made claim to the succes- 
sion after the death of his elder brother, though the latter 
had left issue. Father and son quarreled, and the strife was 
the cause of bringing the Jews into disfavor with the mon- 
arch. Because Zag de Malea, the royal treasurer, had under 
duress supplied funds to the prince, he was put to death by 
order of Alphonso and his entire wealth was confiscated 
(1280). Moreover, on a certain sabbath, all Castilian Jews 
were arrested and a tribute of twelve thousand gold maravedis 
was levied upon them. 

Sancho IV. (1284-1295) retained as his treasurer one 
of Zag’s sons. The taxes payable by the Jewish com- 
munities of Castile were regulated by the king. The appor- 
tionment was entrusted to a commission of four Jewish 
notables, who met at Huete in 1290. They were joined by 
David Abudarham, the elder of the community of Toledo, 
for the purpose of accommodating their differences. The 


mn ra ‘ ak y me. % Fey i ad 


IN PORTUGAL | 429 


ey the Jews of Castile amounted close to 
VE dis. Altogether thee were upward of a 
mmunities, the greet bem that of 
Burgos, Carrion, \'ailadalid, Cuenca, 
‘were none too frbndict ta the tews. In 
ave sin to their moti: *«heiding jews to 
Pweal estate. Still the t<-\an Jews were 
h to have inimical legielastox. suapended. 

also rather favorable a }oryuget orter 
R=1279) and. Diniz ‘179. 322. The 


; equired TH pay tithes ww ‘ Wee ca tO 
iz employed Aas bie (aie per the / bese f 


i i ) 
ia! of | great wealth, Bur ihe vers faves 
ere held i he ma SEP SES fas wee 2 ht 


i, Res bier oN potatoe Gs aay Te ) 
__ ro oo S| i Se z ra. Ad. ool hk 


ieee iathed Ay Hebe ane 
wee Gpeek:. the Ki re gy of at the v2 
pen his accession 46 te 2 
Heteeels with Jewish otic a N 
taiac (Zag) and joseph, were 
while other Jews gerwed: ag-ool 
fhe sciences (he was SUrnan 
astronomical anda atrdtogiedt 
into Spanish by Fudah sont 
Toledo, and by the: phys 
Zag (isaac) Ty Sid, the vee 
was the editor obthe faranus: 
HY deans as = went 


later that viowbe promulpas ca] 
text-book of Spe nish jurispru ich 
ful influence  Upeaty the life oft 


“lphonse"s- yeunpet song 


sion after the death of his de 
nad left issues Mother anbae 
Lhe cause & beng the Te 


arch. Because Zag de Matee, 
uress supplied funds to the? 
inder of Alas onso and hie4 
(1280), shai cover, On & CEPiain 
were arrested anda tributecks 
was levied upon them. 
sancho FV. th] 284+1293). 4 
of Zag’s sons. The faxes. 
munities of Castile were rege 
tionment was entrasted to ay 
notables, who met at: Huete inde 
David Abudarham, the elder wf. 
lor the purpose of accommeds 


F 
: 
: 
4 
4 


1248-1325 IN PORTUGAL 429 


yearly tax paid by the Jews of Castile amounted close to 
three million maravedis. Altogether there were upward of a 
hundred Jewish communities, the largest being that of 
Toledo; then came Burgos, Carrion, Valladolid, Cuenca, 


Avila. The Cortes were none too friendly to the Jews. In 


1293, Sancho gave in to their motion forbidding Jews to 
acquire or own real estate. Still the Castilian Jews were 
influential enough to have inimical legislation suspended. 
Conditions were also rather favorable in Portugal under 
Alphonso III. (1248-1279) and Diniz (1279-1325). The 
Jews were not required to pay tithes to the Church or to 
wear a badge. Diniz employed as his treasurer the chief 
rabbi Judah, a man of great wealth. But the very favor in 
which the Jews were held by the king served to incense the 
clergy, who were not slow to complain to Rome concerning 
what they called Jewish arrogance and ostentatious luxury. 


CHAPTER LIX 
THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA 


(1280-1340) 


Jews in the Pyrenean peninsula developed freely, shap- 

ing its course in the second half of the thirteenth century 
along the lines introduced in the first. The foremost author- 
ity of the period—people referred to him as ‘the rabbi of 
Spain’—was Solomon son of Abraham Ibn Adret at Barce- 
lona (1235-1310), trained by the Geronese scholars, Jonah, 
Isaac son of Abraham, and Nahmani. Like his masters, he 
set store by the dialectics of the Franco-German school, and 
like them he recognized the authority of the ancients. He 
codified the body of religious law in a work called ‘The Law 
of the House,’ which unlikethat of Maimonides was diffuse 
and argumentative, and the author found it expedient to re- 
issue it in abridged form. His compilation was criticised by 
Aaron son of Joseph ha-Levi, a descendant of Zerahiah (p. 
393), who gathered his strictures in a work named ‘The 
Breaches of the House.’ Ibn Adret’s opinion was sought on 
a great number of questions by the communities of Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, France, Germany, and even Asia Minor. At 
home his talmudic lectures were attended by a host of 
disciples, many of whom came from distant places. Though 
well versed in the secular sciences, he assigned to them a 
subordinate position in the range of Jewish learning. 

In the resuscitated controversy between Maimunists and 
anti-Maimunists, he favored the side of orthodoxy and lent 
his authority to the promulgation of a ban to the effect that 
none below the age of thirty years might take up the study 
of ‘Greek wisdom’ (p. 397). The test for Ibn Adret was 
tradition, that which had been accepted by the Jewish peo- 
ple; even stray haggadic utterances were invested with 
authority, so long as they stood unrefuted in the Talmud. 


430 


lf THIS period of comparative ease, the inner life of the 


ABN ADRE? AND ADRAHAM ABULATIA 1 PL 


at of philoso’. vieg could imptgn whatsoever was 
‘in tradition. { ailke his teacher Nahmeansi, [bn Adret 
Eres] apRinst Mohammeraa end Christian de- 
icular against Raym ised Martini and: his 
fhe Dagger of the Faith.’ Agais like Nah- 
gin the mysteries of the “hala. 

eae to ica saghes Biss a Alt - reso- 


“nt Soversimulated 5 imagin: ation on ‘whe 2: at of 
| wson of Samuel Abulafe (124i)? 292}, 
8 Si icaky instructed siwh and *ith an 
for knowledge, but of a fantastitcast of 
5 age he qok to wandering in search for 
ver Sambation, On return: “9 Ke Spain, he 
fin the study of ‘The Book wi Creatien’ gud 
enscetic exercises. At the seme tine he 
(the conibinetions and permuistions of fe 

ip tel and of numbers, all with a view 10 
intuitiv peerereiedize « of the inscrutable oe are 


fed by an inner voice to go to Rome ‘and 


with the pope (Nicholas 111. 1277-1280}, 
him to ore The death of me poe 


<a ake Meike, The Pale sans ‘ay oaths 
for course, wari he Ureeertn ioe ure 


s-of Scripture a6 of iby wise teachets 


[sattention ww. Abulatiy’s teeunephied 
. on by aute-iiggestie 026) so the 


a | manipulations wie whch a grain ¢ of 


THE PRA ORES OF 


Hy ‘he peckes ae a2 
als Bey wae Sone sail son o, A 


set srore by ne dia LT 8 tics oF the 
like thee. tin wecognizedd the ay 


Loretey baie o ches He hiae. bn’ MG 
a greet amber questions fy a 
Portugal. italia France , Germa 
home his tale ghee bectamnei wi 
(lisciples, taaey at whorl came f 
well versed in 2 he steular. 


we 
— 
bh 
er 
eo 
-' 
e 
‘? 
— 
+ 
— 
é- 
sh 


more ore a age of tonee 
of ‘Greek sbaeoner (p.. 397), 
tradition, chat which had been 
pie; even stray haggadic utte 
authority, so long as they stood 


ee ee 


1230-1310] IBN ADRET AND ABRAHAM ABULAFIA 431 


No amount of philosophizing could impugn whatsoever was 
laid down in tradition. Like his teacher Nahmani, Ibn Adret 
defended Judaism against Mohammedan and Christian de- 
tractors, in particular against Raymund Martini and his 
polemical work, “The Dagger of the Faith.’ Again like Nah- 
mani, he believed in the mysteries of the Cabala. 

With all his leanings to mysticism, Ibn Adret was reso- 
lute enough to check hysterical outgrowths manifesting 
themselves in an overstimulated imagination on the part of 
visionaries. Abraham son of Samuel Abulafia (1240-1292), 
of Saragossa, was a carefully instructed man and with an 
insatiable desire for knowledge, but of a fantastic cast of 
mind. At an early age he took to wandering in search for 
the mythical river Sambation. On returning to Spain, he 
immersed himself in the study of ‘The Book of Creation’ and 
gave himself to ascetic exercises. At the same time he 
operated with the combinations and permutations of the 
letters of the alphabet and of numbers, all with a view to 
obtaining an intuitive knowledge of the inscrutable essence 
of God. 

He was prompted by an inner voice to go to Rome and 
seek an audience with the pope (Nicholas III., 1277-1280), 
in order to convert him to Judaism. The death of the pope 
intervened before the mad undertaking could be put into 
effect; by deft recourse to mystifying language the visionary 
escaped with his skin. In Sicily he played the prophet and 
gave himself out for the Messiah. The Palermo community 
turned to Ibn Adret for counsel, and he unmasked the pre- 
tender. He called attention to Abulafia’s hypertrophied 
imagination, brought on by auto-suggestion, and to the 
perversion of the words of Scripture or of the wise teachers 
by means of numerical manipulations with which a grain of 
truth, derived from philosophy, was intermixed. Abulafia 
raged against the rabbi of Barcelona and the students of the 
_ Talmud in general to whom talmudic knowledge was the end 
of all wisdom. But the pretender was discomfited. He left 
behind him a number of ‘prophetic’ books, of a character 
unique in Jewish literature. 


432 THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA [1250-1305 


He also left disciples. One at Avila predicted the advent 
of the Messiah for the year 1285. Unlettered though he was, 
he astounded the people by producing a literary work, in- 
dited, as he claimed, by an angel who had revealed himself 
to him. Ibn Adret had difficulty in explaining the phenome- 
non, unless it were due to a peculiarly powerful imagination 
rooted in a natural endowment or else a pure matter of acci- 
dent. Another pupil, Joseph son of Abraham Chiquitilla 
(died after 1305), was a prolific writer and strove after deep- 
ening the mystic science by philosophic speculation. But 
among those who emerged from the talmudic school of Ibn 
Adret there were also men who cultivated the Cabala, 
though they owed their knowledge to other teachers. Among 
these were Shem Tob son of Abraham Ibn Gaon (died in 
Palestine some time after 1330) and the Bible commentator 
Bahye son of Asher (died 1340), who methodically wove 
cabalistic notions into his exposition of the Pentateuch. Such 
was apparently the trend of the time. 

Most far-reaching was the influence of Moses son of Shem 
Tob de Leon (1250-1305). He commanded a wide reading 
of the Jewish philosophical literature and was at home in 
the whole range of mystical literature accumulated in past 
ages. Whatever glimpses of the mysterious lore previous 
scholars had seen fit to reveal, the feeling obtained that 
mysticism was by its very nature intended only for the ears 
of the elect initiates, that it was essentially oral tradition, 
Cabala (Kabbalah), and should not be divulged before the 
large reading public. -Yet, as in the case of all oral tradition 
of the past, of Mishnah and Gemara for example, the time 
appeared to be ripe in the judgment of de Leon to compile 
the sum of cabalistic teaching. The opinion that he forged 
the work, that he had nothing to draw upon save his imagi- 
nation and whatever learning he possessed, may be disposed 
of as irrelevant. As a matter of fact, the work was issued in 
parts, which were not assembled until near the age of printing. 

The compiler named his work ‘Brightness’ (Zohar), des- 
tined to become the Bible of the mystics and, with slight 
exceptions, to meet with recognition even outside their circles. 


THE ZONAR | 433 


c 


- noeeniidang Res Was the roseabeiee honest 
tthe author was the Tanne Picion son of Johai, 
Imudic legend has it, spent chirteen years in 
aa Cave. There the myer+s were revealed 
pthese in turn the ecstatic tear fis « wrinunica ted 
4 Of disciples, the wise that wis to ‘chine as the 
hta S' -of the firmament (Danie) 12,45. The tannaitic 
| i s the mysteries of heaven is gloriec? above Moses 
divine honors, for to bim alcae was granted 
tes of the secrets of wisdom 

Matic composition makes it r= tain that the 
bhave been the work of one person or one ger- 
mounds in supplernentary portions aad excerpts 
under special titles. Mica of Hs contents 

gaonic and talmudic times, tut ‘be secceeding 
howith its speculative contribudor. onnressed 
oon the work as well—the mato “iwiy grew 
“The fundamental con certs cf he Zohar is 
: nothing trivial inthe Torah, bet tho: the whole 
commandmenis aid erdinauces as well ag in its 
ha: “mnie Sry storie purposes which constlezte 


a. 


ne oc nehliee with the emanations > pee 
, on Zohar unites a gross Cirnanbicaire ns. 0. 


ig “oaaihale me a in n ia as prateerreny | 
idea the beck pictures Purgatory aad Hell, 
s of the wicked, of those that die impenitent, 

by evil denions afore they are purified to return 
nly source. {¢ is imbwed with the thought of 
‘combat of good! and eetl, touth and falsehood, 
rofanity, God and Satan, e combat willed by 
“The two orders run in parallel lines, making 
lie good) ami the other (the evil}, or else the 


ne ine, 


42 ‘THE PROG Ries oF qi kt 


cis felt cieeiples, One at Avie 

of the Meastah to y the yer i265, Unletiar 
he amended tne oeaphe by: produc 
fet. 24 re chal ret, by a angel y ; 
bee Sidi. Phir Jcteet se dificulty in. 
atin, surlees it wes » due i a peculiar 
imine! in « oartral endowment or 


u” 
a 
mn 
rt 
nae 
Pf 
~~ 
a 
re 
ped 
> 


Suet of ie si ee 


ep they owed i + knowl 


ny 


3 

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na 

ot 

€ 5 
— 
fen . 
8. 
= 


Fook we woe ot Atherinids: 
bo loo Rate Bis expe 


aad o£ Crack! hing Was the inl 
gon. (129061905). He 
A the lewd piigenphical 


= 
+ & 

5 

it 4% 


Fea ioe ‘iyinhateny thats ie 
ae ae eee eerste , and she 
Lda tenor gee pistitios Yer, . as 
a use par, ol Mishogh and 
cpa ED a Sms site in. ane ee 


Cites andar ate wer eae 


t thee ae njoaher x varied hie 
TC me pectranie rhe - Bite bi 


THE ZOHAR 433 


Like so many other writings of antiquity, this Midrash or 
loose exposition of the Pentateuch in the Aramaic tongue 
appeared as a pseudepigraph. It was the compiler’s honest 
opinion that the author was the Tanna Simon son of Johai, 
who, as a talmudic legend has it, spent thirteen years in 
concealment in a cave. There the mysteries were revealed 
to him, and these in turn the ecstatic teacher communicated 
to a group of disciples, the wise that were to ‘shine as the 
brightness of the firmament’ (Daniel 12, 3). The tannaitic 
inductor into the mysteries of heaven is glorified above Moses 
and accorded divine honors, for to him alone it was granted 
to open the gates of the secrets of wisdom. 

The unsystematic composition makes it certain that the 
Zohar cannot have been the work of one person or one gen- 
eration. It abounds in supplementary portions and excerpts 
from writings under special titles. Much of its contents 
ascends into gaonic and talmudic times, but the succeeding 
periods, each with its speculative contribution, impressed 
themselves upon the work as well—the matter simply grew 
with the ages. The fundamental conception of the Zohar is 
that there is nothing trivial in the Torah, but that the whole 
of it, in its commandments and ordinances as well as in its 
narratives, has higher, mysterious purposes which constitute 
its very soul. 

With a conception of God which identifies the Supreme 
Being (almost Non-being) with the emanations proceeding | 
from Him, the Zohar unites a gross anthropomorphism, 
which dwells on eyes and nose, beard and crown of the head 
—though this had been attacked by the Karaites in the 
gaonic period and denounced by Maimonides as un-Jewish. 
With lurid detail, the book pictures Purgatory and Hell, 
where the souls of the wicked, of those that die impenitent, 
are tortured by evil demons afore they are purified to return 
to their heavenly source. It is imbued with the thought of 
the everlasting combat of good and evil, truth and falsehood, 
holiness and profanity, God and Satan, a combat willed by 
God Himself. The two orders run in parallel lines, making 
up this side (the good) and the other (the evil), or else the 


~ 


434 THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA [1292 


good is the core surrounded on all sides by the husk of evil. 
On the one side are ranged Israel and all the saints, on the 
other the primeval Serpent, Cain and Esau, Pharaoh and 
Haman, Rome and the Romish Church. This will continue 
until the advent of the Messiah—the date is set prophetically 
between 1300 and 1306—who will emerge from the Garden 
of Eden, make his appearance in Galilee which was the first 
province of Palestine to be laid waste, and undergo the on- 
slaught of many nations until the redemption is effected. 

There run through the Zohar lofty thoughts and refined 
spiritual motives alongside of coarse expressions and indeli- 
cate figures of speech. While ostensibly endowing the 
minutest talmudic prescription with mystic significance, the 
Zohar sets itself as the mistress above the Mishnah, which 
it likens to a dry rock devoid of life-giving waters. The 
Zohar keeps itself close to the people, with their credulity 
and their hunger for visions from the beyond. It imparts a 
dramatic touch to the life of man, as the two orders of good 
and evil contest the possession of his soul. Moreover, it 
sustains man in making of him an active partner in the world 
process, since every good deed bends the divine will to 
beneficent spiritual emanations, and prayer as it were forces 
the hand of God to create spiritual entities. The metaphysic 
_of Cabalism may have tended to deify the Emanations and 
to endanger the very conception of the Unity. But the 
Zohar also produced in its readers an intentness touched by 
emotion and imparted to their every action and thought the 
zest of saintly worship, of active participation in the better- 
ment of the world, of willed communion with the heavenly 
agencies making for righteousness. 


Thus the hoary ‘Jewish knowledge,’ enriched by elements | 


derived from the kindred speculations of Neo-Platonism, 
triumphed over the unemotional rationalism of the Aristote- 
lians. There were stragglers in the field’ of pure philosophy, 
such as Shem Tob son of Joseph Palquera (1225-1290) and 
Isaac Albalag (died 1292). The latter propounded the theory 
of the double truth, the speculative and the religious, without 
endeavoring to effect an adjustment between the two. But 


Cn» 


ASHER SON OF JEHTEL 435 


Rfeeble manifestations of rhe scientific impulse.’ 
dominated by the towering personality of Acher 
et (1250-9328), the exile from ¢ rerrizty Red 403), 
community of Toledo, at the advice of Tha Adret, 
for their spiritual leader, Hie brought te his new 
unquestioning simplicity, a profound piety, and a 
mhe secular sciences, blessing God that he was 


Naturally he supperted the ; ppxrertion fe. philo 

econ the part of the Provenca! fanatics, Still 

atau . “HO Means 28 3 BAOONIP oy aw . Snenry. af the 
; ences only he desired them to be sulximGuated. At Nia 


ist, his pupil Isaac son of fost israeli wrete 4 


omy and on the calendar cw ia! “The Founsa- 

= dpe This science was wert’v enough of 

sause it was helpful in the . n of the 
hence ancillary to a wha Prar pies | 
men came to Asher’s achow! ; } oledo: some 

y Bohemia and Russia. ‘He at gone ntirained a 


£ position and the governmen: "earsiestly called 
ct as judge. In one instance, ac. \~ ow siest of the 
idetided a litigation which had ters. pending fer a 
before Jewish and non-Jewish courts. He wrote 

2s On the first and sixth Orders of the Misia 
scion hotes on certaim vac 


ities i ppinions Gi the Leia: anthoritios, Bi@i- 
i the Franco-German Tosaphiists. He attinttid 
it to the latter school, the paditions of Fran 
ny being in his judgment suoecior to theme of 
rtheless, he only rarely contradicted the leeteiens 
es. In general, he held that there was Reeoom 
pect; every opinion was capab’e of review in the 
) ‘aimudie discussion and of sober sence: Nor id he 

erman teachers in their rigorism, he did not try 
their pera £ customs Into Spain. When an 


gourd is the core surrounded on all) 
{in the one side are ranged Israel 
other the en Serpent, Cain 
Honan, Rome and the Romish Ch 
until the a ‘J veot “ol the Messiah 
between 1300 and 1306--who wl 
af Eden, make his appearance: in Gal 
rar Seis ont { Palestine to be laid wap 
gauent of any nethoms until thes 

: wie’ run Paige it he | 


éZubar keeps deelf-clese to thi 
i thei huswer for yisionells 
amatic touch to ie life of am 


Drea, pear every > goa 


i Hes hand ont, God i eeente spi tual 
of Cobatisen may have tended 4 
ech eadanges the very concep a 
Zbhar also produced 4 in its reackert 
emotion amd ienparted ta their a 
Zoe ol gan rath worship, of acti 
mont of the world, of willed oo 
agenctes making’ for vighinn 
Thus che haarv “fowish ke 
derived [row thes bindred-« 
trahnphed over the WENCH : 
Hanes. There wire stig 
ie as Shee Tabs enn), of 3 OR 
lanac Aladap (died 12023001 
of the dount rag iruen, the an ¢ 
endeavoring towfect an a 


See an eT ee ee ee oa 


1250-1328] ASHER SON OF JEHIEL 435 


these were feeble manifestations of the scientific impulse. 
The age was dominated by the towering personality of Asher 
son of Jehiel (1250-1328), the exile from Germany (p. 403), 
whom the community of Toledo, at the advice of Ibn Adret, 
had taken for their spiritual leader. He brought to his new 
home an unquestioning simplicity, a profound piety, and a 
disdain for the secular sciences, blessing God that he was 
saved from them, since by syllogisms men were drawn away 
from faith. Naturally he supported the opposition to philo- 
sophical studies on the part of the Provencal fanatics. Still 
Asher was by no means an uncompromising enemy of the 
sciences; only he desired them to be subordinated. At his 
express request, his pupil Isaac son of Joseph Israeli wrote a 
work on astronomy and on the calendar called ‘The Founda- 
tion of the World.’ This science was worthy enough of 
attention because it was helpful in the construction of the 
calendar, hence ancillary to a religious purpose. 

Many young men came to Asher’s school in Toledo; some 
from far-away Bohemia and Russia. He at once attained a 
very eminent position and the government repeatedly called 
on him to act as judge. In one instance, at the request of the 
queen, he decided a litigation which had been pending for a 
long time before Jewish and non-Jewish courts. He wrote 
commentaries on the first and sixth Orders of the Mishnah 
and short supplementary notes on certain tractates of the 
Talmud. His fame rests upon his abstract of the halakic 
matter of the Talmud, after the example of al-Fasi, but 
enriched by the opinions of the later authorities, Mai- 
monides and the Franco-German Tosaphists. He attached 
great weight to the latter school, the traditions of France 
and Germany being in his judgment superior to those of 
Spain; nevertheless, he only rarely contradicted the decisions 
of Maimonides. In general, he held that there was no room 
for blind respect; every opinion was capable of review in the 
light of talmudic discussion and of sober sense. Nor did he 
follow the German teachers in their rigorism; he did not try 
to introduce their different customs into Spain. When an 


over-zealous saint thought that one ought to recite the after- 


436 THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA [1295-1350 


noon prayer twice daily, Asher proved his error from Talmud, 
the decisions of later authorities, and reason. He summed up 
his opposition in the apt remark: Would that we might be 
sufficiently devout in reciting the established three daily 
prayers. 

Though originally a man of wealth, he died a poor man. 
He probably lost a large part of his fortune when he left 
Germany and subsequently during his travels. He gave 
much of his money to the needy, especially to poor scholars. 
Asher was succeeded by his son Judah (1270-1349), in piety, 
character, and charitable disposition the peer of his father, 
but because of a weakness of his eyes incapable of doing 
much literary work. Still his scholarship was generally recog- 
nized and his authority was acknowledged all over Castile. 

The reigns of Ferdinand IV. (1295-1312) and Alphonso 
XI. (1312-1350) were the golden period of Castilian Jewry. 
Quite the reverse were the conditions in Navarre, where, 
owing to the marriage of Jeanne I. in 1284 with Philip the 
Fair, king of France, and to the exercise of French suzerainty 
over the kingdom, the Jews were subjected to economic op- 
pression and payments of heavy taxes. Still worse did they 
fare in the disturbed conditions under the successors of the 
royal pair when the Navarrese strove to shake off the north- 
ern yoke. Between the two warring camps the Jews found 
themselves an object of profound hatred, which was fanned 
into a frenzy by the inflammatory harangues of the Fran- 
ciscan monk Peter Olligoyen. A horrible massacre was 
enacted in Estella (March 5, 1328); the Jewish quarter was 
burned and all its population slain. Similar slaughters 
occurred in Tudela, Viana, Falces, Funes, Murcilla, and 
‘elsewhere; the toll of Jews butchered exceeded six thousand. 

The new king, Philip count of Evreux, and his consort, 
Jeanne II., made a pretense of punishing the instigators 
of the persecution. Nevertheless the Jews suffered further 
restrictions of their rights. They were completely separated 
from the Christians and confined to their narrow streets. The 
taxes were so exorbitant that it was impossible to raise the 
sums demanded. On the other hand, in Castile, Jews rose 


Jai 


Hic agent is lew rate who unfortu- 
cd = queen-mother Maria and narrowly 
Still, when she took the reins of 
hime minority of he amiga Alphonso 
ae tew Moses her treasurer. At the request 
Burgos and under the influence of the Coun- 


rh Ghciaians. Vet she te pied Lo a sehhadhe to 
nie Clement V. (1305-1314) for wholesale 
of debts held by Jews; she merely regulated the 
‘Masia’s successor in the regency, the King’s 
Manuel, has a heel for bi bpay-piren ae 


Aatibe to “i rabblnate: 

ing king tonk the government into his own 
pmuel [bn Wakar became ive !raty-phyacian 
en of Ephraim fon Renvenivy Ge Ecya bis 
bieof these two favorites wo. peatous of the 
igacendancy of both was « *horn in the flewh 
Which complained of the seurceas methods hy 
money-lenders ors roéieg zich. Reli¢iote 
sned by the apostate Aimer 6? Gurgos (Alphonse 
Py whose epistle justifyirg tes conversion Wee 
_Tsaac ®on of Joseph: the Pulear in a biting 
sonvert, however, succeedes! (1 5.56} in Pine 2s 
aie the aricient exertarion of sevedixs 
ri jin Patestine at + ie clone 
Aine eds an yaner jewish. sect (p. TOR} 
the word ° Nazarenes’ had Maw been replaced 


ie who had riset: ta chem atica of minister 
ly through the influences o? Gesnveniste, pre- 
ges against his benefactor as welt as againet the 
1; Samuel. and against aawnter of their depen- 

they had énriched thematives in che king’e service, 
ae in paction, § Samuel suffered oorture on the rack, 


‘ 


wok, eee era Sn NU ANeN 1, Asher piel 
(hit decivoes. ol ae - euboriten and | 


parce Fd r af 1% es 5 hee) te the needy, 
yoher wos a Qenediad by hislsom 
Cera Ce ain ney ue vstahl e dis id 


<8 he auton was meld 
iy sigan af Pendinand 

' es gok 
cosa jeanne 


dat 


mH, 


of the pemecwthin. 
vestricr ais de # Sheis iy 

from the Ch istians onde 
taxes wer & so exorbitant 
SUIS demanded, On the 


eae Ss ee ae eS ey ee ae ee 


1336] ABNER OF BURGOS 437 


to eminent positions in the kingdom. Ferdinand IV. had 
for his diplomatic agent the Jew Samuel, who unfortu- 
nately displeased the queen-mother Maria and narrowly 
escaped assassination. Still, when she took the reins of 
government during the minority of her grandson Alphonso 
XI1., she made the Jew Moses her treasurer. At the request 
of the Cortes of Burgos and under the influence of the Coun- 
cil of Zamora, she forbade Jews to bear Christian names or 
to associate with Christians. Yet she refused to accede to 
the demand of Pope Clement V. (1305-1314) for wholesale 
cancelation of debts held by Jews; she merely regulated the 
rate of interest. Maria’s successor in the regency, the king’s 
uncle Don John Manuel, had a Jew for his body-physician. 
Another Jew, Judah son of Isaac Ibn Wakar (of Cordova), 
stood in high favor with the regent; at his solicitation crimi- 
nal jurisdiction was restored to the rabbinate. 

When the young king took the government into his own 
hands (1325), Samuel Ibn Wakar became his body-physician 
and Joseph son of Ephraim Ibn Benveniste de Ecya his 
treasurer. Each of these two favorites was jealous of the 
other, and the ascendancy of both was a thorn in the flesh 
of the Cortes which complained of the usurious methods by 
which Jewish money-lenders were growing rich. Religious 
hatred was fanned by the apostate Abner of Burgos (Alphonso 
of Valladolid), whose epistle justifying his conversion Was 
answered by Isaac son of Joseph Ibn Pulgar in a biting 
satire. The convert, however, succeeded (1336) in securing 
a royal decree forbidding the ancient execration of seceders 
from Judaism which was instituted in Palestine at the time 
when the Christians formed an inner Jewish sect (p. 208) 
and in which the word ‘Nazarenes’ had long been replaced 
by ‘apostates.’ 

Gonzalo Martinez, who had risen to the position of minister 
of state largely through the influence of Benveniste, pre- 
ferred charges against his benefactor as well as against the 
latter’s rival, Samuel, and against a number of their depen- 
dents that they had enriched themselves in the king’s service. 
Joseph died in prison, Samuel suffered torture on the rack, 


438 THE PROGRESS OF THE CABALA 


while their entire property was confiscated. It cost two other 
Jews large sums of money to exculpate themselves. Martinez 
contemplated wholesale confiscation of the property of all 
Castilian Jews and their expulsion from the country. The 
powerful commander-in-chief was in need of money to prose- 
cute the campaign against the emir of Granada leagued with 
the king of Morocco. The archbishop of Toledo, however, 
thought that the retention of the Jews as a permanent source 
of income was the wiser policy, and Martinez was obliged to 
yield. Soon thereafter, the overbearing general, elated by 
his victories which led to the conquest of the fortress Alge- 
ciras (1339), was convicted of high treason and burned at 
the stake. | 

The Jews, who had rendered signal services in the war, 
acclaimed the king on his triumphal return from battle. The 
king yielded to the Cortes in releasing the Christians of one- 
fourth of their indebtedness to the Jews. He also forbade 
the Jews of his kingdom to lend money on interest; but he 
allowed them to acquire real estate. The times, however, 
had gone by when Jews of wealth and social station were 
themselves scholars or had any scholarly interests. A con- 
temporary writer upbraids the communal leaders of his day 
as vainglorious, boasting of their wealth and their aristocratic 
descent, making much of their services to their people, punc- 

tilious in religious observances, but withal given to luxurious 
living and cruelly oblivious of the needs of their poor 
coreligionists. 

Such a scholar as Asher’s son, Jacob (died 1340), was con- 
tent to live in poverty, merely regretting that his means did 
not permit a change of raiment on the sabbath or to honor 
the day by more than an ordinary meal. During his father’s 
lifetime, he acted together with his brother Judah as dis- 
penser of the paternal charities to the poor. He sought no 
official position, but was satisfied to pursue his scholarly 
labors in a private capacity. He was a talmudist pure and 
simple; secular sciences he ignored, neither approving of them 
nor disparaging them. His field was the ample domain of 
religious law. He abbreviated his father’s digest, and then 


a: : : — SON OF ASHER 439. 


a & code of his awn in which the whole’ 
aioe Was methodically ar ranged i in four 
ng ack the duties of the few day by day and 
sons, gabbaths, vew mexies, and festivals, 
house or walks by the way vw renairs te the 
named * ‘The Path of Life’ (ah Hayyim); 
ing instruction in ce rriegoa forbidden 
eacher of Knowledge’ (Voews Deah};,the 
ie the laws pertaining @ morrimony and 
s, “The Stone of Help’ ‘ae wa-Ezer); 
; ri Ing civil jurisprude: we mek te pro- 
‘of justice, “The Breast plate = nt 
ey, The Code was meant fee ‘%¢: tutes a nd 
which the majority of the faves wuss. The 
| material since Maimonides was eusgpeligoatir 
au thorities were divided, no atfenyt x teade 
but deference was paid to the: ipoien ¢ the 
t father, ‘The work is di anaes uit tea Gear 
na dispositions ; it is instinet wits At ESCesSS 


| testament’ to his son, Jacob ira ere<d Come 
othe written and oral law inet * pertains 
fice as wel] as to morals ” lorthér ade 
m to speak ii on account Gf o> jcrsou, Mt 

ecessary questions in sevkings co deck & 
after the manaer of Lon fh sholars, ter Se 


Ww th God, and to refre “aes ERD eC Lae ee or 


g spoke the true sabia ts every [epee Oot 


2 ance: govt ta ict obser ym at 
fae Ye was Heap io his religiawa Setiels, 


th all his soul atts ry ved his ify io tearn- 


sincerely devin, gies Ww the neal per 


eicented, chaartaiite ao his felleaaner. fe 


oA ae 


yon wiser poles 7 


thereafter, the overt 


Ss > Te 
Whliesnl 4# 


wap Cony icted. oi 


wHG Da Pi 
he king on es pes 
dye the ft artes in rele 
odebtedacss: 
i iegdom to 


. 
. aee ais 


ri na y oblivious 


* 


1iStM, 
holac an ae she r's sot 
ive in poverty, mecely ae 
a change of, raime 
, by ipore than an ord 1 
he acted together 
enser of the paternal had 
a! phir: hut was. 4 
Lie cages 
sila otiesom eel 
Hor Nie: them. His fe 
‘religious | law. He abbreviated 


| 
| 
: 
i 
f 
4 


1340] JACOB SON OF ASHER 439 


set himself to prepare a code of his own in which the whole 
of religious jurisprudence was methodically arranged in four 
parts or Rows (Turim). 

The first, dealing with the duties of the Jew day by day and 
in appointed seasons, sabbaths, new moons, and festivals, 
as he sits in his house or walks by the way or repairs to the 
synagogue, was named ‘The Path of Life’ (Orah Hayyim); 
the second, furnishing instruction in the things forbidden 
and permitted, “Teacher of Knowledge’ (Yoreh Deah); the 
third, encompassing the laws pertaining to matrimony and 
prohibited marriages, ‘The Stone of Help’ (Eben ha-Ezer); 
and the fourth, comprising civil jurisprudence and the pro- 
cedure in courts of justice, ‘The Breastplate of Judgment’ 
(Hoshen Mishpat). The Code was meant for the times and 
conditions in which the majority of the Jews lived. The 
accumulated material since Maimonides was incorporated. 
When later authorities were divided, no attempt was made 
at a decision; but deference was paid to the opinions of the 
author’s great father. The work is distinguished by a clear 
style and a rational disposition; it is instinct with an excess 
of humility. 

In his ethical testament to his son, Jacob inculcated com- 
plete obedience to the writtén and oral law in all that pertains 
to religious practice as well as to morals. He further ad- 
monished his son to speak ill on account of no person, not 
to indulge in unnecessary questions in seeking to decide a 
religious point after the manner of boastful scholars, to be 
single-hearted with God, and to refrain from all manner of 
superstition. Thus spoke the true saint, in every respect the 
talmudic Jew, sincerely devout, given to the minute per- 
formance of the commandments and to strict observance of 
moral obligations. He was simple in his religious beliefs, 
humble and contented, charitable to his fellow-men. He 
loved God with all his soul and consecrated his life to learn- 
ing and teaching. 


CHAPTER Ts 
THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY 


(1348-1405) 


Pr “nr Black Death of 1348 did not lead to any such 
disastrous consequences for the Jews in Catalonia 
and Aragon ‘as it did in Germany. There was some 

slaughter and much pillage, but the Jews knew how to 

defend themselvesand thus ward off the attacks of the popu- 
lace. Noexcesses occurred in Castile, the Jews merely suffering 
alike with the Christian population from the dread plague. 

Many members of the most distinguished Jewish families of 

Toledo and Seville perished. The disease cut short, likewise, 

the life of king Alphonso. His successor, Peter (1350-1369), 

though surnamed ‘The Cruel,’ was favorably disposed to- 

ward the Jews, and it may be said that under him they 
reached the zenith of their power. They espoused the cause 
of their sovereign, as he battled against his stepbrother, 

Henry de Trastamara, Alphonso’s illegitimate son by his 

mistress Leonora de Guzman. However, this very partisan- 

ship brought to the Castilian Jews the ill-will of the opposing 
faction, ultimately bringing about that turn in their fortunes 
which marked the downhill course of Jewish history in Spain. 

The king’s tutor and all-powerful minister, John Alphonso 
de Albuquerque, had for his financial agent Samuel son of 

Meir ha-Levi, of the distinguished Abulafia family. At the 

minister’s advice Peter appointed Samuel as his chief treas- 

urer. The king’s marital entanglements—he was actually 

married to no less than three wives simultaneously—led to a 

conflict between the minister and his former protégé Samuel. 

John, who took sides with Queen Blanche of Bourbon, en- 

deavored to lure the royal bridegroom away from the beauti- 

ful Maria de Padilla. The attempt was thwarted by Samuel, 
and from that time on he practically took the place of the 
deposed minister. The friends of the Bourbon princess, 


440 


Pi, BAMURE ABULAFIA ae 


¢ a. stepbrother and his powertul fac- 
“tito the fortress Toro, where he was 
danke to the skill and the chieats of his 
“tis —subacelaalh Blanche wa¢ ai the time kept in 
it: 3 the castle : at Toledo, tncder the pretense of 
leary invaded that part « she Jewsk quarter 
‘and butchered abou: twelve Seousand 
either age nor sex. [he stiackera, Weowever, 
fom the iiter quarter ty-ihe Jewieh tehabi- 
fed themselveswithstu'y rn courage $835}. 
Werover the king giew apace. By eit) 
arpeaty faances he was able to plant faege 
eal of the monarch; i also a Fneesiets ms) 
e fortune. His co pen vidoked wpr i how 
bisotur and were beholden ic ties fo: many: bettie 
) Toledo he erected (1357) 2: his own Cont a 
#gogue,; subsequently turned oro a Christer 
“preserved as a na tice nak. monnmeet AM 
Samuei succumbed ie orm nabs a he 
lamong whom, it appears, fcc also certain 
jealous of his prosperity. Suditenly, wet 6 
orders’ ta have hin seizes sd corte & 
the soon died ou the rack. 4-4 enormeaty fos 
cin y of gold and sfiver coin xerl of chests tired 
and costly garments, wae ton Sscated By The 
eg in’ the underground efiiacs of whiek ‘Rs 
‘off ce claimed to have discovers] vast heaped at 
re q instill shown te any as The lew's Mia: 
a h effected ne change ii the king's pelieons 
ak their contiqeed loyalty iv his canee that 
‘of Queen Blanche by comand af Ge ing 
t 7 one sa eby Henry de Trastamara owt his suppaarters, 
calle i their aid Bertrand d te Gueselin and his Prench 
rat :, ae as the Pree or Gram! Compacies. At 
p Burgos, the fews fought tvavely ga behalf 


ng two hundred families, was slaty and left 


“a re t they were unatle to withstand the ferdcious: 
. “ema 's soldiéra The entire Jewlsh popula- 


Fy Typ a peotigl. Tae wie ie perished. 


year a H Ling eka be et their po 


riintceay & cone 3 psy ‘canta 


ur memhere oF (ewok e 


he lite ol hing Aiphone, 2 
ugh sarnaelt “The Cy 
ie jeseng, aed GE pathic 


thea sovenwgn, ae he battle 


env de. rae SIAL wh, Alp! 


=. 


‘ie Aloucgierede, ge Ne his f 
Mei ba-Laewi, of the dieting 
minister's ee: woe Pater appoi 
er. the king's marital et 


cantict betw 
Joho, who took sides with { 
Genvored to hine the reval . 
ful Maria de Padilla. The ae 
and from thal tizrie on be p a 
demwed minister, Ti 


. 
3 
; 


1355-60] SAMUEL ABULAFIA 441 


leagued with the king’s stepbrother and his powerful fac- 
tion, beguiled Peter into the fortress Toro, where he was 
held prisoner; but thanks to the skill and the ducats of his 
Jewish treasurer he escaped. Blanche was at the time kept in 
confinement in the castle at Toledo. Under the pretense of 
rescuing her, Henry invaded that part of the Jewish quarter 
called the Alcana and butchered about twelve thousand 
Jews, sparing neither age nor sex. The attackers, however, 
were repulsed from the inner quarter by the Jewish inhabi- 
tants, who defended themselves with stubborn courage (1355). 

Samuel’s influence over the king grew apace. By skilful 
management of the royal finances he was able to place large 
sums at the disposal of the monarch; he also amassed an 
immense private fortune. His coreligionists looked up to him 
as their protector and were beholden to him for many bene- 
factions. At Toledo he erected (1357) at his own cost a 
beautiful synagogue, subsequently turned into a Christian 
church and now preserved as a national monument. At 
length, however, Samuel succumbed to the cabals of his 
many enemies, among whom, it appears, figured also certain 
Jews who were jealous of his prosperity. Suddenly, in 1360, 
the king gave orders to have him seized and confined at 


Seville, where he soon died on the rack. His enormous for- 


tune, consisting of gold and silver coin and of chests filled 
with jewelry and costly garments, was confiscated by the 
state. His palace, in the underground cellars of which his 
successor in office claimed to have discovered vast hoards of 
gold and silver, is still shown to-day as ‘The Jew’s Mansion.’ 

Samuel’s death effected no change in the king’s relations 
to the Jews or in their continued loyalty to his cause. But 
the assassination of Queen Blanche by command of the king 
led to reprisals by Henry de Trastamara and his supporters, 
who called to their aid Bertrand de Guesclin and his French 
marauders, known as the Free or Grand Companies. At 
Briviesca, near Burgos, the Jews fought bravely on behalf 
of their king, but they were unable to withstand the ferocious 
onslaught of Henry’s soldiers. The entire Jewish popula- 
tion, comprising two hundred families, was slain and left 


442 THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY [1369 


unburied. Henry had himself proclaimed king at Calahorra; 
when he entered Burgos (1366), he levied a tax of fifty thou- 
sand doubloons upon the Jewish community. In order to 
raise this enormous sum, the Jews were compelled to strip 
the sacred scrolls of their silver ornaments. Many Jews were 
sold as slaves. The Jews of Segovia and Avila were likewise 
despoiled, while those of Toledo were fined one million 
maravedis. 

The arrival of the English under Edward the Black Prince, 
who had been summoned by Peter, forced Henry to retreat 
to Aragon. But no sooner had the English left than Henry 
reappeared and was accepted by all of northern Castile. 
Burgos opened its gates to the conqueror; the Jews alone 
persisted in their resistance and were fined heavily. Peter 
was grateful enough to his loyal Jews; on calling the king of 
Granada to his assistance, he stipulated that the Jews of 
Castile should suffer no harm. Nevertheless the Jews under- 
went great distress, at the hands both of friends and of foes. 
Those of Villadiego, noted for scholarship and beneficence, 
of Aguilar, and of many other towns were destroyed by the 
English. At Valladolid, the citizens, who favored Henry’s 
cause, pillaged the Jews and destroyed their eight synagogues. 

The king of Granada carried away three hundred Jewish 
families from Jaen to be sold as slaves. Still worse was the 
fate of those who fell into the hands of de Guesclin; a few 
escaped to Navarre, but many who remained were forced to 
accept Christianity. Most lamentable was the plight of the 
community at Toledo. During the siege more than ten thou- 
sand Jews died by reason of famine or by the sword. Along 
with the rest of the population the Jews held out for Peter, 
who was invested by Henry in the castle of Montiel (in La 
Mancha). The hard-beset king left his retreat in the hope 
of bribing the French commander, but instead he fell into 
the hands of his rival, who forthwith slew him (1369). 

Henry II. (1369-1379) imposed upon the poverty-stricken 
Jewish community of the capital a fine of twenty thousand 
gold doubloons. His orders were that, if any refused to pay, 
their property, whether movable or immovable, should be 


© DEGENERATION OF CASTILIAN [EWRY 443 


sale, and that the poor who were unable to_ 
vadid as slaves. Henry was no friend of the 
fe. The Cortes, assemble! at Tore (F571), clam- 

fictive measures against them. Thowel the king 
vt ly accede to their demwads, he gave on two 
h wounded the susceptiti) (ics of the grout Cas- 
> the Quickthat they mts wear the beige on 
‘refrain from calling theaseives by Mbrerian 
1 the king could not cispeuse with the sere 
yin the management of t bi ‘ seal affairs, Barusal 
ee Nh a anced #tetion.-«t TER and aaah 


re 


was i a etare of Ricca) degen, i. 
hand was. the impoveristied mulitudt Mahe 
, s shockingly ignorant, (in he other siti hers 

5 it nguing ageinst each ote, given tom aie 


= re , 
. 


s idleness in their palatial mana, (he met emer 
e and their Wives and dawg hws asrentatnags if 
The leaders 01" ui ye HOARE ee mere NOT entit ont 
burden of texatie cit ChE S ibe emsrer f fot. caw 
eacher complain that jadsiem all toe abun 
p 1 the rich; during gerreiiex it the synagig he 
engage in Conversation urcin. gu to Seep, ches 
n : Whereas with 1 4 om iveians, the preacher 
ne eorig of ngite- 
‘ pike: pe Wrst Vu i“ é ft eke BO rake. el 
com am the Tome, aval. toe ew, witeneee 
which Se ha naasiata Se eo: Tae Te appre Hed 
4 to the Vilest. thay tie: Shon to send: them 
schoo of learhiine Pe. Sea cholare, euch 45° 
des filas ; at Avet ae MRiesY nthe Shepret of 
ie er waited i Mgitptat tes, ah aperatate 
Pio sustain Sy. ny. vimy wrete out 
f the Jewish wits | is apot of Faith,’ 
yy thus reise: ean. aus ‘ytle sources of 
Sin ilar furune e tee im SN ' or higher tal- 
a had to go aetiee © stiletto Aragon 


,with the rest of the population’? 


ave. 


ne 
the ha vin 9 if er rival, whe farthy 


Pew ts hk CURT YEE) CT hy nt th p 
weld doubloons. His order 
heir property, whethe? pid 


SPANISH » 


whenhe entered F IT gOS. ’ 306}, he levi 


sand doubloona upon th miei con m 


(ents Mies, WHS ‘hose of 


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ert | 
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yg crated 
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arty ¥ to 
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t em perta + 442 Sifs D9 Dae re 
cw P chi etd bes 7 35a aasistat ye. a 
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as 
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DEGENERATION OF CASTILIAN JEWRY 443 


sold at public sale, and that the poor who were unable to 
pay should be sold as slaves. Henry was no friend of the 
Jewish people. The Cortes, assembled at Toro (1371), clam- 
ored for restrictive measures against them. Though the king 
would not wholly accede to their demands, he gave in on two 
points which wounded the susceptibilities of the proud Cas- 
tilian Jews to the quick—that they must wear the badge on 
their dress and refrain from calling themselves by Christian 
names. However, the king could not dispense with the ser- 


vices of Jews in the management of his fiscal affairs. Samuel 


Abrabanel occupied a high station at court and Joseph 
Pichon was chief tax-collector. 

Castilian Jewry was in a state of spiritual degeneration. 
On the one hand was the impoverished multitude, in the 
rural districts shockingly ignorant. On the other side were 
the grandees intriguing against each other, given to a life of 
luxurious idleness in their palatial mansions, the men swelled 
with pride and their wives and daughters ostentatious in 
their finery. The leaders of the communities were not ashamed 
to throw the burden of taxation upon the poorer folk. A con- 
temporary preacher complains that Judaism all too often 
sat lightly upon the rich; during sermons in the synagogues 
they would engage in conversation or else go to sleep; they 
despised learning. Whereas with the Christians, the preacher 
continues, it was a point of distinction for the sons of noble- 
men to take orders, the Jewish rich disdained to make of 
their sons students of the Torah, and the poor, witnessing 
the disrepute in which scholarship was held, apprenticed 
their offspring to the vilest trade rather than to send them 
to a higher school of learning. The few scholars, such as 
Moses de Tordesillas at Avila or Shemtob Ibn Shaprut of 
Toledo, successfully engaged in disputations with apostate 
controversialists. To sustain the faithful, they wrote out 
their defenses of the Jewish truth (‘The Support of Faith,’ 
‘The Touchstone’), thus making them available sources of 
information for similar future discussions. For higher tal- 
mudical learning one had to go outside Castile—to Aragon 
and Catalonia. 


44-4 THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY [1380 


In the seat of Ibn Adret at Barcelona sat Nissim son of 
Reuben of Gerona (died after 1380), acknowledged as the 
undisputed leader of his generation. His school was attended 
by eager scholars, and from beyond Spain his opinion was 
sought on all matters of religious law. His fame rests upon 
his commentaries on al-Fasi’s compendium as well as upon 
his expositions of many tractates of the Talmud, the best 
known and most original being his commentary on ‘Vows,’ 
a tractate neglected since gaonic times. In all of these he 
strove to lead up to a fixed decision. He was famous also as a 
preacher. He strenuously opposed determining the Messianic 
year by futile calculations. For some unknown reason, but 
apparently in consequence of denunciation, he, together with 
a number of other scholars and certain lay leaders, was im- 
prisoned (1370) by King Peter IV. (1336-1387) and released 
only after furnishing bail. The charges, whatever they were, 
were not substantiated. | 

Informing was rife among Spanish Jewry. Joseph Pichon 
was denounced to the king by evil-minded coreligionists who 
had the royal ear. He was cast into prison and heavily fined, 
but after a while he was restored to the king’s favor. Pichon 
retaliated with counter-charges against his enemies. While 
John I. (1379-1390) was celebrating his coronation at Bur- 
gos, a Jewish court of law sat in judgment upon Pichon and 
condemned him to death on the charge of informing and 
treason. The new king’s confirmation of the death-sentence 
against his father’s favorite was obtained by withholding 
the name of the accused, and he was speedily executed. The 
king in turn had the rabbi and the other participants in the 
trial put to death. In consequence, the Cortes, convened at 
Soria (1380), forbade the rabbinical courts to exercise crim- 
inal jurisdiction and condemn any Jew to death, mutilation, 
or expulsion. The assembled representatives at Valladolid 
(1385) obtained the royal consent to an act forbidding Jews 
to live in Christian quarters and to employ Christian domes- 
tics. It was furthermore enacted that no Jew or Moor might 
be appointed treasurer by the king or any member of the 
royal family. The king, however, declined to curtail the 


| > pan awer RABSTNATE OF PORTUGAL = 445 


id by Jewish money-lenders- ~euch transac: 
& poktable to the Crown. 3 
t 1 King John of Cascite and bis mother-in- 
ra, ieghet of Portugal after the death of her hus- 
linan¢ F.1383) ,asto the appointment of the chie! 
m, cost the Castilian pretender the crown of 
t within his grasp. The Jews of Portugal, 
foundation of the kingdom ia the twelfth cen- 
‘Sine to complain. Ther lived in perfect tran- 
sperity, and metry of thers roue ro prominence. 
ern i affairs they had complere eutonomy. In 
ith the feguiation of 274 ander Pets — 
rabbi mor) vras appointed by the Crown anc 
juridical functions in the narne adhe the king. On 
pection he was accompan ied by a chief justice, 
WhO kept the seai, a wcretary who drew up 
- and a AMESSEN | er who carried owt he rourt 


Ne hice of chief rab bj of Casitie became vacant, 
svored the appointment of her favorite Judah, 
‘t Mreasurer. John of Cast: ite, whom she suit 
1 te y mount the throne as the hushard of her daughter 

zt m the other hand, had in view the wealthy David 

Ferdinand's collec tor wf eoxstoms. The embit- 
a  turtied agaist her son-in-law. The plot was 
; by Negro and the queen- mes was banished to 
on re . But the efforts of Jobn of Castile to make hiraself 
of Portugal proved futile, and tis crown was assumed 
of vis, who ast nae the throne as John L.of Per- 


‘the toes of Spain and the Cheibien 
y ap’ . The friendship of the Jews for King 
the Chrissirn supporters of Henry. Thetaur- 
ho hailed frnm Seville, aroused the anger of 
the Chrietian townspeople, Inflammatory 
yainst the Jews were delivered by Ferrand Mar- 

eaco’ on of Seville, He was a man of little learning, 
ui id of indomitable courage, Tie feeble remon- 


Havlien of G erona (died after 1. 


Pa ebcimemgaaeniagiese on seahirards 


<e ‘THE DECTANW OF SP 
fe the seat of Tbe Adret: at Bas 


ywpsiapited leader of his generation 
a ener sided tM, aad: from. bey 
woh on all matters of ope 


preac hur, Hee priest opposed 
vear f huerghe cuiculations. For) 
BENsce wile nn sonsequence of d 
« nhawmber ot orher scholars am 
peisoaend (187 cy by King Peter 
oniy after fespaat eg: hei Thee 
ee whintentatedy.: 
Lnhentrelnige wees vite: mone 
was denounced tia pos 


ane sisal : ca ie ; 


%. 2 » & PY . » $ 
PRS) cbiained she 


r 
’ 


o eve in Chitin ¢ 
tise It was furs mat 0 

in © appointed org 
Py G 4 b darnily J 4 } “te 


1384] THE CHIEF RABBINATE OF PORTUGAL 445 


privileges enjoyed by Jewish money-lenders—such transac- 
tions were clearly profitable to the Crown. 

A dispute between King John of Castile and his mother-in- 
law Leonora, regent of Portugal after the death of her hus- 
band, Ferdinand I. (1383),asto the appointment of the chief 
rabbi of the realm, cost the Castilian pretender the crown of 
Portugal almost within his grasp. The Jews of Portugal, 
ever since the foundation of the kingdom in the twelfth cen- 
tury, had little cause to complain. They lived in perfect tran- 
quillity and prosperity, and many of them rose to prominence. 
In their internal affairs they had complete autonomy. In 
accordance with the regulation of 1274 under Alphonso ITI., 
the chief rabbi (rabbi mor) was appointed by the Crown and 
exercised his juridical functions in the name of the king. On 
his tours of inspection he was accompanied by a chief justice, 
a chancellor who kept the seal, a secretary who drew up 
the protocols, and a messenger who carried out the court 
sentences. 

In 1384, the office of chief rabbi of Castile became vacant. 
Leonora favored the appointment of her favorite Judah, 


-Ferdinand’s chief treasurer. John of Castile, whom she sum- 


moned to mount the throne as the husband of her daughter 
Beatrice, on the other hand, had in view the wealthy David 
Ibn Negro, Ferdinand’s collector of customs. The embit- 
tered Leonora turned against her son-in-law. The plot was 


‘discovered by Negro and the queen-regent was banished to 


a convent. But the efforts of John of Castile to make himself 
king of Portugal proved futile, and the crown was assumed 
by John of Avis, who ascended the throne as John I.of Por- 
tugal (1385). 

The friction between the Jews of Spain and the Christian 
population grew apace. The friendship of the Jews for King 
Peter provoked the Christian supporters of Henry. The mur- 
der of Pichon, who hailed from Seville, aroused the anger of 
his friends among the Christian townspeople. Inflammatory 
speeches against the Jews were delivered by Ferrand Mar- 
tinez, archdeacon of Seville. He was a man of little learning, 
but devout and of indomitable courage. The feeble remon- 


446 THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY [1391 


strances of the court and the pope availed nothing to silence 
him; the more resolute intervention by the archbishop of 
Seville was cut short by his death. Soon thereafter the king 
succumbed to illness (1390). During the minority of his son, 
Henry III. (1390-1406), the realm was administered by a 
council of regents, divided by mutual jealousy and powerless 
to check lawlessness. Martinez, whom the young king’s 
mother, Leonora, chose as her confessor, resumed his ha- 
rangues and demanded the destruction of the three and 
twenty synagogues in the diocese of Seville. 

On Ash Wednesday, March 15, 1391, the mob broke into 
the Jewish quarters of Seville. The governor of the city, John 
Alphonso de Guzman, and the mayor, his kinsman Alvar 
Perez de Guzman, had two of the leaders of the mob seized 
and publicly whipped. This action only served to exasperate 
the mob. Despite prompt measures by the regency, the Jew- 
ish quarter was surrounded by the populace (June 6). Fire 
was set to the dwellings, and there ensued an orgy of carnage. 
Four thousand Jews, men, women, and children, were killed 
outright. Of the great and prosperous community which 
numbered nearly seven thousand families, the majority- 
sought safety in embracing Christianity—between fire and 
blood, they chose the waters of baptism. The aged Samuel 
Abrabanel, once the confidant of Henry II., had not the 
strength to resist temptation and became a Christian. The 
synagogues were for the most part destroyed; two of the 
larger ones in the city were turned into churches. 

As the regency took no vigorous action to suppress the 
disorders, the riots spread from Seville to the neighboring 
towns. At Ecija and Carmona not a single Jew was left. In 
Cordova the entire Jewish quarter was burned down. The 
defenseless Jews were ruthlessly butchered; two thousand 
corpses lay in heaps in the streets, in the houses, or in the 
wrecked synagogues. Manysaved themselves by submitting 
to baptism. On June 20, on the fast day of the seventeenth of 
Tammuz, a frightful butchery took place in Toledo. Among 
the many martyrs was Judah, a descendant of Asher son of 
Jehiel; with his own hand he cut the throat of his mother- 


MASSACRES IN AKAGON 447 


wife, and their éhildren, and then ae 4 himself. 
msidera >number 3 ae secepred C hriatian ity. Sieailar scenes 
f ac eC din seventy 4 astihan towns 
| we Aragon wae dotac hed from t petite. the benundary 
het to the anti-Jewish excesses. During the 
Valencia (July 9}, two hunted and tity jews 
eat tiuriber were baptize, asiamy them the ' 
most influential, such as Joma * havea and 
allo, Not a single Jew remain} ‘>. (he former 
éncia, Murviedro was the ly sur vuig 
y; Pe cvctrhere many hadaccet4y f tesettiens (ae 
Jews of Paima, on the isie <¥ agnesties were 
hundred, including the roien.«ore killed, 
aped under cover of right gy ee Harbary 
femainter submitted to Lopeios Ss this 
te property of the queen, so « etre 
fg aheavy fine on the Chittee') aate 
: } prosperity of the island imesR a teyed 


: the aabbath , August ¥ MRS rahe. 
‘Barceiona, At the first encowitey: a % ated , 


ioe Several hundred sought silgs.<: the 
gugh the authorities did all is sab yex<r to 
fort was stormed by the ma ae ogre 8. 
hundred Jews lost their lve ae Qaags rem 
Hasdai Creseas, who happmess too mi the 
y married. A wreat number itetared by 
| Lomaerd pobinces t i, tos * onitys a 


a i hetanticl: Sete: Ree ‘ethabaia excesses | 
in some of oo ar ty ponies 8 


Sete oe saneieman et thous 


LR he I ae ie Rye 


« ci 


Mia | counc of resets, div ided na mutua 
3 . 5 a) oh mht Jay ees, Ma artined,. BES 
: xe yr he , Leo iC ay chose: as her conf 
i rangues and deranded the destruct 
es Lwenty synagogues in the diocese of 
A . On Ase Vr ec wlay, March iS, 
e he Jewish quertereatl ‘Seville. The x 


F 


5 homes hat iN and bps 
; ert 4 went 
wibliohy gekrieae 
the meh, Thee romp ¥ 


i ry CHBAr or ie a3 tounded by 
ot they hae = pr. hua By bat u 


Bs | nombera4 pers even ic ) 

cme ought safety in -emmaenig: Oh iy 
iF 
rowns, A 4 Fija ia Carmona 
corpses lay in cima a § pe 
wrecked vues ogues, . 
to en m. OF 
Tammuz, 2 fs 

che man 

lehiel: x eh 


Q oo 


ml tae ete ae 


nan RD ng Se ee, eT ee ye ee re 


1391] MASSACRES IN ARAGON 447 


in-law, his wife, and their children, and then killed himself. 
Aconsiderable number accepted Christianity. Similar scenes 
were enacted in seventy Castilian towns. 

Though Aragon was detached from Castile, the boundary 
offered no check to the anti-Jewish excesses. During the 
outbreak in Valencia (July 9), two hundred and fifty Jews 
were killed. A great number were baptized, among them the 
richest and most influential, such as Joseph Abarim and 
Samuel Abravallo. Not a single Jew remained in the former 
kingdom of Valencia. Murviedro was the only surviving 
community, but even there many had accepted baptism. On 
August 2, the Jews of Palma, on the isle of Majorca, were 
attacked. Three hundred, including the rabbi, were killed, 
eight hundred escaped under cover of night to the Barbary 
States, while the remainder submitted to baptism. As this 
Jewry was the private property of the queen, she compen- 
sated herself by levying a heavy fine on the Christian popula- 
tion. The commercial prosperity of the island was destroyed 
as a result of this outbreak. 

Three days later—on the sabbath, August 5—the infec- 
tion reached Barcelona. At the first encounter one hundred 
Jews were killed. Several hundred sought refuge in the 
citadel. Although the authorities did all in their power to 
protect them, the fort was stormed by the mob on August 8. 
More than three hundred Jews lost their lives, among them 
the only son of Hasdai Crescas, who happened to be in the 
city waiting to be married. A great number, estimated by 
some as close to eleven thousand, embraced Christianity; a 
small number escaped. Similar riots occurred in Catalonia— 
in Gerona and Lerida. The Geronese Jews for the most part 
chose death rather than to forswear their faith. In Aragon 
proper the Jews in the main forestalled the impending doom 
by the offer of a substantial bribe. Nevertheless excesses 
were committed in some of the larger communities. 

Thus for three months did this bloody epidemic rage 
throughout Christian Spain. Some fifty thousand Jews were 
massacred, while the baptized numbered hundreds of thou- 
sands. Only in the territory held by the Mohammedans was 


44§ THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY 


there safety for the Jews. In Portugal severe persecutions 
were warded off through the influence of the chief rabbi 
Moses Navarro. John I. of Aragon had twenty-five of the 
ringleaders executed. The chief instigator of the anti-Jewish 
excesses, Martinez, was condemned by Henry III. to light 
confinement. But after a few years he was set free; his com- 
patriots venerated him as a saint until his death (1404), 

The effect of the destruction of so much Jewish property 
was felt by the country at large. Thousands of Christian 
laborers, previously employed in the Jewish yarn and leather 
factories now in ruins, found themselves out of work. Com- 
merce had received a setback; the revenue of the Crown suf- 
fered diminution. The very churches and cloisters, hitherto 
dependent upon rates paid by the Jews, were impoverished. 

As for the Jews themselves, more serious than the losses 
was the ever widening chasm between them and their Chris- 
tian neighbors, fostered by the fanatical churchmen. Joy 
had departed out of the life of Spanish Jewry. After the man- 
ner of their brethren in Germany, they commemorated their 
visitation in heartrending lamentations. Their proud spirit 
was cowed; craven fear settled upon them. The majority 
smarted under the necessity which forced them to enter into 
the Christian fold; they hated the new faith and longed to 
throw off the mask. Such as were fortunate enough to escape 
to Granada or Portugal or to North Africa, speedily rejoined 
communion with the Synagogue. But the greater part, who 
were compelled to remain behind, lived a Jewish life in 
secret, as far as possible fulfilling the obligations of their 
ancestral faith, while in public demeaning themselves as 
Catholics. This dual life was connived at by the civil author- 
ities; but the people at large hated these fictitious Christians 
or Crypto-Jews, Maranos or ‘accursed’ as they called them, 
worse than those who were openly Jews. 

There was also a class of Jews who had long grown indif- 
ferent to Judaism and for that matter to any religious belief. 
They were satisfied to accord to the dominant religion of the 
land a lip-profession, so long as they were able to retain their 
wealth and social position. It was to their interest to play the 


PAUL OF BURKiIs 449 


Chri tians and to make mee of their former co- 
, whose steadfastness put trom to shame. Many 
otic for their ambitions wriet decided, once the 
al saps had been taken, to threw Leounsels eS by full 
o their new life. Not a few of these .omverta)in their 
#6 to display their zeal or beracs« they felt mg in 
; ety, sought to dray in fresh eceents hy extol 
janity and disparaging Jucais 
oo. of these nissionarn-» wud tie brrtenest 
0 mi Which he for: Book att the soe age of fart 


52- 5). He v Was 4 fan cal MiB eiey ky Peet tty Toten 
‘bad been pune tiliously daca  Lodaten, Rib 
saat ion of rabli. His wealth, howe ¢omight hie: 
Contact with high Christian cys. tis was ie 
bitious man, andin 1391, the gaye She fears 
he realized like samany others) . aos that 
Re Might find a wider field G0 his omevi Mies: 
- pau at Paris, he receiv ce Seer of 
. Peter de Luna, since 084. 0 Poneding 
r to the anti-pope Clement Vi? a Avignon: 
chi Gas icon-of Fevine and eubmoiances os anon of 
I at Seville. Fle maunied still layin. ve became” 
hop of Cartagena and srchbiidw: it Burge, 
| royal seal to Henry If]}.. ae¢ oemnber of the 
tig the tninority of John Tf. (ace “L4S4)) Sens 
1 he set out to prove, in a ett: addresmedg 2B; 
a, chief rabbi of Nava i physian 43 
AUt., that Judaism h: 44 ieee rs : cena te 
His talumniations of th. | lews ret witird wet 
hands of the bishyp | P.cupiona; the Jews 
ati tude to the sain ts o, 
pul’: ‘disciples followed hue sens er intestine Otiurch 
iptismal name Gere ‘i Reeves Fe, amd ons 


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ro as WEIR and socal p. wiht: twas 


1325-1435] PAUL OF BURGOS 449 


devout Christians and to make mock of their former co- 
religionists, whose steadfastness put them to shame. Many 
saw no other outlet for their ambitions and decided, once the 
crucial step had been taken, to throw themselves with full 
zest into their new life. Not a few of these converts, in their 
eagerness to display their zeal or because they felt lonely in 
their new society, sought to drag in fresh elements by extol- 
ling Christianity and disparaging Judaism. 

The most persistent of these missionaries and the bitterest 
foe of the religion which he forsook at the ripe age of forty, 
was Paul de Santa Maria of Burgos, originally Solomon ha- 
Levi (1352-1435). He was a man of learning, and up to his 
conversion had been punctiliously devoted to Judaism, fill- 
ing the position of rabbi. His wealth, however, brought him 
early into contact with high Christian circles. He was by 
nature an ambitious man, and in 1391, the year of the fear- 
ful massacre, he realized like so many others of his class that 
as a Christian he might find a wider field for his capabilities. 
After a course of study at Paris, he received the degree of 
doctor of theology. Peter de Luna, since 1394, as Benedict 
XIII., successor to the anti-pope Clement VII. at Avignon, 
made him archdeacon of Tevino and subsequently canon of 
the cathedral at Seville. He mounted still higher; he became 
in turn bishop of Cartagena and archbishop of Burgos, 
keeper of the royal seal to Henry III., and member of the 
regency during the minority of John II. (1406-1454). Soon 
after his baptism he set out to prove, in a letter addressed to 
Joseph Orabuena, chief rabbi of Navarre and physician to 
King Charles III., that Judaism had been superseded by 
Christianity. His calumniations of the Jews met with a set- 
back at the hands of the bishop of Pamplona; the Jews 
showed their gratitude to the good bishop. 

One of Paul’s disciples followed his master into the Church 
under the baptismal name Geronimo de Santa Fé, and like 
his teacher engaged in anti-Jewish propaganda. Hasdai 
Crescas wrote in Spanish a concise polemical work (1396), 
discussing impartially the main differences between the two 
creeds. Incidentally he propounded the question, Which of 


450 THE DECLINE OF SPANISH JEWRY [1397 


the two contending popes is infallible, the one at Rome or 
his rival at Avignon? 

At the request of Crescas, a younger scholar wrote in a 
similar strain a more comprehensive polemical critique of 
Christian dogmas under the title ‘The Confusion of the Gen- 
tiles’ (1397). This young man, Isaac son of Moses (Prophiat) 
Duran, had become by force a sham-conyert to Christianity 
(1391). Together with a friend, David Bonet Bongoron, who 
shared with him the same plight, he determined to set out to 
Palestine and there freely to confess Judaism. His friend, 
however, lingered at Avignon where Paul of Burgos chanced 
to meet him and immediately prevailed upon him to remain 
a Christian. The disappointed Prophiat addressed to his 
light-hearted friend a stinging satire, mockingly upholding 
him in his determination. ‘Be not like unto thy fathers’ (Al 
tehi ka-abotheka), thus each section of the epistle opened. 
For some time the Christians, who referred to the composi- 
tion as ‘Alteca Boteca,’ thought it a genuine defense of 
Christianity; but soon their minds were disabused and the 
epistle was burned publicly. 


yi TOSA 


1 ution and inner demmerrmHeation, 
rs 3  togerher with a felow-«etudes® te the 
no EGerona, {: aac son of She shut Ba 
table rock upholding. Judaise ies: She 
Sat 41408) corresponded with aytward 
rabbinical assistance at twoget. iss 
Palso abroad, as whee Ne interpered 
pi of Vienna and tha wumibent a che 
fis. The spiritual lester. of Semty | it 
uve, been hasty. witi: “sew secrmne « 
i “pecuniary fines, The ‘e ype HA 
es against the autheticy- ie rabbis, 
e hotheds of strife ‘Warts: himself 
troublesome elena?) < “arngossa, 
his ground and with: <'¢ peed upern 
we seek another fee < activity. 
he took office at '\ ber sa. The 
lim out of Spain; S* ims: a refuge 
| t years of his life werd. open. 
r- came from a fans shelars. He 
eae the favor ot é ke king ond 
a0 king of Navarm. 11s fanw, ae 3 
ct rity fo his | religimus counsel, Vix 
"eC a de old ale asot -enrithed She 


which, however, wR never written. 
e omides for his ne» . Wherear the 
> Maimonidias resets a daayer to 
we —. Mairuonsdes in aevallow- 
«, Creseas laid bare the Jegical in- 


q 
VAL 


‘meant as an intros tion to a onde 


worn af oo wistoanane fought - 


a 


= 
a 2 


cede 


“A 


a Peek 2 aaa, ene ee nee a 


iF 


Nyt. 


are 


eee DUCLINE OF SF 


tha twp contending popes sar: 
dawerval at Avignon? 3 i) ye 
5 fee the request of, Creacas, a 
‘Weiler strain a more compreh 
Obristian dogmas under the ti 
tiles’ (1397). This young many: 
Duran, had become by forced 
(1391). Together with a friend, 
Shared with him the same p eh o8 
Palestine and there freely to. 
however, lingered at Avignon 
to meet him and immediately 
a “hrtatiodd: The. disappoin 
esi he. ar ey waite a § | 


" or some > time thee Christi ian 
tion as ‘Algeca Boteca,’ | 
ee “hristianity’ pate eon. | 


CHAPTER LXI 
THE DISPUTATION OF TORTOSA 
(1340-1444) 


Hasdai Crescas, together with a fellow-student in the 
school of Nissim of Gerona, Isaac son of Shesheth Bar- 
fat, stood like a veritable rock upholding Judaism and Jew- 


N A time of cruel persecution and inner demoralization, 


ish learning. Barfat (1326-1408) corresponded with upward 


of seventy rabbis and rabbinical assistants at home. His 
opinions were sought also abroad, as when he interposed 
between the chief rabbi of Vienna and the incumbent in the 
rabbinical office at Paris. The spiritual leaders of Jewry in 
that period seem to have been hasty with their decrees of 
excommunication or of pecuniary fines. The lay members 
frequently set themselves against the authority of the rabbis, 
and the communities were hotbeds of strife. Barfat himself 
came into collision with troublesome elements in Saragossa; 
but he steadfastly stood his ground and was prevailed upon 
to reconsider his resolution to seek another field of activity. 
Subsequently, however, he took office in Valencia. The 
events of 1391 drove him out of Spain; he found a refuge 
in Algiers where the last years of his life were spent. 
Crescas (1340-1410) came from a family of scholars. He 
was rabbi at Saragossa; he enjoyed the favor of the king and 
queen of Aragon and of the king of Navarre. His fame as a 
talmudist imparted authority to his religious counsel. His 
maturest work, produced in ripe old age and entitled “The 
Light of the Lord,’ was meant as an introduction to a code 
of Jewish religious law which, however, was never written. 
He apparently had Maimonides for his model. Whereas the 


orthodox perceived in the Maimonidian tenets a danger to 


faith and the heterodox went beyond Maimonides in swallow- 
ing Aristotelian teachings, Crescas laid bare the logical in- 
adequacies of the entire system of Greek wisdom, and fought 
philosophy with its own weapons. 


451 


452 THE DISPUTATION OF TORTOSA 


Crescas counted eight dogmas the denial of which entails 
renunciation of Judaism. The Jew must believe that the 
world was created out of nothing by the divine will at a given 
time; in the immortality of the soul; in retribution; in the 
resurrection of the dead; in the immutability of the Torah; 
in its perpetual obligatoriness which cannot be abrogated; in 
the supremacy of Moses as prophet above those that pre- 
ceded or followed him; in the inspiration resident in the 
priest’s Urim and Thummim; and in the Messianic redemp- 
tion. Crescas stressed Divine Providence as extending beyond 
the species to the individual. Human freedom was with him 
something conditional instead of absolute. There was a 
divine purpose in the world, to be accomplished by human 
perfection—not, as with the intellectualists, along the lines 
of logical cognition, but through loving obedience to the will 
of God. The Torah alone, revealed religion, instructs man in 
the duties which help him to acquire eternal bliss, the high- 
est good which consists in cleaving unto God. Crescas saw 
no reason for giving up the talmudic belief in spirits, good or 
evil, and in the efficacy of incantations and amulets; but he 
hesitated to subscribe to the cabalistic doctrine of the migra- 
tion of the soul (metempsychosis). 

Barfat stood somewhat aloof from the Cabala, citing a 
remark that the Christians believed in the Trinity but the 
Cabalists multiplied the number of divine manifestations 
(emanations) to ten. Of Crescas it is reported that he rec- 
ognized Moses Botarel, an ascetic Cabalist with a smatter- 
ing of philosophical reading, who made claim that the prophet 
Elijah revealed himself to him and appointed him Messiah. 

The immersion into mystic speculation served as an ano- 
dyne for the unabated misery of the people. In 1405, Henry 
III. granted the petition of the Cortes and declared all bonds 
on Christians held by Jews to be void, thus depriving the 
Jews of a large part of their property. They were compelled 
to wear badges except when traveling. Only collectors of 
royal revenues and tax-farmers were exempted from some of 
these restrictions. Upon the death of Henry III. (1406), the 


ene VINCENT FERRER 453 
ned . the name of gee Lian aa oa 


‘witiie va throne of drank @ + ret +4816). 
, whom Heiry had named exeewtur of his 
this infant successor, was the ne genius 
anti anti-Jewish legislation. th 1408 ap ott decree 
forbidding Jews to hold public offiee. The ex- 
tiupon wearing out the power of resivtesrce to 
Raetics in-the higher strate of jewish seciety. 
‘charge of having desecraved fie. hat was pare- 
the Jews of Segovia. Meir Absacex. pirysician 
iv, Was put fo torture, ant 2 (peterson was 
that he had poisoned his mate, The hap- 
bartered ; the svnagogue was. ii erie! mio a 
Bevent is still aeanmemorates: <e ¢& annual 
ne following year, at the iavmgeton co Paal 
Bominican iriac St. Vincent Pamx:. » itiend 
mope Benedict X111., traversed (awicty (ooo one 
“other, urging the Jews to accepy aweOaia. He 
: 2a a ’ with The Torah 18) (aie a Bia a 
ther, } attended by an-unruly ariierd aol, and 
ain elements surrendered to his impas- 
ges. In Toledo he spent a full month; in cee 
peue he ie said to have won over more thoy 

ews(i4ti. — a 

xt ent ape he Griace hy prothe ag ote am Wit fi 
auld be dune ! ast we STs, 
be nen ree ae tiore eficgareet pane. ter 
Métant into he wre cd cya <husch wag £es 
don. in the spew «/* she Chit ang a haw, con 
Ms y-four clause us Deere yt vhs chaaeiinest 
of Burgas, wae peeve’ gated | (i4)2P-—e gaece 
islation which in every wa: ed to reditee the Jews 
erty Fe banat shee, They ote fet Rites strictly 
arters; they were «iri our froar sie geAtesions; 
reo engage in beaswdicradts, aera hapwers, deal 
esrarsigh or vane They wert a Eipstbaieiesh fo. 


= Sapte 


" tata 


town. as prophet 2 


ea etn nim; ane int 


hae | when ‘tra € 


at ieee 
Oe mn the de hes: 


1411] VINCENT FERRER 453 


realm was administered in the name of the infant king, John 
II., by his bigoted mother Catharine and his uncle, who later, 
as Ferdinand I., sat on the throne of Aragon (1412-1416). 

Paul of Burgos, whom Henry had named executor of his 
will and tutor to his infant successor, was the evil genius 
who inspired anti-Jewish legislation. In 1408 an old decree 
was reissued forbidding Jews to hold public office. The ex- 
rabbi was bent upon wearing out the power of resistance to 
conversionist tactics in the higher strata of Jewish society. 

In 1410, a charge of having desecrated the host was pre- 
_ ferred against the Jews of Segovia. Meir Alguadez, physician 
to the late king, was put to torture, and a confession was 
wrung from him that he had poisoned his master. The hap- 
less man was quartered; the synagogue was converted into a 
church, and the event is still commemorated by an annual 
procession. In the following year, at the instigation of Paul 
of Burgos, the Dominican friar St. Vincent Ferrer, a friend 
of the anti-pope Benedict XIII., traversed Castile from one 
end to the other, urging the Jews to accept baptism. He 
appeared in synagogues, with the Torah in one arm and a 
cross in the other, attended by an unruly armed mob, and 
everywhere the weaker elements surrendered to his impas- 
sioned addresses. In Toledo he spent a full month; in the 
principal synagogue he is said to have won over more than 
‘four thousand Jews (1411). | 

The queen-regent and her princely brother-in-law lent a 
ready ear to his counsels: what could be done by suave per- 
suasion should be done. A still more efficacious means to 
force the recalcitrant into the arms of the Church was re- 
strictive legislation. In the name of the child-king a law, con- 
sisting of twenty-four clauses and betraying the masterhand 
of the bishop of Burgos, was promulgated (1412)—a piece 
of legislation which in every way tended to reduce the Jews 
to poverty and to humiliate them. They were to keep strictly 
to their quarters; they were shut out from the professions; 
nor were they to engage in handicrafts, act as brokers, deal 
in wine, flour, meat, or bread. They were not permitted to 
hire Christian help; all social intercourse with Christians was 


454 THE DISPUTATION OF TORTOSA 


forbidden. They were shorn of the right to settle their inter- 
nal disputes in their own courts, nor might they, without 
royal sanction, levy their communal taxes. Jews might not 
assume the title of ‘Don,’ nor carry arms, trim their hair or 
shave their beard. Jews and Jewesses were enjoined to clothe 
themselves in long mantles of coarse material. No Jew might 
leave the country, and a heavy fine was placed upon any 
grandee or knight shielding a fugitive. Transgressors were to 
be punished by one hundred lashes and heavy fines, one- 
third of which went to the informer. 

These stringent regulations were somewhat mitigated by 
the queen-regent in a subsequent edict (1414). The Domin- 
ican preacher had taken himself off to Aragon. There Ferdi- 
nand, who was elevated to the throne through the friar’s 
good offices, gave him every facility to pursue his conver- 
sionist activities. The number of converts, both in Castile 
and in Aragon, is estimated at thirty-five thousand. In this 
work Ferrer was assisted by the renegade Geronimo, who, 
as a physician in attendance on the Spanish anti-pope at 
Avignon, willingly lent himself as a tool in the hands of his 
patron. The object was nothing short of the destruction of 
Judaism, and when the schismatic head of the Church was 
driven back to his Spanish home, he threw his entire energy 
into his pious work. He hoped that, by successfully con- 
verting the whole of Spanish Jewry, his chance for recogni- 
tion at the impending ecumenical council at Constance 
would be improved. 

With the sanction of Ferdinand, Benedict issued a bull 
summoning the Jews of Aragon and Catalonia to a public 
disputation in the city of Tortosa. This most remarkable 
of all the theological tournaments into which the Jews were 
forced during the Middle Ages lasted a year and nine months 
(from February 1413 to November 12, 1414) and was spread 
over sixty-nine sessions. Benedict presided, surrounded by a 
brilliant suite of archbishops and bishops and abbots and 
knights. In the opening session, he made it plain to the 
twenty-two representatives of the Jews that the truth of the 
Christian religion was above contention; that the truth of 


a 


“THE TALMUD FORBIDIEN 4; 


wae soa pdmitted up to the time «4 the r rise of 
the Jews were merely to answer whetber or no 
ages'of the Talmud bore witness to thy fact ikea 
had come before the destraction of te Temple. 
te Geronimo chose for the te! o! hig wermon a the 
waiah: If ye be willing and che)ent, ye shall eat 
of the land; but if ye refuse amt reel, we hall be 
with. the sword.’ The threat te. utimictabetbie, 
promise of worldly well-heaing i rrmegader tke 
L int d isguised. | 
hspokesman, Vida! Benveninie, acre ted with 3 \ 
gimm the Latin tongue. The jr! Achegin tes 
too well that it was a sore (4% “a6: tO ange 
churchmen, The ATQUMMICTICR 1h) Fe CeO 
; but in the oficial account of 8 “ax endings 
itements were perver rted into fie eee 2she 
moth charged his tactics, inven ¢ Orewang 
mtorprools of the Chrintane oot he, 
f other ‘apostates, preferred hme: paneer the 
a pernicious work which ahaa ya’ he Doigee! aavayy 
ise against the Talmud he ie" « o. Das 
“to gon-jews as well a¢ strter ~Aated 


‘which served his purpose m ie dae arnt, in ye 
salmost all his ocvlieagues, Geeiwie) oo % as 
sdone on a previous occtswr igs vn Jews 
by haggadic opinions, The Stems» © errer 
as se conversionist actitiges, 4 te Ara- 
ities emany Jewish familia ao ce: to bap- 
bahemmaaaie hefore the ewer) apautants 
rah unequss! combat wi ee xe .disagp- 
% hissed a iw (May i! seeding the 
dy.the Talmud. ty read ans he. an writings, 
a with f hriniuins, oe tiene abethe | . 
children. On the tinex-ef the dyseinaer, wulgated by ‘ 
and. placed ott ie wtetare-bects of Aragon by 
(Jews were dirtiest al! rigbis + i etiwnal juris- 
e iad free te Hencoed aigainet iceiers and 


“Wie . 7 ae | Dh Si 
ey. i a oa ae ee Fe ey 
4 eas 


ie einige ja Po TAS ew © nae, Fe, Te Tee Eee Gk Sane 


7 ae eres A Ae 


Sn ed os ‘ 
eRe 
ee ef i ila 
Bs el 
lh 
cay 


ee ye ae ‘Mon,’ nore FY: 
Ces 13. jews and jewe : 
ne fi eanitles of coarse t 
ay, aed a heawye fine 
> be agai « aveiing a na 
4 oye ae hundred 
sll dia te the infornia 
aa vag ip dmnte: ions ¥ 


Ke 


‘ F 
pet ce, OMe 


re sa He ational a 


oa oooh tye 


‘saan ecumer 
sar aah eit ibitiewes 


7 
es 
® 
42 N 5 
*) 
Why r ‘ 
Eg S 


| gta. +t eer ee 
Wether. pes. Ue rari sS 
mn ee ee, er a St soe a 
Yat ta WR a This, Set oe ae tt ruth 


B er: r ? pas, Whieeial Y 
~ ia he We : yy ¥ t aa ei Re : 


= 


1414] THE TALMUD FORBIDDEN 455 


Judaism was equally admitted up to the time of the rise of 
Christianity ; the Jews were merely to answer whether or not 
certain passages of the Talmud bore witness to the fact that 
the Messiah had come before the destruction of the Temple. 
The apostate Geronimo chose for the text of his sermon the 
words of Isaiah: ‘If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat 
the good of the land; but if ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be 
devoured with the sword.’ The threat was unmistakable, 
even as the promise of worldly well-being to renegades like 
himself was undisguised. 

The Jewish spokesman, Vidal Benveniste, answered with a 
long discourse in the Latin tongue. The Jewish delegates 
realized only too well that it was a sore business to argue 
with the wily churchmen. The arguments of the opponents 
were easily met, but in the official account of the proceedings 
the Jewish statements were perverted into the very opposite. 
Geronimo at length changed his tactics. Instead of drawing 
upon the Talmud for proofs of the Christian position, he, 
with the aid of other apostates, preferred charges against the 
Talmud as a pernicious work which should be done away 
with. In a treatise against the Talmud he assembled all pas- 
sages unfriendly to non-Jews as well as stray and isolated 
haggadic dicta which served his purpose. Astruc ha-Levi, in 
the name of almost all his colleagues, declared, much as 
Nahmani had done on a previous occasion, that the Jews 
were not bound by haggadic opinions. The Dominican Ferrer 
meanwhile pursued his conversionist activities; in the Ara- 
gonese communities many Jewish families submitted to bap- 
tism. The converts were paraded before the Jewish disputants 
at Tortosa. 

The result of the unequal combat was that the disap- 
pointed Benedict issued a bull (May 11, 1415) forbidding the 
Jews to study the Talmud, to read anti-Christian writings, 


‘to have intercourse with Christians, or to disinherit their 


baptized children. On the lines of the decree promulgated by 
Catharine and placed on the statute-books of Aragon by 
Ferdinand, the Jews were denied all rights of internal juris- 
diction, nor were they free to proceed against informers and 


456 THE DISPUTATION OF TORTOSA 


traitors. They might hold no public offices nor follow any 
handicrafts. The badge of dishonor was made imperative, 
and thrice a year all Jews over twelve, of both sexes, were 
forced to listen to a Christian sermon in their own syna- 
gogues. The apostate Gonzalo de Santa Maria, a son of Paul 
of Burgos, was appointed to carry the provisions of the bull 
into effect. | 

The question, Did the Messiah come and was he realized 
in Jesus? so often put to the Jews and latterly at Tortosa, 
set one of the participants in that disputation to think about 
the position which the belief in the Messiah occupied in the 
Jewish religion. Joseph Albo (died 1444) was no original 
mind; but, unlike his teacher Crescas, he was a clear and 
fluent writer, with a touch of the preacher in him. His work 
on ‘Dogmas,’ completed in 1428, became a popular book. 
Albo distinguishes fundamental dogmas (‘roots’) without 
which Judaism, and for that matter any revealed religion, 
is unthinkable; derivative beliefs (‘secondary roots’) which 
follow from the fundamental dogmas and a denial of which 
involves a denial of that in which they are rooted; and, lastly, 
beliefs which, though obligatory upon the Jew, are merely 
subsidiary (‘branches’)—Judaism is quite thinkable without 
them and a Jew who disbelieves in them does not excom- 
municate himself. Thus one may still be reckoned a Jew 
though he holds that creation was preceded by primeval 
matter. Similarly the belief in the Messiah, fundamental 
with ‘others,’ that is, Christians, is not central in Judaism. 


Here it is where Albo and Maimonides clashed. The weak- ¢ 


ened stress upon the Messianic doctrine was a gesture in the 
face of Christianity. Albo also admitted on academic grounds 
the mutability of the Law. But he added that, granted that 
a future prophet might come forward and declare the Law 
abrogated—of course, barring the fundamental dogmas—his 
message would have to be authenticated as in the case of 
Moses by a similar concourse of all Israel. This was the 
answer to the apostates, who kept repeating that Judaism 
terminated with the birth of Christianity, and to the luke- 
warm Jews, who lent a ready ear to their appeals. 


ER ‘THE VALLADOLID ASSEMBLY * 457 


| of Castile fared well enough when fobn Il., after 
: de th of his Mother, took into his own hands the reins 
fument. As @ matter of fact, the real ruler of the land 
‘de Luna. This favorite was « relative of the 
anti-pope andlike him a masterful pulitician, a 
er, and fascinating _ aepanenin? ng whom the 
: ile king came wholly to depend. To bring order 
ces of the realm; the powerful chancelloe availed 
é counsel of Abraham Benvenivre (1390-4455), 
Mt wealth who remained faith! to hisreligion. 
les) Neo-Christian; acted ax treasurer. The 
a h Ibn Shem Tob and other fews were per- 
farm the taxes. Benveniste ws. spointed chief 
2; as such he had the Supra iunmadiction in 
sand lepal. The autonomy, o which Castii- 
‘ as deprived by the first John, ss | restored. 
lisordered state of the communities ested for reor- 
ion. om onsequence of the combiocs ae oreasion by 
po ,and apostates, Castilian Teweov fart become 
Rly irorsirniGes had no veel houses of 
may where they did, friction bemeeacrn: the various 
as 80 sharp that neither side step sort of using 
ree on its opponents. Schoo!s wert hia “ed for lack 
t funds to pay teachers. Leariir: i aie unity had 
“On 1 the life of the Jews. At an ames: rhiy of heads, 
lay, which met at Valladolid «:. $22), steps were 
at on a solid basis the educations! “estitutions, te 
2 faite for the support of the cononimnal establish- 
gulate the treatment of traitors and informers, to 
xu ves in dress so as not al arouse the dis- 


leew at they were surrounded by a ee 
‘Santa Maria and his entire f wwuly plotted inces- 

ainst their former coreligionists and theix protector 
at whose hands these ingrained enemies of Judaism 
n willing enough to receive whatever preferments 
eir Pway. Alphonsc de Santa Maria was sent as a 


tb 
i 
; 


terinetet with the beat = C 


eve : ates & year rat Ba over 3 ‘he 
era) t pater te a (Christian se ; ¥ 
exues, The apostate Gonzale de Sant 


4 Thugs, vas appointed to Secehl 
3 S fy “t : i 


ea weihe : wiipenin? hn peor 
ye monbioon whi thee ener ta th 
week sehen, pjeweph Albeo: te 
: re: tart, tertile ne Paseo: 


Ces 


iF Re Gees 
» # 
; 1 ta oe 


te 


ich, (udaign ane fo that 
Be peeks hes kaiarige Eli eRe cw 


mw feom the pirat: fa 


cet hig ath ba. ae 
mga Be iy er es creation 
rarer Sigs eon? bed in. 


Pt posters 


1432] THE VALLADOLID ASSEMBLY 457 


The Jews of Castile fared well enough when John II., after 
the death of his mother, took into his own hands the reins 
of government. As a matter of fact, the real ruler of the land 
was Alvaro de Luna. This favorite was a relative of the 
indomitable anti-pope and like him a masterful politician, a 
born intriguer, and fascinating companion, on whom the 
weak and docile king came wholly to depend. To bring order 
into the finances of the realm, the powerful chancellor availed 
himself of the counsel of Abraham Benveniste (1390-1455), 
a Jew of great wealth who remained faithful to hisreligion. 
Diego Gonzales, a Neo-Christian, acted as treasurer. The 
scholar Joseph Ibn Shem Tob and other Jews were per- 
mitted to farm the taxes. Benveniste was appointed chief 
rabbi of Castile; as such he had the supreme jurisdiction in 
matters religious and legal. The autonomy, of which Castil- 
ian Jewry was deprived by the first John, was thus restored. 

The disordered state of the communities called for reor- 
ganization. In consequence of the combined oppression by 
queen, anti-pope, and apostates, Castilian Jewry had become 
demoralized. Many communities had no regular houses of 
worship and, where they did, friction between the various 
factions was so sharp that neither side stopped short of using 
physical force on its opponents. Schools were closed for lack 
of sufficient funds to pay teachers. Learning and unity had 
departed from the life of the Jews. At an assembly of heads, 
spiritual and lay, which met at Valladolid (1432), steps were 
taken to put on a solid basis the educational institutions, to 
allocate the taxes for the support of the communal establish- 
ments, to regulate the treatment of traitors and informers, to 
prescribe modesty in dress so as not to arouse the dis- 
pleasure of the Christian population by extravagant display 
of finery. 

The Jews knew that they were surrounded by evil-wishers. 
Old Paul de Santa Maria and his entire family plotted inces- 
santly against their former coreligionists and their protector 
de Luna, at whose hands these ingrained enemies of Judaism 
had been willing enough to receive whatever preferments 
came their way. Alphonso de Santa Maria was sent as a 


458 THE DISPUTATION OF TORTOSA [1443 


representative of Spain to the Council of Basel; there he 
brought up the Jewish question for discussion. He also 
worked on the mind of pope Eugenius IV. with the result 
that he issued a bull in which all the privileges granted to the 
Jews by his predecessors were annulled (1442). The bull was 
published in Toledo without the knowledge and consent of 
the king. The enemies of the Jews considered themselves free 
to indulge in oppression and ill-treatment to the point of 
cutting off all associations between Jew and Christian. De 
Luna had been eclipsed temporarily, but immediately upon 
regaining his position, though unable to disavow openly the 
papal bull, he made it practically ineffective by a liberal 
interpretation issued as a royal decree (1443). 

The civil strife which divided Castile into factions during 
the long reign of John II. implicated the Maranos. Those 
who had embraced Christianity unwillingly, longed secretly 
to escape to a land where they might freely and openly pro- 
fess Judaism, and therefore kept aloof from Castilian pol- 
itics. But the Neo-Christians who felt at ease in their new 
station and were eager for advancement, found their way 
into the city councils, into judicial positions and the legisla- 
tive chamber of the nobles, into professorial chairs in the 
universities and into the highest offices of the Church. In 
Aragon, the Neo-Christians intermarried with families of the 
higher and lower nobility to such a point that in two or three 
generations only one family in the land was accounted free 
from intermixture with Jewish blood. The Neo-Christians 
took sides in the partisan divisions of the Christian realms. 
The true Christians looked askance at their political and 
social climbing and suspected them of lukewarm adhesion to 
their new faith. With the professing Jews thoroughly humili- 
ated and driven out of important positions, the animosity 
formerly directed against them was now diverted to the am- 
bitious and successful neophytes. Particularly was the hatred 
violent in the southern provinces, Toledo, Andalusia, and 
Murcia. | . 

The first signs manifested themselves in the Castilian 
capital, when the Marano tax-collectors were ordered by de 


it 
4 

“ 7 : 
 ASCENDANS Y OF fe Ni CRE GANS 459 


c ‘raise One elt wm ware & o ‘ow Lae wemse of the 
aang wv ophe eity sefuedcd to pay fi wewapie, From the 
£ the cathedrs! bella tolled wirauerwiew fee Christian 
2. Christian canons de!ivs CP SF Peas suldresses 
J) pacts of violence ecainst + ity uot Brigtians, 
ely the mob set fre to the ie we .@ Alpuazo da 
sof the Neo-Christians. bhai pienoeome- step them - 
yone of their own, they «ge praetigetsh the 
- ney eee surrounded and criveiis rhage d¢ Werapled 
t, and their dead bodies Anna! S Steg: eine T4640), 
i ahi F justice} Peter Scndiibe “apa fi terete 
a troo Ss ‘whieh-had been seit 23 pow Ay xate- 
é Luna himself was rather behiem.ci 1) ecmre: 
aders,- since be harbored Geo” sheere, «<tr 
ispecting them of intrigues ayy is SoH een pyre 
i b ito had a decree passed byt 5 fae Sf = ie nar} cont 
<r m nent of Neo-C hristians 6 : ee Ea ee dh 8D F st 
edo. Remonstraiwes were cf a5 feel «es -prns 
ac cae two bulls of pope f° eae wo Sees 
post HON ito the decree. desteul: et oe ees 
geposed, among them Loy oc, fh sh Ser ene ot 
: and one presbyter, | 
3 of the queen in 14h, Ste Ss ‘euY ay 
ats to espouse in Pike i eka af Whee’ 
; union Spratie isabella tie * codele Citta pry 
| mi of Spanish fewry. The wack ig Rue Les 
by the new Qvere he rd hirgngené ae ee ee 1 
| fall Was aberied by milieery Mii whe 
t which condwarmna’t bien te ope ee é aie eae 
x errs seeenteiet © hi ey ee ce thane em 


e 


oe 


nk cy y-of the Macaaes EM. Armee, dana thee 
ang and the woo: coil) 2D. TROT PO- 
». But even there the evil Sty fey mear at 


ta ; aa 
wheryentative of Sy 
: bs : Tow s} 
ae ee nf eo - sis sie 
¥ ere? very tie mit . DOD Eug 
“Saar % Oe Pee ers ye 
ngibe woud a bull in whieliall the pri 


tous oy his predecessors were annull 
petiahed in Fotets pak the k 


ay ~<¢ J vn r ib 
tie king. The enensies of the Jews et 
est eee rers ‘ 


ne y 4 Hie. 
beak beail, wade it Peo 


interpretation mage aaa royal 
Che civil stele hie h divided Ci 


x 
es 
= 
i] 
F: 
t 
{oe 
- 
x ' 
: ; 
s 
Ty a 
* t Ss * 
eC ay Gwe % v4 
i ae 4. \. Fae we = +; wiati 
a 


EET ALT? RE eH 25 ty t to-8u 


tQuk Sides PP ae + ertinan divi 

The ahve {ter we pus 

social Gsebing alas. sy 

their nee talihh: pe tie i 
ated and driven Gut id importa. 


formneriy directed against then 


~&he firat Brg romlil tested, 


% 


re pital, when the 2 Marane tax 


1453] ASCENDANCY OF THE NEO-CHRISTIANS 459 


Luna to raise one million maravedis for the defense of the 
frontier. The city refused to pay this amount. From the 
tower of the cathedrai bells tolled summoning the Christian 
populace. Christian canons delivered inflammatory addresses 
calling for acts of violence against the spurious Christians. 
Immediately the mob set fire to the dwellings of Alonzo da 
Costa, one of the Neo-Christians. The Maranos armed them- 
selves; led by one of their own, they sought to extinguish the 
flames. They were surrounded and cruelly slain or trampled 
under foot, and their dead bodies dangled from trees (1440). 
The alcalde (chief justice) Peter Sarmiento refused to admit 
the royal troops which had been sent to punish the male- 
factors. De Luna himself was rather lukewarm in prosecut- 
ing the ringleaders, since he harbored ill-will against the 
Maranos, suspecting them of intrigues against his own per- 
son. Sarmiento had a decree passed by the Cortes forbidding 
the appointment of Neo-Christians to civil or ecclesiastical 
offices in Toledo. Remonstrances were of no avail; nor was 
any heed given the two bulls of pope Nicholas V. (1447- 
1455) in opposition to the decree. Immediately thirteen 
Maranos were deposed, among them judges and city coun- 
cilors, notaries, and one presbyter. : 

After the death of the queen in 1445, John II. was per- 
suaded by his favorite to espouse in 1450 Isabella of Portu- 
gal. From this union sprang Isabella the Catholic, destined 
to seal the doom of Spanish Jewry. The weak king was pre- 
vailed upon by the new queen to rid himself of his powerful 
chancellor; his fall was abetted by influential Maranos who 
sat in the court which condemned him to death (1453). The 
king treated the Toledo decree against the Neo-Christians as 
a dead letter; the people, however, hated them. Still greater 
was the ascendancy of the Maranos in Aragon, where they 
supported the king and the nobles against the common peo- 
ple of Catalonia. But even there the evil day was near at 
hand. 


CHAPTER LXII 
THE MARANOS 
(1454-1488) 


URING the reigns of Henry IV. of Castile (1454-1474) 
and John II. of Aragon (1458-1479) it seemed as if 


the Jews might take a hopeful view of their posi- 
tion. Both monarchs had Jews for their physicians: Jacob 
Ibn Nunez, whom Henry named chief rabbi of Castile, and 
Abiathar Ibn Crescas, who restored king John’s eyesight by 
two skilful operations. The ‘impotent’ ruler of Castile was 
unworthily served by his favorites, among whom were sev- 
eral of Jewish descent. The laws restricting intercourse 
between Christians and Jews were found by the Christians 
themselves to be detrimental to their interests. With especial 
rigor were these laws executed in the cities. As a consequence 
Jews left the cities and settled in the country, in villages 
belonging to some count, where the anti-Jewish legislation 
was honored in the breach. 

The neglect of these laws, which had been promulgated 
under the previous reign, stirred the fanaticism of the Fran- 
ciscan friar Alphonso de Spina, rector of the university of 
Salamanca and father-confessor to the Castilian monarch. 
Henry’s troubles, culminating in civil strife and the setting 
up of his younger brother Alphonso as rival king, made him 
yield feebly to the demand of the Cortes (1465) for the strict 
enforcement of the harsh measures against the Jews, dating 
from the time of his grandmother Catharine. De Spina, who 
in his ‘Stronghold of the Faith’ (1460) had heaped upon the 
Jews all the old calumnies, directed his hatred in particular 
against the Jews in disguise, those Maranos who, rightly or 
wrongly, were suspected of keeping up their Judaism in 
secret. Henry was reinstated on his throne after a promise 
that he would institute in Castile the Holy Office of the 
Inquisition. Though a bull was obtained from the pope, the 


460 


) had een uate ch aiidaas The : 20CLISa = 
| false, bit popular hatred was roused to a high 
do bia quarrels between Old and New Chris- 
ally io lh riot his we or mat ty oad ne 


re lier were Cov nol co the ieant 
ations asc relieved Heary of a hostile 
fresh one gathered d strength among those w ho 
De ialf of the DIINcess isabella ard her rights 
At Cieassa (1469) the Cortes again clam- 
@wish restrictions. The next sec saw the miar- 
a with her cousin Ferdinene! wf Aragon. This 
ith disastrous results te “pe nish Jewry, was 
<l ithe aid of the Jew Abrelam Sewor, who 
sonciliation between Heavy ard his sister. 
. elle ‘bestowed upon her jewish friend an 
one hundred thousand maravedis for life. 
vt ; the carnage at Valladolid, instituted 
by the {riends of the princess and in ber 
age » (1470). The king was either too feeble 
ue usb the ringleaders. _ | 
icism, grew stronger from day to day. Now 
t the Jews, now against the New Chuis- 
twa apread that, in Holy Week, 1468, the 
da, meat Segovia, had, by the order of their 
9, tortured and crucified a Christian boy. 
John Arias Davila, a vow of Diego: the 
da num number of Jews avrested aud sentenced 
or at the gallows (14: 1). Asmall Jewish 
promise that he would embrace Chris- 


a. The rob then vensed ite wiath on 


en to a cuavent to be taught bis 0 ew 


and. rye: iT, ot A 
i Beck jewee might ta 
tio... Hoth yarns had 
ints n Nu whom Hens 
Aletha: fbn Cegndamy in 
tevty whit ul beanies ty 


‘thevt ae bey. De edd 
rigor were thane he Wwe execute 
jean left ehe ce ata and set 
been ie 1 font, Ww 
ett Cred iy Shae breach, . ‘ 
Phe roy" weed of iapesie. aie: 


urdier the presen beac 
cincad ‘wa phon alii 


* 
some 
wee, 
=a 
. 
ee 
~ 
_ 
are 5 
Re ss 
Gea ss 
pms 
ws 
ree 
ae 
i 


ER TN SE a, Me ee a 
yy At te nie oS to tie 


in his “Stee ugha: af ‘thee: 
fe Pe rs 
yews all the okt eq 
against the Jews lms 


eecret. Henry was veinneated 


— a eC !DCUhULe l 


ee illpeciap dil lie--wusi olilieatttalea™, Maal iia, wien aie, 


—_— ee 


1470] MARRIAGE OF ISABELLA AND FERDINAND 461 


king hesitated. The report was spread that more than a hun- 
dred Maranos had circumcised their children. The accusa- 
tion proved false, but popular hatred was roused to a high 
pitch. At Toledo the quarrels between Old and New Chris- 
tians were signally virulent. A riot broke out in 1467. One 
hundred and thirty of the Maranos lost their lives and some 
sixteen hundred dwellings were consigned to the flames. 

The death of Alphonso (1468) relieved Henry of a hostile 
faction; but a fresh one gathered strength among those who 
took sides on behalf of the princess Isabella and her rights 
to the succession. At Ocassa (1469) the Cortes again clam- 
ored for anti-Jewish restrictions. The next year saw the mar- 
riage of Isabella with her cousin Ferdinand of Aragon. This 
event, fraught with disastrous results to Spanish Jewry, was 
consummated with the aid of the Jew Abraham Senior, who 
also effected a reconciliation between Henry and his sister. 
The grateful Isabella bestowed upon her Jewish friend an 
annual pension of one hundred thousand maravedis for life. 
That did not prevent the carnage at Valladolid, instituted 
among the Maranos by the friends of the princess and in her 
immediate entourage (1470). The king was either too feeble 
or unwilling to punish the ringleaders. 

Religious fanaticism grew stronger from day to day. Now - 
it was directed against the Jews, now against the New Chris- 
tians. A report was spread that, in Holy Week, 1468, the 
Jews of Sepulveda, near Segovia, had, by the order of their 
rabbi Solomon Picho, tortured and crucified a Christian boy. 
The bishop of Segovia, John Arias Davila, a son of Diego the 
New Christian, had a number of Jews arrested and sentenced 
to death at the stake or at the gallows (1471). A small Jewish 
lad was spared after a promise that he would embrace Chris- 
tianity; but when taken to a convent to be taught his new 
religion, he soon escaped. The mob then vented its wrath on 
the remaining Jews; the greater number were slain, the 
remainder sought safety in flight. 

Everywhere open hostility against the Maranos raised its 
head. At Cordova, under the auspices of the bishop Peter, a 
society was formed, which named itself ‘the Christian Broth- 


462 THE MARANOS [1473-4 


erhood’ and from which all New Christians were rigidly 
excluded. In March, 1473, during a procession in honor of 
the dedication of the Brotherhood, the cry was raised that a 
little girl of a Marano family had thrown some foul water 
from a window, splashing the image of the Virgin. _ Imme- 
diately the mob threw itself upon the residences of the wealthy 
Maranos and set them on fire. To quell the disturbance, a 
troop of soldiers was dispatched under the command of 
Alonso Fernandez de Aguilar, whose wife was a member of a 
distinguished Marano family. In the ensuing skirmish de 
Aguilar slew one of the ringleaders, thus adding fuel to the 
flame. The infuriated mob seized weapons and renewed their 
attack upon the Maranos. For three days the massacre and 
pillage went on. From Cordova the attack on the Maranos 
spread to other cities. At Jaen, the constable, who undertook 
to protect them, was himself killed in church. At Segovia, a 
fierce attack was instituted (1474). Corpses lay in heaps in 
all the streets. Not a single Marano would have been left 
alive, had not the alcalde Andreas de Cabrera intervened. 

Upon the death of king Henry IV., Isabella mounted the 
throne of Castile (1474), not without opposition on the part 
of the supporters of Juana, Henry’s supposed daughter. 
Isabella reserved for herself full sovereign authority, although 
her consort Ferdinand was proclaimed king of Castile along 
with the queen. Five years later Ferdinand succeeded his 
father in Aragon, and practically the whole of Christian 
Spain was united. The ‘Catholic sovereigns,’ to call them by 
the title bestowed upon them later by the pope, were both 
resolute and sagacious, bent upon curbing turbulent nobles 
in the interest of autocratic centralization. Isabella was 
devoutly pious, even bigoted. Yet the new rulers jealously 
guarded the royal prerogatives in the administration of the 
Spanish Church and brooked interference from Rome only 
when it suited their purpose. Isabella was quite uncom- 
promising and Ferdinand freely rapacious; the grandees sub- 
mitted to be shorn of their unlawful revenues, and the empty 
royal coffers filled with coin. 


THE INQUISITION 465 


f national unity, churchiy pieew, and the greed 
: chment operated as motives fer the royal pair 
| ee eetiton of the Inquisities in their do- 

as chiefly directed against the Sww Christians, 


d who, upon conviction, might be ealsted of their 
; Process of royal confiscation, Sime FV, sent 
Beio Niccolo Pranco with inquisiese ia? powers. 
Hojeda, head of the Dominican sosas tery 
wemada, who had been Hsabelia cieefessor 
va Infanta, and others urged the royal tiple to 
nuncio. But the Spanish majext ies insetect that 
on should beunder their authorise: acdam aeder 
. Thus was the Nace dese eed. irrad 


s ee mctia i Neiviaitore in matiws al faith 
reluctant, was now ready t& “se by. bx 
she appended her signature te <6 opens 
ne the Inquisition. Pwo Dominicans, ism) de 
and Juan de San Martin, assisted by Juan ress de 
Dieg Merlo, » were appointed as the fre decal 


t opere dons of the euinitorial COUT? are ies 
i, Een eesion among the Christian pope sien. was 
mass Of the pédple acclaimed the doi Aion, 
of the nobility eeveral of wham weve yaierr ye the 
riage, were hostile. A number of Mas: aimmll 
d wealth organized resistance. “oi rhe plot 
nd speedily suppressed. Some eiwht thousand 
Seville Cortova, and Toledo; had fled to 
spor of the province, Redrigo Pence de 
have protected them, (sti 4e was ordered 
ors to send therm back to Sew Se. So great was 
of Maranos anprehended that che tribunal moved 
Spaciousquarters {i the castle of Tana, near Seville. 
i y oe ‘the ticat ‘act of faith’ —— nig wae 


hatical Dominicans represented av-eu: as of. 


+ 


y m tah Oe 
a 
Viaranos Mey met hain fire: To 
troop of soldiers was dispatched, 
slonso Fer 
distinguished -Mearai I the 
Aguilar slew one of the «de 
; Haves Phe Dibsiet ated 1 Bob a eat 
attack upon the! mebssinens For @ 
: rilia yer ke: et 
ead to other citi, ih 
protect therts, wast vite 


anew tite A74), not wit 
uppartegs 


th the ques. “Phew years ‘ater 


‘pain was. onan. Tae ~atholie 
tine tae. laeetiows of agra chem, Ta 
re > so tH ty aut te! aay = tity a. velit 


jhe roe pitas se caniteal 


Syoarmh: 4 ee meet browked 1 
wien © spake ther Bivins 


es 


aes y ad hide wig 
roval coffers | Thee) with COIN, 


1478-81] THE INQUISITION 463 


Concern for national unity, churchly piety, and the greed 
for further enrichment operated as motives for the royal pair 
to permit the introduction of the Inquisition in their do- 
mains. It was chiefly directed against the New Christians, 
whom the fanatical Dominicans represented as suspected of 
relapses and who, upon conviction, might be robbed of their 
wealth by the process of royal confiscation. Sixtus IV. sent 
the papal nuncio Niccolo Franco with inquisitorial powers. 
Alphonso de Hojeda, head of the Dominican monastery 
at Seville, Torquemada, who had been Isabella’s confessor 
while she was Infanta, and others urged the royal couple to 
recognize the nuncio. But the Spanish majesties insisted that 
the Inquisition should be under theirauthority and not under 
that of the pope. Thus was the introduction delayed. Finally, 
the pope yielded and, at the request of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella, issued a bull (November 1, 1478), authorizing the 
Spanish sovereigns to appoint inquisitors in matters of faith. 
Isabella, at first reluctant, was now ready to give in. In 
September, 1480, she appended her signature to the order 
establishing the Inquisition. Two Dominicans, Miguel de 
Murillo and Juan de San Martin, assisted by Juan Ruiz de 
Medina and Diego Merlo, were appointed as the first inquisi- 
tors for Seville. 

The first operations of the inquisitorial court were begun 
at Seville. The feeling among the Christian population was 
divided. The mass of the people acclaimed the Inquisition, 
but many of the nobility, several of whom were united to the 
Maranos by marriage, were hostile. A number of Maranos of 
high station and wealth organized resistance; but the plot 
was betrayed and speedily suppressed. Some eight thousand 
Maranos, from Seville, Cordova, and Toledo, had fled to 
Cadiz. The governor of the province, Rodrigo Ponce de 
Leon, would gladly have protected them, but he was ordered 
by the inquisitors to send them back to Seville. So great was 
the number of Maranos apprehended that the tribunal moved 
to more spacious quarters in the castle of Triana, near Seville. 
On February 6, 1481, the first ‘act of faith’ (auto da fé) was 
held; six men and six women were burned at the stake. The 


464 THE MARANOS 


plague, to which Alphonso de Hojeda fell a victim, stayed 
for a while the activity of the tribunal. But soon enough the 
Quemadero, as the stake was called, was illuminated with 
the burning of Maranos. By the first of November nearly 
three hundred had perished, while about eighty had been 
condemned to imprisonment for life. The wealth of all these 
persons went into the royal coffers. Even those long dead 
were not spared; charges of having relapsed into Judaism 
were preferred against them, their bones were exhumed and 
committed to the flames, while their estates were confiscated. 
Fugitives were burned in effigy. 

Not all Christians looked with an easy conscience upon 
these horrors. So a respite was granted to all New Chris- 
tians suspected of reverting to Jewish practices; if, within 
the specified time, they came forward of their own free will 
and made confession; their life would be spared and their 
possessions left to them. In reality it was a trap. When a 
number of penitents presented themselves, their absolution 
was made conditional upon revealing to the judges the names 
of all others known to them to be observing Judaism in 
secret. In fact, the entire Christian population was enlisted 
in the intelligence service of the Inquisition, and all such as 
withheld the names of their suspect friends were threatened 
with excommunication. 

A list was drawn up naming the marks by which ‘Juda- 
izers’ might be recognized, for example, the use of clean 
linen on the sabbath, abstaining from lighting fire on that 
day, or purchasing special wine or meat from Jews. All rites 
of Judaism, all popular customs of the Jews, all acts of 
omission as regards Catholic practices were specified in this 
catalogue. Moreover, the relapses of the New Christians 
were laid at the door of the professing Jews who were accused 
of abetting the nominal Christians in their secret return to 
Judaism. As these abounded in southern Spain, in the 
dioceses of Seville and Cordova, a decree was issued by the 
royal couple ordering the removal of all full Jews from Chris- 
tian Andalusia. Thousands were uprooted from their homes. 
In their new locations they were strictly segregated in their 


Grins TORDQUHMADA . £69 


ond the Wherry of the tastge was enforced 
T 590 Beiween them en (re Christian 1S, 
Rew, wae Cv: off. Me lews except such as were 
Hermitthd to. viel? ate Christian qpiarters. 

| » especially thowe wiih saad no theacht of 
(a. © arnt vet were Gh ‘iste CH Si Vapects, 
nts to Rome. Sixtus IV. eeu « aviihing eer to 
Hons especially as dias % nie turvied by gen- 
fan a letter to the roya) sepie (January, 
sed his dissatisfaction witht ta fay heads of 
; visition,. whom he was rei?y sy Sepuse Det 
» to. their majesties. Before 2 oe 'se, St Was 
1482), the pope appointed gig Paeibey rhevics 


pied procured (May, 1453) @ i 


Bini. Only vleties of pure € 
L and ae the ibaternad oi Wate are 
8 of the ao a2 Aug Est, eae! peew 


vha “Saran at iia or hi id dotc resnarce 
wae persaonied by the Somietion on. Srarcrlwe 
is bull bees made and spread threw); youn. 
ssion was withdrawn 
thals of the Inquisition had bees time! *o 
vinces. Mareover, each acted @ay¢. wed # 
ily escape to’another looekey o«leee hits 
eccised no juriediction. Ta make ewe laqitieh 
pughout Spwin, ail over Cast Se oeei bayer 
d furthermore to impart ts & a centratinee 


October 17; 9483): when 4 berquemata. wes 
tor General of eg c shah tia, and Val- 
Hously received this commission fag Castile. 
Torquemeds. had carly in life aawamed the 
minican yin courte of time be had een made 

ona ak Segovia, With high ‘etellectual 
an anyere arapieny ef: nas and moral 


he archbishop of Seville, — , sith drat; Dee 


the persistent aim of the oonri. Doth atpects 


ditied ay 


preg ru. 285) whic Alphonsa a Hoje edi 
dis. & while me Ackiy ty of the eribur 


LPT AES, 


condemn ied to impeise inane tore 
Pnticcitisy ‘vires t £732 he royal coff 
Ete Wet SNe; eH aTges at hav 


PP PTES F248 rox ws the Hae “es, While th 
rere be erwent itt hia z 


‘ 

ee 
< 
' 


these horrors,’ Say egpcateae was | 
1} Bien? hea opens ting te 
tot ghee saiog,' ¢ carne ie er 


eae. a rt jv 
thes af pepe presented 
ane lhe 1M it <epad scons rey 


¢ 
= 
sate. 
wees 
Food 
ogee 
AD 
Pe 


Levore septa of I thes | 

2 PAD ve tye Laeh Livee om vhesir ® 
i ot APATHY ae 
“was eee a coming 

+} aes.” oF green ees: " 4 


: 2M tae 
: E ty eae aa 
, 2a Pe RT mare e: cnaste 


isha the — te t athetic. as 
AT AS ae, ; ue wey, the rela 
clyater ak thie prs 
M wbetting tke teen ee 


Mer a3 snags — 


< 
My 
* 


1483] TORQUEMADA 465 


own quarters, and the wearing of the badge was enforced 
(1481). Thus intercourse between them and the Christians, 
whether old or new, was cut off. No Jews except such as were 
physicians were permitted to visit the Christian quarters. 

The Maranos, especially those who had no thought of 
returning to Judaism and yet were on the lists of suspects, 
made complaints to Rome. Sixtus IV. lent a willing ear to 
their representations especially as they were fortified by gen- 
erous offerings. In a letter to the royal couple (January, 
1482), he expressed his dissatisfaction with the two heads of 
the Spanish Inquisition, whom he was ready to depose but 
for his deference to their majesties. Before a fortnight was 
over (February, 1482), the pope appointed six further clerics 
as inquisitors, among them Thomas de Torquemada. Isa- 
bella and Ferdinand procured (May, 1483) a papal bull 
appointing the archbishop of Seville, Inigo Manrique, judge 
of appeals for Spain. Only clerics of pure Christian descent, 
both on the paternal and on the maternal side, were allowed 
to act as officials of the Inquisition. In August, the pope 
responded to the entreaties of the Maranos by ordering that 
all those who had repented at Rome or had done penance 
should no longer be persecuted by the Inquisition. Scarcely 
had copies of this bull been made and spread through Spain, 
when the concession was withdrawn. 

So far the tribunals of the Inquisition had been confined to 
the southern provinces. Moreover, each acted singly, and a 
suspect might easily escape to another locality where his 
home tribunal exercised no jurisdiction. To make the Inquisi- 
tion universal throughout Spain, all over Castile and beyond 
it in Aragon, and furthermore to impart to it a centralized 
direction, was the persistent aim of the court. Both objects 
were realized October 17, 1483, when Torquemada was 
appointed Inquisitor General of Aragon, Catalonia, and Val- 
encia; he had previously received this commission for Castile. 
Of noble lineage, Torquemada had early in life assumed the 
habit of a Dominican; in course of time he had been made 
prior of the monastery at Segovia. With high intellectual 
gifts he combined an austere simplicity of life and moral 


466 THE MARANOS [1485 


integrity. His rigidity of purpose brooked no crossing his will 
and made him insolent. Rejecting honorific preferments, he 
created for himself a position of supremacy in the Church 
and in the state. A masterful politician and a fanatical bigot, 
he clung tenaciously to his determination to rid the country 
of make-believe Christians, shutting out all considerations to 
the point of bloodthirstiness. As confessor of the queen, and 
later on also of the king, he obtained an ascendancy over 
both. From the pious princess and her astute and rapacious 
consort he early extracted the promise to lend their power to 
the destruction of heretics. As councilor of state, he drove the 
lesson home of the political advantages of religious uniformity. 

Torquemada was sixty-three years of age when the engine 
of the Inquisition was committed to his care. He drafted an 
inquisitorial constitution (it was issued January 9, 1485), 
which left no loophole for any suspect to escape the clutches 
of the tribunals, now established also at Cordova, Jaen,and 
Ciudad Real. A respite of thirty or forty days was allowed 
for those accused of Judaizing. All who voluntarily confessed 
within that time might, on the payment of a small fine and 
of a gift to the royal treasury, keep their fortunes. The con- 
fession was to be made in writing before the inquisitors and 
witnesses and then followed by a public recantation. Those 
that confessed after the expiration of the term were punished 
by confiscation of their property or by imprisonment for life 
according to the gravity of the offense. Maranos under 
twenty years of age were left in the possession of their prop- 
erty, but were compelled to wear the penitential garment 
(the sanbenito) at the auto-da-fé. Those confessing after the 
publication of the evidence, might be admitted to recon- 
ciliation if sentence had not been pronounced, and take their 
punishment by being imprisoned for life; those that con- 
cealed any part of their guilt were burned at the stake. If the 
evidence for conviction was too slow or uncertain, torture 
was resorted to—the rack opened the mouths of the unfor- 
tunate victims, who were forthwith condemned to death. 
The prisons, some of which still exist in Spain, were small, 
dark, and damp, oftentimes underground. 


é : i THe INQUI {SITION IN ARAGON eae” 


. 


n attack upon the biradoitaes wae aaiaad ed, and 
pitators were strangled and banged. The Ma- 


surmmoned to give themnse! es ug poluntarily 


= the great "ea upon all jew: 


joh concerning puri %4 


oh the Jews to bring theres 


Hrethren: still the more tiens' 


Mliating the penances and tee 
| > their dying day they wer: | th 


a eley id snieie, and i 


Ag 
quired and an assembly «© 


da. Neither the pres 


: 7 that body — disment 


st ed; erent: “three ‘pereeirs 


dant of a Meacanid tn, a , ; 


el es es of a conwerted teow 


withhabding evi- 


ying Marinos. | 
‘os to the Betrayal 


ture wit - 


held. Upaerdof 


eenton ate sere 


wes, Mee 


wd ae 
Aris (east 


bared from Bat 


oe ite ¥ 
i fe g Fy 
& 
m at the 


med Of 
On a 


‘So exe Were 


SeyO Une or 
oe where 


i NE LO OVERS 


oestded 
soe: dai geek of the 
athe gt Pee 


« he Cortes, 


ae» wither ae 


—_* 
es 
ee, 7 
a " ne ys 
aie ub bree’. &, 7 ae 
a as i : 
‘ a 
. > 
a 
. ¥ 


fe 


ietegerity. Hie ih ger of purpose b éy 
ariel el 
ava in the state A ‘shewehesa 
Ae Share tenacie sisal tay his dete | 
of male believe Cheiatians, shat 
ehe-ouniaat, of beeps hivatiiness. As: 
tater .iay alo ce eRe Scag, he ob: 
Poe (at pe princess ¢ r 
riwees be eurie eatrected the pr 
the pst ucliehy & sof ‘heretics, As co 
onmaceey ‘ovement ea seserncagictls. 


ne. 
a 
=o 


he Iqgenghtt ‘ar wee ‘coon ec 
cgh eae OPER. oh eerie “ 


¥ a 
4 a 
" wot 
* 
a 7 
Sa 
LE Pye 
, > ; 
a His @ et< ey | ah 
; = wa SRS SF 78 . . 


: relied a ie e Fy v he towed bya 


ee ee ity of 


pi ng 74 Fe wen get ate baht 4 Mh 


sinc te etal 
spring: Seal oe avidence, am 

“pe skoayyene Daath sot been 
aman ee ey anaes: y ab 
Je ee EL SRE tie 


canon He neeleiaas was pan 


pane Spee tng! ah e were fenth 


i Sy Qwitkarenis., gece ta 


Tact, ae’ chong, otgentimess 


1488] THE INQUISITION IN ARAGON 467 


In May, 1485, the tribunal was removed from Villa Real 
to Toledo. An attack upon the inquisitors was repelled, and 
the chief conspirators were strangled and hanged. The Ma- 
ranos were summoned to give themselves up voluntarily 
within forty days. The rabbis of the community were forced 
to pronounce the great ban upon all Jews withholding evi- 
dence in their possession concerning Judaizing Maranos. It 
was not easy for the Jews to bring themselves to the betrayal 
of their former brethren; still the more timid turned inform- 
ers. Within a year, several autos-da-fé were held. Upward of 
five thousand Maranos made public confession and were 
given absolution. They were glad to save their lives, no mat- 
ter how humiliating the penances and how precarious their 
existence. To their dying day they were debarred from pub- 
lic office; not so much as the position of doorkeeper in some 
noble’s house was open to them. At the same time the im- 
penitent were burned at the stake. On August 10, 1486, five 
men, including a city councilor, and fifteen women of the 
best families perished; twenty-three persons were burned 
alive in May, 1487, and forty-three in July, 1488. Among the 
victims were priests and friars; they were first stripped of 
their canonicals and then given over to the flames. On a 
single day, the bones of one hundred dead Maranos were 
exhumed and burned. 

There was great opposition to the Inquisition operating or 
being introduced in Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, where 
the royal powers were more circumscribed. In order to over- 
come the scruples of the supreme court of justice, presided 
over by a descendant of a Marano lady, a special act of the 
- Cortes was required and an assembly was convoked at the 
bidding of Torquemada. Neither the president of the Cortes, 
who was himself the son of a converted Jew, nor other Ma- 
ranos who sat in that body offered dissent. - 

In May, 1485, Peter Arbues, canon at Saragossa, and 
Gaspar Juglar were appointed inquisitors for Aragon, Peter 
d’Epila and Martin Inigo for Valencia. Some of the leading 
Maranos, joined by Old Christians with whom they were 
connected by marriage, plotted against the inquisitors. 


468 -... THE MARANOS 


Arbues was assassinated in his church at Saragossa. The 
murder redoubled the fury of the tribunal. The ringleaders 
were dealt with most brutally. Hands were chopped off, then 
followed beheading, quartering, and burning. Two who had 
escaped to France were burned in effigy. Nor were the Cata- 
lonians successful in warding off the Inquisition. In 1487, the 
tribunal was instituted at Barcelona; in June, 1488, it began 
its activities with a solemn auto-da-fé, the first victim being 
a descendant of Geronimo de Santa Fé, the notorious Jew- 
hater. 

Torquemada had his own way entirely in Old Castile. 
At Avila charges were made that six Maranos and five Jews 
had killed a Christian child, by the name of La Guardia, 
for ritual purposes. The chief witness was Yuce Franco, a 
youth of limited intellect, from whom a priest, impersonat- 
ing a rabbi, was said to have received a confession. Upon this 
flimsy evidence the denounced persons were burned alive. 
It is now known that there never had been such a child and 
that the whole story was a fabrication from beginning to end 
to serve as a pretext for the expulsion of the Jews. To such 
lengths was the Inquisition ready to go in order to attain its 
ends. Within eight years seventy persons were burned at 
Avila. Torquemada spread his net out to involve the bishops 
John Arias Davila of Segovia and Peter de Aranda of Cala- 
horra, who were of Jewish descent. On appealing to Rome, 
the first succeeded in extricating himself from the meshes of 
the special tribunal at Rome, while the second was divested 
of his dignities and died in prison close by the papal palace. 

The vice-chancellor Alphonso de la Caballeria, who was 
implicated in the murder of Arbues, was suspected as a 
secret Judaizer. However, he took his case to Rome and 
established his good standing as a Catholic. But he was 
powerless to prevent the burning of the exhumed bones of 
his grandmother. His first wife had to don the sanbenito. 
Two of his daughters were married to sons of the highest 
nobility; a son married a granddaughter of King Ferdinand. 
The fewest of the Spanish nobility could boast of pure Chris- 
tian descent (limpieza); the majority had undergone fusion 


7 
Such amons 


then au the toils of » 
oo from their Jewish 


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ee us 
FUSION OF THE NEW CHRISTIANS WITH THE NOBILITY 469 


mrndge mi town nt 
Sit ee ae A 
meatitinity 20. This f 


a i ot wa Lee; : 

0 18 *97 eras colites oT 

¥ Darrow aid: nt asils: 
piiolinqon Syriiis of" 

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pi slaitisge +h! 


“a vd Pe cern \F 


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Bis il) ote bee : ; 2.3 


a8 a I: ny o: 
7 as Hendiirs * 
Ho onlt Gt cs foe | 


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DBI pbsin HON; Hel 4 
2318) AO} aniet . 


CHAPTER LXIII 
THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
(1492-1497) 


r “HE last seat of Mohammedan power in Spain, the 
kingdom of Granada, was in a state of disintegra- 
tion. Dissensions were rife among the Moslem 

princes, who intrigued against one another and were ever 

ready to aid the Christians in the hope of gaining a slice of 
territory for themselves. In the seven years’ war of subjuga- 
tion, the Catholic sovereigns at first pursued the tactics of 
delay, meanwhile destroying systematically fields and crops. 
As Ferdinand was busy with the affairs of the Inquisition 
and his foreign policy, the brunt of preparations for the final 
attack fell upon the shoulders of Isabella who took every 
precaution to secure success. In 1487, a special war tax was 
levied on every Jewish family in Castile; there were at the 
time fourteen thousand Jewish families in this province. 

Malaga fell in August of that year; the entire population of 

the city was reduced to slavery, among them four hundred 

and fifty Jews, who were ransomed by their Spanish core- 
ligionists and transported to Africa. At last, by valiant 
fighting and with the aid of treacherous Moors, the capital, 

Granada, was forced to surrender (November, 1491). On 

January 2, 1492, the Catholic sovereigns entered the Moslem 

capital in triumph, and the cross was set up in the citadel of 

Alhambra. 

The goal of the religious and national policy of the Spanish 
monarchs was now attained. While the subjugation of the 
last foothold of Islam in Spain was still in progress, the 
thought had matured in the minds of the royal pair to rid the 
country of the entire Jewish population. Pope Innocent 
VITI. (1484-1492) demurred; but Torquemada made capital 
of the La Guardia invention and took pains to spread the 
legend throughout the country. At length, from the palace of 
Alhambra, on March 30, 1492, the dreadful edict went forth. 


470 


THE EDICT IN SPXTN AT} 


hw0, Mot a single Jew was to remade in the united 
| Castile and Aragon or in the islantw ef Sicily and 
7 ‘constituting | Aragonese passessian. . Ray v Jew who 
a after the expiration of the term was y pay with 
fe unless he submitted to baptism. The Jews were per- 
bie to take their: movables with shane uy enti ahi and / 
! sida any mierchandise whth« was Gateewlul to” | 


ease stunned by the crise! Are we, Adivedham 
gaz ¢ Abrabanel, who hed rg Pare ¥ ks ie his wer 


here the Catbastic majestiaw isa! 0 teted. e gtb- 
for the revocation of the edie: ’ eae Wie 
, but the bigoted queen was «ety ang Pee 
EeLorquemada suddenly ensen.i the deol 
rowing a crucifix down bette A iting gant 
od whether, like Judas, thay rank udinay 
money: Thus there was notices 5%: bor che 
pare for the exodus. The feet’ saxon. we - 
sal be found, went for a sea. car landed 
the most part confiscated tooo «ad the 
8 and to pay imaginary debts ¢ieaucu Sy the 
nd Wer, since it was forficlbie 52) eee out 
we e e forced teaccept drafts @ae th: fix. Pa: 
Verywhere Dominican preaches sed the 
awed sae ape anes si acnauion in’ 


Se he re ah remain ty hd ralti 
Ss, notably Abraham Sew:i%. -Mef rabbi 
me of the taxes, and hig pee y. it ie paid, 
e acted under compulsion. (heen Isabela 
er reprisals against hig cowige niaty wales 
t the grea: majority were oF eta mind to hold | fy 
th: “We wil! go in the nase « she Lord,’ they LTS. aa 
The tick divided their abn oslee wealth with Bioeth fee 


ish them. with the meana ‘«: the journey. SNe 
jonth ia which their Majesties iosued the Bh 
ccaniert 


nh ce oes yi eo. © ie CON A ee RO aay 
is cas at “2 i & yp 2 Ai Yar agers Oat * uae ae ¥ petals © siete 
at DAN hal RD) a Red Sok dO gn A rar andl 9 ai 


sh last. 


feredy to and thé 
Se ee HOD Fes ‘bene eat Rs 
Aion, the Cathylie wovereigns a 
nav. meanwhile daetroying sys 
ce Cetchsrekee se “a is rong with 


actin felt 
+ r tat: 
of eer 
eta 
4 Bias , i 
ts un ened ba ‘su 
¢. 01, the echolic a 
S eee cei, fe the cro 
bysticaes 


i 


<< Gaara oe se chgenusand t 
Net Ge ST berate amy Prbigsegn: 


RATT F a oo Drew aks a in 
phair y Of” Be ete jewish 
WER tame See eee 
VET. (1182-1402) deemed ® 
Me i 4 vitastha fowet a: 


Lol 
= 
= 

x39} 
& 


1492] THE EDICT IN SPAIN 471 


By July 30, not a single Jew was to remain in the united 
realm of Castile and Aragon or in the islands of Sicily and 
Sardinia constituting Aragonese possession. Any Jew who 
remained after the expiration of the term was to pay with 
his life, unless he submitted to baptism. The Jews were per- 
mitted to take their movables with them, except gold and 
silver or coin or any merchandise which it was unlawful to 
export. 

The Jews were stunned by the cruel decree. Abraham 
Senior and Isaac Abrabanel, who had rendered valuable ser- 
vices in the administration of the royal finances, obtained 
an audience with the Catholic majesties and offered a sub- 
stantial sum for the revocation of the edict. Ferdinand was 
inclined to yield, but the bigoted queen was unbending. The 
story goes that Torquemada suddenly entered the royal 
chamber and, throwing a crucifix down before the king and 
the queen, asked whether, like Judas, they would betray 
their Lord for money. Thus there was nothing left for the 
Jews but to prepare for the exodus. The finest mansions, if 
buyers could at all be found, went for a song; the landed 
estates were for the most part confiscated to make good the 
loss in taxes and to pay imaginary debts claimed by the 
monasteries. Moreover, since it was forbidden to take out 
coin, the Jews were forced to accept drafts which often went 
unhonored. Everywhere Dominican preachers urged the 
Jews to embrace Christianity and thus obtain salvation in 
this world and the next. The weak, few in number, were 
beguiled and purchased the right to remain by the sacrifice 
of their convictions, notably Abraham Senior, chief rabbi 
and principal farmer of the taxes, and his family. It is said, 
however, that he acted under compulsion, Queen Isabella 
threatening further reprisals against his coreligionists unless 
he yielded. But the great majority were of one mind to hold 
fast to their faith. ‘We will go in the name of the Lord,’ they 
cried resolutely. The rich divided their shrunken wealth with 
the poor, to furnish them with the means for the journey. 

‘In the same month in which their Majesties issued the 
edict that all Jews should be driven out of the kingdom and 


472 THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


its territories, in the same month they gave me the order to 
undertake with sufficient men my expedition of discovery to 
the Indies.’ Thus began the diary of Christopher Columbus. 
The expedition which led to the discovery of the New World 
had been made possible by a substantial loan which Luis de 
Santangel, chancellor of the royal household and cont- 
roller general of Aragon, advanced out of his own purse to 
the Catholic majesties. Santangel was of Jewish extraction, 
as was also Gabriel Sanchez, the chief treasurer of Aragon, 
who, with other Maranos, was a most zealous patron of 
Columbus. Among the explorer’s companions were several 
of Jewish stock—Alonso de la Calle, Rodrigo Sanchez, the 
ship-physician Bernal and the surgeon Marco; also Luis de 
Torres, who was baptized before sailing and whom the cap- 
tain employed as an interpreter with the supposedly Asiatic 
natives because of his knowledge of Oriental languages. Thus 
a Jew was among the first to set foot on the new land. The 
money which went from the royal treasury for the second 
voyage of Columbus was largely derived from the confisca- . 
tions of Jewish fortunes. 

As the day set for the exodus approached, the Jews threw 
themselves with heartrending cries upon the consecrated 
graves of their dear departed, of whom they must needs take 
leave forever. In Toledo, the tombstone inscriptions of 
the prominent men buried there, were copied at the last 
moment. In other cities, the Jews turned over all communal 
property to the municipal authorities on condition that the 
cemeteries would be preserved. Upward of one hundred and 
fifty thousand people trudged along the highways toward the 
seaports to embark for new homes. From Aragon and Cata- 
lonia some twelve thousand escaped to neighboring Navarre; 
but Ferdinand prevailed upon King John to expel them. A 
body of exiles, among whom was Isaac Abrabanel, found 
refuge in the kingdom of Naples (p. 501). Those residing in 
the southern provinces of Spain took ship to the ports of the 
North-African coast; but not everywhere were they per- 
mitted to land. One of the last vessels transporting the exiles 
passed by the little fleet of Columbus bound in search of 


THE FUGITIVES ae 473 


ty vessels were met of the coast of Fez. 
to enslave ail of the hurmancargo. 
| Were going on for paying ninsom, the 
et sail bac tewrard Spain. Three of the vessels went 
| ed Y oo others were cact upon the Spanish 
d, in despair, threw thertsolves inte the 
th , aio Church Phe gtout-bearted sought. pas- 
rtuguese port and were ro njlere! to reside in 
; other troubles were not at 24 emi, bs tate were 
Biiflapration and then by 2 sewtke:ce which 
than ewer thousand souls, © ; 
ada of the fugitives on. wean aeecher 
ia ONC ted exor bitant giiniee Be <2: Das- 
is cruelly tossed the passers over- 
p Pescbed thei satengacrersph A. rene: y Ged 


Dtsicted to land cn on receiv nati 
ot of Corfu, Candia, and the ather fsreek 

ipmasters sold them as slaves, later & te 
ir Compassionate coreligionists, Thoee that 


thopenarms. Thesultan Bayazid 11. gio oated 
MW the Spanish monarchs who ime nseeiahed 
y and enriched Turkey. 
thousand eniigrants encanta ¢ Pare net, where 
ie. | tiation or the native Rt Hit willing 
ei Thirty of the richest families. x: i bidding 
aac Aboab, the last represemter sw of Jewish 
stile, were permitted to serie m Oporto, 
fais, who were able t pay a tax of 
usados each, as well as a nusuber of craftsmen 
making of munitions for the Aftieuts cam- 
ew ‘hee the ovr te remain fadefinitely 


: considera of a rep af eight crusa- 
fram King John Tl. (2481-1495) to 


tele take woth saficient mex my 


© 
phen fe che Sebete 


a ae 


be 
; 
ae. 


She he rates, 42) the sane eed 


Sipe eth Thee began the diary . 
Pie 4 nudiaiea whieh led to the di 
‘00 bw sande poasible By @ stk 
Gionns ies vemetior of the’ 
es ner easy : on Avagait, adv 
die’ ¥. yi wr Tit, ey = 


g a ‘Mac ne Anon cn 


+N nota el aia ¥ ie 
es Was % went from the 
Sea eo | was “: 
i =“ forgepina, 6 ee 
big eas eee hae the paar Fa 
dale: yewrtrending: « 
A eaydip a ad inten: o 


Fee 1h bee Ray ihe 8 


Mra BA f recgrt Catt! FyiDe ret 
Ayigect tolaoch Lie ol 


THE FUGITIVES 473 


another world. Twenty vessels were met off the coast of Fez 
by pirates, who threatened to enslave all of the humancargo. 
While negotiations were going on for paying ransom, the 
captain set sail back toward Spain. Three of the vessels went 
under in a storm; the others were cast upon the Spanish 
coast. Five hundred, in despair, threw themselves into the 
arms of the Catholic Church. The stout-hearted sought pas- 
sage from a Portuguese port and were permitted to reside in 
Fez. Here, too, their troubles were not at an end; they were 
visited by a conflagration and then by a pestilence which 
carried off more than twenty thousand souls. 

Harrowing was the fate of the fugitives on many another 
vessel. The shipmasters exacted exorbitant sums for the pas- 
sage, and in many cases cruelly tossed the passengers over- 
board before they reached their destination. A rumor had 
got abroad that the fugitives had swallowed jewels and gold 
pieces, and thousands were ripped up by the greedy knife of 
brigands who looked for treasure in the mutilated remains. 
At Genoa they were permitted to land only on receiving bap- 
tism; many set foot on Corfu, Candia, and the other Greek 
isles. Often the shipmasters sold them as slaves, later to be 
ransomed by their compassionate coreligionists. Those that 
were fortunate enough to reach the Ottoman dominions 
were received with openarms. Thesultan Bayazid II. gloated 
over the folly of the Spanish monarchs who impoverished 
their own country and enriched Turkey. 

One hundred thousand emigrants entered Portugal, where 
neither the state councilors nor the native Jews were willing 
to receive them. Thirty of the richest families, at the bidding 
of their rabbi, Isaac Aboab, the last representative of Jewish 
scholarship in Castile, were permitted to settle in Oporto. 
Six hundred other families, who were able to pay a tax of 
one hundred crusados each, as well as a number of craftsmen 
employed in the making of munitions for the African cam- 
paign, were likewise granted the right toremain indefinitely 
on the payment of a poll-tax of four crusados. The bulk of 
the emigrants, in consideration of a poll-tax of eight crusa- 
dos, received permission from King John II. (1481-1495) to 


474 THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL [1497 


tarry eight months in preparation for embarking to other 
countries. After a long delay, ships were provided; aboard 
these vessels, the unfortunate Jews endured untold suffer- 
ings. Still worse was the fate of those who were left behind 
for want of space. They were sold as slaves, and their little 
ones were torn from the bosom of their parents and sent to 
the newly discovered island of St. Thomas..The majority of 
these children died during the voyage or were the prey of 
wild beasts upon their arrival. Only a few populated the 
island, brothers even marrying their sisters in ignorance of 
their relationship. 

John’s successor, his cousin and brother-in-law Emanuel I. 
(1495-1521), was at first favorably inclined toward the Jews. 
Abraham Zacuto, the pupil of Aboab, was retained by the 
new monarch as astronomer. Upon the advice of this 
scholar, the expedition of Vasco de Gama was started, the 
vessels being provided with Zacuto’s newly perfected astro- 
labe. Political considerations, however, led to a complete 
reversal in Emanuel’s attitude toward the Jews. The king 
desired to wed Isabella of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand 
and Isabella and widow of the Portuguese prince Alphonso. 
The Catholic majesties gave their consent on the condition 
that the princess should find the realm purified from the 
presence of the accursed Jews. On November 30, 1496, the 
contract of marriage was signed, and on December 4 or 5 
of the same year the edict of expulsion was promulgated. 
The Jews were given time until the end of October 1497 
to wind up their affairs. : 

The Jews entertained the false hope that the king might 
be amenable to a reconsideration. The monarch himself was 
loath to let so many wealthy and industrious citizens depart. 
He just as little could tolerate their remaining professing 
Jews. Though the noble bishop Ferdinand Coutinho pro- 
nounced against enforced baptism, the king was abetted by 
the apostate Levi son of Shem Tob. On Sunday, the first day 
of Passover, March 19, 1497, all young Jews up to the age 
of twenty-five years were seized and led to baptism. Many 
parents smothered their children in their last embrace or 


ABRAHAM ZACUTO hes re. 


Ante wells and then killed thermsely res. Others, 

in hii separate from their children, submitted to bap- 
sh g with their offspring. 

~ for departure was now fest app roaching. ‘The 
ered the Jews to assemble at Lisbon and to embark 
ort. Twenty thousand Jews exthered iw the ca pi- 
Shing, fearful of econoinic loss to the country and 
“ep toapdlale let them go. They whee herded to- 


cephaagd ‘es sent a ther a convettrd Jew 
Mieirage and his brother, a ches: rchman, t per- 
th i to embrace Christianity. When all attempay to 
heir attachinent fo Judaism failed, (oe king resewtert: 
ne ordered’ them “yl to He is otis bei 


i athés lands alk there ret ail 3 ts judaiie a 
of Habib, who subsequently minissre ad as rabbi in 
and Isaac son of Joseph Karo, the vecieof Joseph 
ated, the famous oxdifier. Abrabee ¥scuto like. 
1. Only half a dogen kept up cir opposition, 
Sinon Mains, the chief rabli. hom the king 
O set an example tor his flock to taliow. Buried 
ck , the rabbi refused to yieh! ond died after 
dine companions, who had bet ont with him, 
ermitted to go to Africa. ae 

; y Christians turned to Pope Alexanxler rv l. for gro- 
d, at his request, che: king adopte! « milderpatiey, 
# of May 30, 1497, the newly converted Jews 
d la respite of twenty years, during whick time 
yt to be molested by the Inguisieion, The major- 
to live secretly as Jews; suc! as were able to 
affairs embraced the first oponrtunlty to seek 
ly, Africa, ae! Turkey. A deeree of April, 1499, 

» New Christiaws to leave Portugal without royal 
After the riot in April, 1506, when over two - 
opal were slain, the king suffered ali who 


+ 


te ae reas a, 3, the » niet ewe 


sh eer ty sl aise felancd of § 
chow children ded sharing the 
wile beanies 4 upon _— eben ; 


their relonticomlag, 
Ng S suey Be cousin: 
(293-1521), wre at fieet favorab 
ibe sham 2 Fact the pupil of A 
new move i eatitononton: 


eat sethe se 1 widow of the : 
#6 ws ONL ERR shold find 


Ae Se ae ae of er ea trae wae: i 
o FORE | RE Sepa ee a a 


4 
“y 
7 
“y 
. 
r 
= 
fae 


prawn; The ida nes wale bishe 
LTE G A ar oR rent ecfosoed. OAD 
tie “initiate Lev an dt Shenk? 
o: Paasover, March 19, 1407s 
ef Nennty-five years were Be 
gerents emothergd their child 


1506] ABRAHAM ZACUTO A475 


threw them into wells and then killed themselves. Others, 
unwilling to separate from their children, submitted to bap- 
tism along with their offspring. 

The time for departure was now fast approaching. The 
king ordered the Jews to assemble at Lisbon and to embark 
from that port. Twenty thousand Jews gathered in the capi- 
tal. But the king, fearful of economic loss to the country and 
the Crown, would not let them go. They were herded to- 
gether in one of the royal edifices and detained until the time 
designated for their departure had elapsed. They were now, 
so they were told, the king’s slaves, and would be dealt with 
according to his pleasure. He sent to them a converted Jew 
of the royal entourage and his brother, a churchman, to per- 
suade them to embrace Christianity. When all attempts to 
shake their attachment to Judaism failed, the king resorted 
to force and ordered them dragged to the baptismal font. 
Among those forcibly baptized were several who succeeded 
in escaping to other lands and there returned to Judaism; so 
Levi son of Habib, who subsequently ministered as rabbi in 
Jerusalem, and Isaac son of Joseph Karo, the uncle of Joseph 
Karo of Safed, the famous codifier. Abraham Zacuto like~- 
wise escaped. Only half a dozen kept up open opposition, 
among them Simon Maimi, the chief rabbi, whom the king 
had desired to set an example for his flock to follow. Buried 
up to the neck, the rabbi refused to yield and died after 
seven days. A few companions, who had held out with him, 
were then permitted to go to Africa. 

The New Christians turned to Pope Alexander VI. for pro- 
tection and, at his request, the king adopted a milder policy. 
In the rescript of May 30, 1497, the newly converted Jews 
were granted a respite of twenty years, during which time 
they were not to be molested by the Inquisition. The major- 
ity continued to live secretly as Jews; such as were able to 
arrange their affairs embraced the first opportunity to seek 
refuge in Italy, Africa, and Turkey. A decree of April, 1499, 
forbade the New Christians to leave Portugal without royal 


' permission. After the riot in April, 1506, when over two 


thousand secret Jews were slain, the king suffered all who 


476 THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


wished to do so, to leave the country with their property; — 
but in 1521, emigration was again forbidden. Under John III. . 

(1521-1557), the Maranos were subjected to fresh molesta- 
tion; in 1531 the Inquisition was introduced. The Maranos 
began to flee the country, especially under the reign of Sebas- 
tian (1557-1578), who granted them free departure upon 
payment of two hundred and fifty thousand ducats. Of 
course, it was not possible for all to depart. To this day, in 
the vicinity of the capital, there is a settlement of Maranos, 
in whom a knowledge of their Jewish origin still glimmers. 


MH 


ny 


FRENCH REV 


| (9t-1786) 


476 tHE SXPUL STOW BROM SPal 


te leave the co 
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BOOK IV 


THE EMERGENCE OF NEW CENTERS 
SO He PVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 


(1492-1786) 


x 


“CHAPTER LATV 
THE AGE OF HUMANISM 
(13490-1546) 


“SHE et of the Afteenth century found the jewish 
te in Spain and Portugal! bred SEN Lp. A wamzary 

re (1394), France had expeifecd her Joe: tre 
ier (1290), England. The ak ef the eieweth 
>, First Crusade} had beer tt ‘irning over 
Jews of Ceatral Europe, initiating acakeetion _ 
lorating, wo that at the chew oi the reat 
ape insecurity of residarce and a tenet 
uropean history was at this. bree. “spas chpatite 4 
The transition was marked ' New Lease. 
is now spreading irom It. Said is? eormanyy aed re 
y of the New World tows toe setting at 


of natin, oe Humaniem, «= destined to | 
ern Church im twain anc t Goo.» the foun- gas 
h medieval society was Here? The idea of 
mmonwealth, rigidly directa: © ttome, Was 
é the growth of national kev. ud the éa- 
t of the individual conscikem ©. 1s italy, the 
ane ag the interest ix steeds a! antiquity 
| Christian scholars also the dus ‘or a know} 
¥v and Jewish literature, Deeish scholars, 
he New Learning, were ai here: teachers. 
ury following the Ezra's visit >. #02), talmudi- 
continued to be the absurhiie subject tm the 
of Italy. One need mention «w'y thedaTranis 
er, his son David, his grax won Isaiah (son 
Younger; then Zedekiah so of Abraham, of 
lav, represented in the eleventh century by 
e (p. 301). But the imperes given by Ibn 
gen in vain. A oss mantis pean 


479 | bas aH 


a, . 
~ « at ~ . 
« “ cae A 
+ e 
he é 7 é if 
heeaee 
7 f 3 * 
Yih cat rea ‘ D ay 
ea, foc ima e ; 4 .. Ags . 
UL . wd ren ahs ; ? : 
b dae’, ite rey ae J eS tapes ine 
iw - ’ Vv ~s ‘ va a a i 
i, cme et A L % os i oA PON Wee, Delta Cmene ae ig ee as 
+ Sop wet tT ts ae ae ee fs ‘ih aa 4 ree: ee 
ene Al us ee aa ah eng Aer eae 5 ee de 
elt ee 1B er, CB ae Ne Fry ee NTE 5 eB erie ety 


ob gras 


lich: 


CHAPTER LXIV 
THE AGE OF HUMANISM 


(1330-1546) 


HE end of the fifteenth century found the Jewish 

center in Spain and Portugal broken up. A century 

before (1394), France had expelled her Jews; two 
centuries earlier (1290), England. The end of the eleventh 
century (1096, First Crusade) had been the turning point in 
the history of the Jews of Central Europe, entailing a condition 
constantly deteriorating, so that at the close of the Middle 
Ages they were left with insecurity of residence and a stunted 
inner life. European history was at this time entering upon a 
new period. The transition was marked by the New Learn- 
ing, which was now spreading from Italy into Germany, and 
by the discovery of the New World towards the setting of 
the sun (p. 472). 

The Revival of Learning, or Humanism, was destined to 
rend the Western Church in twain and to destroy the foun- 
dation upon which medieval society was reared. The idea of 
a European commonwealth, rigidly directed by Rome, was 
receding before the growth of national feelirig and the en- 
franchisement of the individual conscience. In Italy, the 
home of the Renaissance, the interest in classical antiquity 
awakened in Christian scholars also the desire for a knowl- 
edge of Hebrew and Jewish literature. Jewish scholars, 
familiar with the New Learning, were at hand as teachers. 

In the century following Ibn Ezra’s visit (p. 302), talmudi- 
cal studies had continued to be the absorbing subject in the 
Jewish schools of Italy. One need mention only theda Tranis 
—Isaiah the Elder, his son David, his grandson Isaiah (son 
of Elijah) the Younger; then Zedekiah son of Abraham, of 
the family Anav, represented in the eleventh century by 
Nathan of Rome (p. 301). But the impetus given by Ibn 
Ezra had not been in vain. A further stimulus had been 


479 


480 THE AGE OF HUMANISM é {1500 


afforded by the writings of Maimonides and the controversy 
aroused by them. Hillel of Verona (1220-1295) was a warm 
admirer of the great philosopher, though he freely criticised 
positions which in his judgment were untenable; his own 
work, ‘The Recompense of the Soul,’ struck a middle course 
between philosophy and tradition. 

The age of Dante and Petrarch could not but exert a 
profound influence in Jewish circles. Immanuel of Rome 
(1270-1330) introduced in Italy secular Hebrew poetry which 
had long ago found a home in Spain. He was in no sense a 
genius comparable to the singer of the ‘Divine Comedy,’ 
whom the Jewish poet knew in person. Still he was a good imi- 
tator, versatile, and a keen wit. His ‘Compositions’ (Mah- 
beroth)—twenty-seven in number, in rhymed prose, with 
interspersed verses—were modeled after Harizi’s work (p. 
335). They contain also a number of hymns. The supple- 
mentary vision of Heaven and Hell was a feeble approach to 
the Divine Comedy. Immanuel’s Heaven, however, was not 
confined to saints of his own nation and faith—it admitted 
pious Gentiles as well. The manner in which the holy tongue 
was used for tales of a frivolous character drew later upon 
the author the anathema of the orthodox; but one must take 
into consideration the spirit of the time and the surround- 
ings. Another imitation of the ‘Divine Comedy’ in Hebrew 
(‘The Lesser Sanctuary’) was produced by Moses da Rieti 
(died some time after 1460). Like his ancestor, the philo- 
sophical student Isaac (Maestro Gaio), Moses was a papal 
physician. | 

Nothing was more fruitful in the service of letters than the 
invention of the art of printing, and nowhere more so than in 
Italy. Hebrew printing was first begun in that country. By 
1500, Hebrew presses had been set up in Reggio di Calabria 
and Naples in the south as well as at Pieve de Sacco, Mantua, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Rome, Soncino, Casal Maggiore, Brescia, 
Barco, and elsewhere in the north. The Jewish printers were 
for the most part learned men. Abraham Conat was a physi- 
cian at Mantua, whose interest in the new art was shared by 
his wife Estellina. Like their Italian colleagues of the time, 


URLIAR DEL MEDIGO 481 


era were ia the main immigtants from Ger- 
of German immigrant stock. Thas the buying 
le to procure printed editions of tke Scriptures, 
ke, the Bible, Mishnah, Talrvad (in part), 
cs of ‘the different rites for 4..' ily worship and for 
es, grammars, dictionaries, issinsophical works, 
Early in the sixteenth oon tury pe erinting 
in Venice passed inte ric ha ody inf Chris- 
press of Daniel Bomberg (1417-1882). came 
cond editions of the Rabideic Bib le jor _— 
mtar acien), the first: pein editiees of the 
— the first edition <i che Peiercinian 
other important works. - 

. be ad canonical diseriioation, Jems in 
“gn sted with (Christians. Jews shaved: & dhe 
ofvculte which a of italy one pps, id ae aed A 


yom ea pemanaleamaee bid 
aes | to phic studies of which they hech merely a 


: f eph Kolon at Mantua, a talmudical ¢ocsewity of 
Suld not live at peace with Juda Siar Leon, 
jLatinint. pretsicias, ears coe The feud 


den: Weapon: than Bie we it: Sut E tes ‘i 
( ~1497), who was descended from a Germ a 
' ident tin re andia. 


makes a shane iatiievion: bel cae nrersane: 
: tin As ® seatter of face. “ho essence of 

old: is. Deed got net Ceeed, KReigious laws 
¥ Part in the eeetem of jodaiem, and thet 
ener ake da ciaetasct tes veited. But adt every- 
Patrand rests on trac? ian; reach is tarred on a 
tation of Seriprure. Still less és it peieeible to 
almudic homilies as are clearly: mantradictory 
ere is a deep kernel of truth jy anny a hag- 
@, but no authoritative dovtring way be con- 


ham a THE samhavhe: i 


iin ' which in he denen 
work, The Recorpense of the So 
mrween pt —— and tradition, 

“The age of Dante and Petr 
Toe ae’ intlaange in Jewish 


L270~1 350) iatronuced i Mm so 


SOILS 
whom tle Suels ih parade ev 
Lator, veraatiie, and a keen wit, 
heroth)..~teityalbvan an tes : 
iitemepern se 4 verse were | 2 | I 
3453. Phiey couvtaat wiso a nus rie 
MEDCArY VRE: caf Heaven and. 
the Divine Comedy, Immanue 
mfned to aunts of his own, 
pious Gentiles ax well, The ma 


<a 
= 
a 
re 
e 
nee 
= 
%. 


the author the anathesla of the 
into consideration: the spint off 
legs. Another irarhtion of the 
"Pine Lasser Senet aiary") was 
(ded aome time aie 1460), 


t 


sipnical stadkenarg fai berasce 


tas remy ew “priest ea f 
S00, HeAbwwor prenggte hued been: 
teal Ni: ap in thine apne 
Kervara, Bologna, Rot, Sane 
“SN and elsewhere in the no 
jar the movt part leeened Hane 


Chetan a ss ui, whose Intense 


Lf ee RO eee o a => es 
ie a . 


1460-97] ELIJAH DEL MEDIGO 481 


the Jewish printers were in the main immigrants from Ger- 
many or else of German immigrant stock. Thus the buying 
public was able to procure printed editions of the Scriptures, 
commentaries on the Bible, Mishnah, Talmud (in part), 
prayer books of the different rites for daily worship and for 
holidays, codes, grammars, dictionaries, philosophical works, 
and belles-lettres. Early in the sixteenth century the printing 
of Hebrew books in Venice passed into the hands of Chris- 
tians. From the press of Daniel Bomberg (1517-1549) came 
the first and second editions of the Rabbinic Bible (text with 
Jewish commentaries), the first complete edition of the 
Babylonian Talmud, the first edition of the Palestinian 
Talmud, and other important works. 

Despite papal bulls and canonical discrimination, Jews in 
Italy freely associated with Christians. Jews shared in the 
high level of culture which made of Italy one large school. It 
was not to be expected that rabbis of German antecedents, 
driven into Italy by reason of persecution at home, would be 
friendly to philosophic studies of. which they had barely a 
notion. Joseph Kolon at Mantua, a talmudical authority of 
high repute, could not live at peace with Judah Messer Leon, 
rabbi, physician, Latinist, rhetorician, philosopher. The feud 
divided the community, and ultimately both were banished 
from the city (about 1477). Judah Menz (1408-1509) at 
Padua had no other weapon than the ban against Elijah del 
Medigo (1460-1497), who was descended from a German 
family long resident in Candia. 

There was a modern air to del Medigo. His ‘Examination 
of Religion’ makes a clear distinction between philosophy 
and religious doctrine. As a matter of fact, the essence of 
Judaism, he holds, is Deed and not Creed. Religious laws 
are a necessary part in the system of Judaism, and their 
exposition in the Talmud is perfectly justified. But not every- 
thing in the Talmud rests on tradition; much is founded ona 
fallible interpretation of Scripture. Still less is it possible to 
accept such talmudic homilies as. are clearly contradictory 
to reason. There is a deep kernel of truth in many a hag- 
gadic utterance, but no authoritative doctrine may be con- 


482 THE AGE OF HUMANISM 


structed thereon. Judaism has its fundamental principles, 
which are free from illogical difficulties and are unobjection- 
able to the philosophical mind. But to strive after a cognition 
of them by means of philosophical study cannot be made 
into a religious duty (as Maimonides held). The religious 
truths of Judaism have nothing to fear from reasoned spec- 
ulation, but ultimately they rest on revelation. 

Del Medigo had the distinction of lecturing on philosophy 
before the university of Padua. Among his disciples was the 
humanist Pico della Mirandola, of the illustrious circle 
about Lorenzo the Magnificent. This keen student aimed at 
harmonizing ancient philosophy with Christian doctrine and 
had been taught Cabala by del Medigo as well as by another 
Jewish teacher, Johanan Alemanno. The humanist was con- 
vinced that the Cabala yielded the strongest proof for the 
divinity of Christ. For the same reason Pope Sixtus IV. 
(1471-1484) had cabalistic works translated into Latin. The 
Zohar was rendered into Latin by Baruch of Benevento at 
the bidding of Cardinal Egidio di Viterbo. 

This prince of the Church became the pupil of Elijah 
Levita, whom he harbored in his palace for thirteen years. 
Levita (1469-1549) passed through many vicissitudes. In 
early youth he left his native Bavarian home for Padua. The 
sack of the city by the League of Cambray in 1509 left him 
destitute, just as the capture of Rome by the forces of 
Charles V. in 1527 terminated his years of tranquillity in the 
cardinal’s house. He found employment in the Bomberg 
printing establishment at Venice as editor and proof-reader. 
There he spent the remainder of his long life, barring four 
years during which he was back in Germany teaching and 
assisting the reformed minister Fagius. Thus Levita was 
brought in contact with the two divisions of the Church 
during the process of its splitting up. At Venice Levita had 
for his friend and pupil another eminent Church dignitary, 
George de Selve, ambassador of Francis I. and subsequently 
bishop of Lavaur. This friendship secured for Levita an 
invitation to occupy the chair of Hebrew at Paris, which the 
Jewish scholar declined. 


EMIJAH LEWIYA 483 


j became the link between the » vedieval Jewish gram- 
nt afr tnd the Cin Hebraists i» «he age of the Refor- 
te vy versatule man anc « shialaiaie student of 

w language and the Bible. Hiv pave twenty years of 
abel | 
y to te pording the accurate form «2 every word in the 

w tex! of. the Sevipttures.: He res!:<-i the mcomplete 
the Masoretic annotations. py: then campiled 

© Bombers edition by Jacoh «© of thesim [bn 
t (4524-1525). The manuscript, ch Lava sent 
twas never published ac} 2 reste in the 
na. y at Paris. ett J eto ee tion ho the 
inted-in’ 1536, is celebratei! ty s+ propeeiyon 
vel points of the sacred text dete oom some Tine 
fee or the Talmud. The thews see ow no meen 
‘ one had offered so convince ” . 


fistian Hebraic srudy in ocala greed Span 
stage. The — reer fad been *. ; eiiigants 
Reuchiin 
2 Saaed himneett < of his an acmeing Be 
‘grammar and dictionar y. Me its ack twee 
ers: jacob Lawes (ohysicia =. SM PSrar 
1) and Obadiah Sforno (died ar Minexne 1550). 
1 | Hebraist, no jess than the isaee »?oraists ot 
| s drawn to Hebrew and Jewisk pr e by tne 
& bala. But as he progress), > ~< ties the 
a ‘accepted Church vers ‘ the Serip 
ate) and, with. Kimhi and ict as guides, 
Sc ipeures in the original. Thw owas forged the 
wi 1 the Reformation, bee 20g Upon the 
i heren. 
7) oh ahtacied, Remh Ht wes Bverse to 
s meatis for the converyir«: of the Jew. He 
[that the Jewish misery wee « panishment for 
‘i ie tion of Christ; but tive error. he held, 
some by persuasion. There were some Jewish 
ir lion which directly attacked (Christianity 


# 


sing Out aCancordance mm. » gigantic sealé with 


gius hae Sebastian Miinster-tae taught ty 


Ay oo 


4 


iets therecn. Judaism has its fe 
mek wee free frora Mogical difficult 
tient the philosophical mind, Butte 

a BY se Fie eas uf philosophical 
esa cee: duty (as Maim oni 
Maths of Judonee have nothing te: 
tintin. toned ichaoaae they resto 
ikel Muctigey Aig the distinction 
iduie ibe univers thy of Padua. A : 
Paptianyst Mew delle, Mirando : 
ion! Loco dye Magnificent,” 
at trernnghnug rir rage: 


wats Seg ore into: lade 
. irinal Egidia 
me a the Chureh: 

x4 a 74 be harteored im: 

‘i i) passed. th Uy 
poe me hee native B | 


er 


pn = 


HPs soho with: the : 
ee Seeds oe ‘ohh “Te 


Poe vee Th ea “This tie en 
bay oe toon eo cenupy the chair, ! 
euoiaridecineds.« 


1469-1549] ELIJAH LEVITA 483 


Levita became the link between the medieval Jewish gram- 
marians and the Christian Hebraists in the age of the Refor- 
mation. He was a versatile man and a painstaking student of 
the Hebrew language and the Bible. He gave twenty years of 
his life to working out a Concordance on a gigantic scale with 
a view to recording the accurate form of every word in the 
Hebrew text of the Scriptures. He realized the incomplete 
character of the masoretic annotations, just then compiled 
for the Bomberg edition by Jacob son of Hayim Ibn 
Adonijah (1524-1525). The manuscript, which Levita sent 
to de Selve, was never published and still rests in the 
National Library at Paris. Levita’s Introduction to the 
Masorah, printed in 1538, is celebrated for the proposition 
that the vowel points of the sacred text date from some time 
after the close of the Talmud. The thesis was by no means 
new, but no one had offered so convincing a proof. 

With Fagius and Sebastian Miinster—both taught by 
Levita—Christian Hebraic study in Germany entered upon 
its second stage. The pioneer had been Conrad Pellicanus 
(1478-1556). His older contemporary, Johann Reuchlin 
(1455-1522), availed himself of his help in composing his 
own Hebrew grammar and dictionary. Reuchlin had two 
‘Jewish teachers: Jacob Loans (physician to the emperor 
Frederick III.) and Obadiah Sforno (died at Bologna 1550). 
The German Hebraist, no less than the Italian Hebraists of 
his time, was drawn to Hebrew and Jewish literature by his 
interest in Cabala. But as he progressed, he realized the 
deficiencies of the accepted Church version of the Scrip- 
tures, the Vulgate, and, with Kimhi and Rashi as guides, 
turned to the Scriptures in the original. Thus was forged the 
weapon with which the Reformation, bursting upon the 
world, assailed the authority of the Roman Church. 

Well-informed and high-minded, Reuchlin was averse to 
persecution as a means for the conversion of the Jew. He 
was convinced that the Jewish misery was a punishment for 
the stubborn rejection of Christ; but this error, he held, 
should be overcome by persuasion. There were some Jewish 
books in his opinion which directly attacked Christianity 


484 THE AGE OF HUMANISM [1516-20 


and might be condemned to destruction. But the great mass 
of Jewish literature, after the Bible, he knew, consisted of 
books indifferent towards Christianity (works on philosophy 
and the sciences), unimpeachable religious and devotional 
writings, commentaries indispensable for a knowledge of 
Scripture, cabalistic treatises useful for supporting Christian 
dogma. The Talmud, which Reuchlin conceded he had not 
read, he described as containing many a bizarre and super- 
stitious utterance, but at the same time much excellent 
matter. 

Such was Reuchlin’s opinion officially submitted to arch- 
bishop Uriel of Mayence (1510) in opposition to Johann 
Pfefferkorn, a converted Jew of Cologne, who demanded the 
wholesale suppression of all Hebrew books except copies-of 
the Bible. A mandate to that effect had been secured from 
the emperor Maximilian (August, 1509); but upon repre- 
sentations of leaders of the Frankfort Jewish community and 
Christian friends, the emperor ordered the consultation of 
expert opinion. A virulent literary feud ensued between 
Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn. Reuchlin was denounced as a 
traitor to the Church. The onslaught was led by the dean 
of the Cologne Dominicans, the inquisitor Hochstraten. 
Deputations and counter-deputations appeared before the 
temporizing emperor. Reuchlin sought the good offices of the 
Saxon elector, Frederick the Wise. Luther energetically 
defended the innocence and learning of Reuchlin. From the 
sentence of the ecclesiastical court at Mayence Reuchlin 
appealed to pope Leo X. shortly after his accession (1513). 
The bishop of Spires, acting for the Medicean pope, acquit- 
ted Reuchlin; the decision was confirmed at Rome in 1516. 
The Dominicans still plotted, and though Reuchlin had the 
powerful support of Franz von Sickingen and Ulrich von 
Hutten, the previous judgment was reversed at Rome (1520). 
But then the case had assumed a more dangerous aspect 
from its bearing upon the revolt from Rome which proceeded 
from Wittenberg. Over the body of suspect Jewish literature 
a battle royal was fought between German humanists and 
obscurantists. While Luther was preparing for the parting 


LUTHER | 485 


v5 » the Bact Seales of satire ( “Later of 
Si4-151!). 


oy were haemabers of the “Holy Empire and 
rs :  eaga i 1523, av the height of bis con- 
joliciam:;’ considered: cher Christians ‘had 
ae ron they were dogs and not men,’ in 
he who was.a good Chrisuian might well have 
ie a Jew," He was not sarpeteet that the Jews 
ing te accept Christianity, cemsidering Unat 
t ‘popery and monkery.” * aie Mohammed, 
of converting the Hes: be reasoned 


the Gospel had come int i on, the bews 
ito Jesus Christ, who was bere s ‘tae, And 


erat. burn their syiarese Cay forus 
4 treat them with all unmerciiyitas.” Tae 
ad at Eisleben shortly before hia titi: (RSH, 
$. of Christendom not to sitiler the Jews. 
| but to expel chen. Ax, We eete- 


. 7 


Charch than the more Ween! ag ome we | 
70) algo mtn mens io Pap “anit anne? -ie a 


L, Luther, disappointed i in his hopes, inveighed — 
: years, eee ‘the Jews and dheir lies” ant. 


y 3 of Luther had a eet fesene in ee 


s 


bated THE AGE or nuts AN 


wat might be ex 
ef Jewish ser rature, afte the Bible, 
Shoko. Re Loi. Foca to i 
Wi Ahe scsenimesh, We ‘mpeachable 
Miltinge, commentafies li 
Sesipture. cahalistié the vatises useful’ 

og ona, rhe. 4 Vatmud, Which Rep 
fea, he descended as nontaining, 
SEAtIOUS 1 terance,, ue, at tha z 


qoblin's » Onan ¥ 
Mavence (1510 


Wholesale auporwaew pf all 
vole. J pacino te: that 
compen Mageaiias CAu 

tte eeerage of the Fra 


exriert spina ae ‘Wiealeas: i 
Mewhin are Mederkorn.. 3 
tealiac ta eh: orch The , 
i thy Col cape i Phones: 


_ 


Bere of em ang c 


¢ bee — 


rigiten, ¢ shee phere ‘pe 
But then the nee: fad 
inate ite beas berg ets she es o 

i Vy ete: Tey a the: % 
&: eile roval wawole Padie j 


Wheevrantivis, WW tly f .satibaee, | 


= 


1546] LUTHER 485 


of the ways, the Reuchlinians were battering down Domin- 
ican intolerance by the trenchant force of satire (‘Letters of 
Obscure Men,’ 1514-1517). 

Reuchlin had demanded protection for the Jews on the 
ground that they were ‘members of the Holy Empire and 
imperial burghers.’ Lutker, in 1523, at the height of his con- 
flict with Catholicism, considered that Christians ‘had 
treated the Jews as though they were dogs and not men,’ in 
a fashion that ‘he who was a good Christian might well have 
desired to become a Jew.’ He was not surprised that the Jews 
had been unwilling to accept Christianity, considering that 
it was nothing but ‘popery and monkery.’ Like Mohammed, 
Luther had high hopes of converting the Jews; he reasoned 
that, now that the Gospel had come into its own, the Jews 
would be drawn to Jesus Christ, who was born a Jew. And 
like Mohammed, Luther, disappointed in his hopes, inveighed 
in his closing years against ‘the Jews and their lies’ and 
admonished his followers ‘to burn their synagogues, force 
them to work, and treat them with all unmercifulness.’ In a 
sermon, preached at Eisleben shortly before his death (1546), 
he urged the lords of Christendom not to suffer the Jews, 
those ‘hardened blasphemers,’ but to expel them. As, in gen- 
eral, the later views of Luther had a greater force in shaping 
the Protestant Church than the more liberal opinions of his 
earlier years, so also with regard to the treatment of the 
Jews. 


CHAPTER ia 
AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG 
(1492-1671) 


n Amsterdam and Hamburg, Naples and Venice, Saloniki 
| and Constantinople, Fez, Tlemcen, Algiers and Tunis, 

Cairo and Alexandria, Jerusalem and Safed, Damascus 
and Smyrna—on the coast of the North Sea and on the shores 
washed by the Mediterranean and Levantine waters, as well 
as on the new continent of America and its isles, the Por- 
tuguese-Galician, Castilian, and Catalan dialects were heard 
on the lips of the Jewish exiles from the Iberian peninsula. 
These wanderers were either openly professing Jews, directly 
affected by the decrees of expulsion of 1492 and 1496, or 
Maranos who had remained behind and whose existence was 
made unbearable by the Inquisition. The exodus of the 
Maranos of Portugal followed immediately upon the intro- 
duction of the tribunal in 1531 and assumed greater propor- 
tions under King Sebastian (p. 476). Among those who early 
availed themselves of the edict of Charles V. granting to 
Maranos the right of residence in the Netherlands (1536), 
was the rich Francisco Mendes, of the Nasi family. Though 
he himself remained in Lisbon, he set up a branch of his 
banking business in Antwerp, the management of which he 
placed in the hands of his brother Diogo. 

The two brothers were married to two sisters of the Ben- 
veniste family. When Francisco died, his widow Beatrice de 
Luna (or, as she called herself later, Gracia Mendez) trans- 
ferred her entire business and family to Antwerp. She was 
not happy there, longing for a place where she might openly 
liveasa Jewess. But the death of her brother-in-law, who left 
the control of the estate to her, did not permit her to carry 
out her design until 1549, when after winding up affairs she 
departed with her sister and their children to Venice. This 
sister, dissatisfied with the manner in which her husband 


486 


 PNFLUK OF MARANOS | 487 


c 


a 

t ihn her daughter witierct to the tutelage of 
ore her sister to the “irnory’as a renegade 
i Fireman was imprivwd and Ber property 


in het Antention to prieee! to Tarkey. Her 
sph Nasi, had relations wit “loses Memon, the 
fician (p. $13), who enliste) she att of te Purk- 
me t-to set the lady free. sala ‘ig tigelsa tons 
toration of her possessions, {s acia took lp her 
Rerrara. Tiere she returns vo Tudiners And 
terially and morally nuniies: of wodeememie 
ho foowed ker example. “ie was path hy 
ation by wmenibers of the Perms famiijy~ Sete 

nt in business and ine’ a od Pevtasch’s 
patieh; Samuel, author ef » yoxe paras we 
titled Sonsalition’t int oraels 4 T Stelatime” ae 
ee for the history of pergereas Harr Abrehaus 

| da printing press. and imewtel, a HOE tab 

hooks, a Spanish translate ow voit ere 
’ Bible, 1553). ae 

5 introduced the Inquisitie:: tas Ase ap | 
- the outbreak of the revole A.cureh the Desist 

yTY., the tritunal unfoleert os Reps: cgay 

e was ~ possibility tor LER . et ah 
elves tn the Low ‘Arent ree, “Flee: leet of 
ice on the authorivies ef Arnhent on teem os) 
1 — (1571). yao ten sh repeat a sal he 


c = (1579), and paige carat ventas se HS Sy ak- 

sarlish Armada which greatly weal Saein 
followed fied iufiax of Mavetaie @ae the 

Not all of the pretenses were wilting Ue eaceive 
“example Zuchind . <te spite the nein of 
@ Moroctan ea wha. fe 1 aia went by 
masconsiil to the Mpikerients. Ane, ereventful 
all “group of Marat: kew Posvapal, among 

oped Homen, his nee 2422 Sites, and her 
i, found themsebvare a Loxden in Friesland 


\ : 
odo ¥ : 
a F 


7 7. we a hy 
ai, et ee Ge ta mrad 


ee 
* 


etek ake ms ae dg we aed were pra: 
Ri a “ oo of 


Feet te res Ing ais 
Ni ahreni a ; Pagrine Soren 


= 


roe hy sy * ii Mt Pn iy 


Sie. * es MAE i ge estane 
_ ; : bays jey Cheer ge vygn® a 8 LOR, 
a arperiesy eit h ‘ie Kee Ree” i] sine 
winter, on race at, 1s afpect with Une 


1588] INFLUX OF MARANOS 487 


had left herself and her daughter subject to the tutelage of 
Gracia, denounced her sister to the Signory as a renegade 
to Catholicism. Gracia was imprisoned and her property 
confiscated. 

It had been her intention to proceed to Turkey. Her 
nephew, Joseph Nasi, had relations with Moses Hamon, the 
sultan’s physician (p. 513), who enlisted the aid of the Turk- 
ish government to set the lady free. Pending negotiations 
over the restoration of her possessions, Gracia took up her 
residence in Ferrara. There she returned to Judaism and 
assisted materially and morally numbers of unfortunate 
Maranos who followed her example. She was particularly 
held in veneration by members of the Usque family—Solo- 
mon, her agent in business and translator of Petrarch’s 
poems into Spanish; Samuel, author of a prose poem in 
Portuguese entitled ‘Consolation in Israel’s Tribulations,’ an 
important source for the history of persecutions; Abraham, 
who established a printing press and issued, in addition to 
many Hebrew books, a Spanish translation of the Scriptures 
(the Ferrara Bible, 1553). 

Charles V. introduced the Inquisition into the Nether- 
lands. After the outbreak of the revolt against the Spanish 
rule of Philip II., the tribunal unfolded its ruthless opera- 
tions, and there was no possibility for professing Jews to 
maintain themselves in the Low Countries. The Duke of 
Alva served notice on the authorities of Arnhem to seize all 
Jews residing there (1571). Conditions improved after the 
Union of Utrecht, inwhich the northern provinces declared 
their independence (1579), and the destruction by the Eng- 
lish of the Spanish Armada which greatly weakened Spain 
(1588). There followed a fresh influx of Maranos into the 
new republic. Not all of the provinces were willing to receive 
them, as for example Zeeland, despite the intercession of 
Samuel Palache, a Moroccan Jew, who in 1591 was sent by 
his sovereign as consul to the Netherlands. After an eventful 
voyage, a small group of Maranos from Portugal, among 
whom were Lopez Homen, his niece Maria Nufiez, and her 
brother Manuel, found themselves at Emden in Friesland 


488 AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG [1616 


and were assisted by the rabbi, Moses Uri ha-Levi, to reach 
Amsterdam (1593). 

The Emden rabbi, who followed them to Amsterdam, 
received them back into Judaism. On the day of Atonement, 
1596, asmall congregation of sixteen worshiped in the private 
dwelling of the consul Palache. So ignorant were the Protes- 
tant citizens of the nature of this worship that they fell upon 
the congregation, thinking it to be Catholic. But Jacob 
Tirado, who was able to converse in Latin with the city 
fathers, told them that they were Jews fleeing from the 
Inquisition, possessed of ample means, and engaged in com- 
mercial enterprises which would redound to the welfare of 
the city. He also obtained permission to erect a small syna- 
gogue, which was named in his honor ‘House of Jacob’ (Beth 
Jacob, 1598). By 1608 the community had grown, counting 
among its members the poet Paul de Pina (Rehuel Jesurun) 
and the cabalist Alonzo (Abraham) de Herrera; the latter 
had Jewish blood in his veins, but also old Spanish, being 
descended from Gonzalo de Cordova, conqueror and viceroy 
of Naples. A second synagogue, ‘Habitation of Peace’ 
(Neveh Shalom), was opened, and between 1602 and 1614 
two burial-grounds were secured. 

To the cemetery at Oudekerk were brought in 1616 the 
remains of Elijah Montalto. A Portuguese Marano, he had 
settled in Leghorn and then in Venice. His fame as a physi- 
cian was brought to the attention of Maria de Medici, 
second consort of King Henry IV. of France and after his 
death regent, who invited him to become court physician. 
Montalto stipulated complete religious freedom and exemp- 
tion from duties on the sabbath. He died at Tours while 
accompanying the youthful king Louis XIII., and the queen- 
regent had his body embalmed and sent for Jewish burial to 
Amsterdam. 

Among those who conducted the remains of the court’s 
favored physician was his pupil, Saul Levi Morteira, who, in ~ 
the same year, was appointed rabbi of the synagogue Beth 
Jacob. The other synagogue was ministered to by Isaac 
Uzziel of Fez. This stern lecturer offended certain members 


| “MANAssER BEN-ISRARE iB Ag9 


wadiership of David Oxorio, they withdrew 
fongregation, whict wus hina ‘House 


€ v Ben-fsracl. 


abe aise Own eit) cle ad of A avai: 
n ‘Three years later the —— Portuese 
e Consolidated into eng. “ow vest syns 
dubf, the wewest remedial bua 2 echoo! 
#0 Torah), while Neveh *..tee arved asa 
of worship. When the Polak (ee avived in 
Ney fount as srembers of the widsielvivad col- 
eee by Mamisoeh Ben-Isract. ye! Amab. 


, iiciovact (ilt>-$657) surpawee:! hia culleagnes 


h went beyond bis immediate ocemunasity. 
ey when bis parents, Marance frp Prta- 
sterdam; he grew up to fowl biegenet Mor 


ved, first asa teacher and them Gy witd 
ug 1 peapasmnes setting Gp a7 epews wet DRG 
ished in Hollarat, £626) anne } 
th Haiinens ventures in invarn 
migrate. It was not, ‘eae vot, janes eke th 
ulence ; he remained the wader. thy ach he 
a’ ions with SH EVer-wWwies 2 ute >" ws aehere 
s, > Jewish acd iieetigg, 3c seme and 
s@ Was tine be apibie meas. ekg - Ot 
which one tiga’ hits, (hp ities. core Of his 
the ‘Cont ase’ (2 awe adet: wrdtten in 
=a spin which it en Cat jais th Fie Seriptures 


ae 


i 
ie 


ROL 


flat 2 : tas the Cheint, ay: 2 Rerertane, or: Fifth 


Ss 


© of Amsterdais, Set x fa tern those 


+ by his outspokenness seins moral 


Superticial, erudition, hy verarility, and 


tt, but Batavian in spirit. The see nuntue 


ckia tympatheee stiecd sv the heart of 


438 (AMSTERDAM AND a 


wnel were cosisted by the gun) ee | 
my megres dara (1593), 
the. Emden abhi, wha fol ow 
received them back inte fudiseen; 
(595, a small congreparion of site 
dayviling ot the consul Palache,S 
tant citizens of the nature Of this 
che congregation, thinking: ity 
Tirade, who was able to com 
fathers, told them tha they 
incputsition, possessed of amphe 
poeC cial ‘ éntegprises which would 
the city, He also outaimed peri 
Core, whieh was named j in bis 
facob, 1598), By 1608-the coma 
APIA 3 raem bers the poet Ps ay 
mod the cabalist Alonzo (Abra 
hart Jewish blood ta his: veins, 
ce see nded cd inom Gongalode Con 


iat taka ground cena 

Le Lhe’ cemetery at Oudeke 
temams of Fdivaly Montalto A 
settie in Legheredad thenas 
cian. was broueht te ¢he athene 
Socom consort hot hang Henry 
death regent, whe mngted him 
Montalto stipule ted complete 
han irom — an the eabbat 
aooM pany me the youthful king’ 
omemerit had bis Oany enubalmaed : 


tieored physician wes his papil; 
the aare year, whs appointed i 
he ; Ler Syhagogue:s 
eee of Pez. Tha wtern lect 


1604-1657] MANASSEH BEN-ISRAEL 489 


of the congregation by his outspokenness against moral 
lapses. Under the leadership of David Osorio, they withdrew 
and formed a third congregation, which was named ‘House 
of Israel’ (Beth Israel, 1618). Their rabbis were David 
Pardo, Samuel Tardiola, and (from 1626 on) Isaac Aboab de 
Fonseca; at Neveh Shalom, Uzziel was succeeded in 1622 by 
his pupil Manasseh Ben-Israel. 

In 1635, the number of German Jews had sufficiently grown 
to form a congregation of their own with the aid of their 
Portuguese brethren. Three years later the three Portuguese 
congregations were consolidated into one. The oldest syna- 
gogue was disposed of, the newest remodeled into a school 
building (Talmud Torah), while Neveh Shalom served as a 
common house of worship. When the Polish Jews arrived in 
1655 (p. 556), they found as members of the rabbinical col- 
lege Morteira, Pardo, Manasseh Ben-Israel, and Aboab. 

Manasseh Ben-Israel (1604-1657) surpassed his colleagues 
by his wide, albeit superficial, erudition, his versatility, and 
his interests which went beyond his immediate community. 
He was a small boy when his parents, Maranos from Portu- 
gal, settled in Amsterdam; he grew up to feel himself Por- 
tuguese by descent, but Batavian in spirit. The small income 
which he received, first as a teacher and then as rabbi or 
preacher, he sought to augment by setting up a Hebrew press 
(the first established in Holland, 1626) and later by associat- 
ing himself with business ventures in Brazil whither he 
intended to emigrate. It was not, however, given to him to 
be a man of opulence; he remained the student. As such he 
entered into relations with an ever-widening circle of scholars 
and men of letters, Jewish and Christian, at home and 
abroad; among these was the learned queen Christina of 
Sweden. A work which occupied him the better part of his 
mature years was the ‘Conciliator’ (Conciliador, written in 
the Spanish tongue) in which contradictions in the Scriptures 
were reconciled. 

The speculations of the Christian millenarians, or Fifth 
Monarchy men, struck a sympathetic chord in the heart of 
the Jewish scholar of Amsterdam, just as in turn those 


490 AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG [1650 


dreamers, notably among the Puritans of England, leaned on 
him for support. On both sides the belief, starting out from 
the predictions in the Book of Daniel, gained ground that 
the Kingdom of the Saints, which was to endure a thousand 
years, was at hand. As a preliminary to that event, the Jew- 
ish people, it was held, would be restored to their ancestral 
home (and, as the Christians added, converted to the religion 
of Christ). But, in order that the restoration might be com- 
plete, it was necessary, in accordance with the Scriptures, 
that Israel, or the Lost Ten Tribes, should be rejoined to 
Judah. Where then were the Lost Ten Tribes to be found’? 

The Amsterdam rabbi had come in contact with Antonio 
de Montezinos (Aaron Levi), who told a weird tale of Ameri- 
can Indians he had come across in his travels in the New 
World, of their religious practices, and of their tradition that 
they were of the tribe-of Reuben. This tale came to the ears 
of John Dury, Thomas Thorowgood, and Nathaniel Holmes, 
English divines interested in missionary labors among the 
Indians, who were eager for a confirmation of earlier conjec- 
tures by Jesuit fathers on the relation of the American 
aborigines to the Israelitish tribes. A lively correspondence 
followed between the English puritans and Manasseh, with 
the double result: a manifestation of friendly concern for the 
Jewish cause in England, and a conviction in the mind of the 
Jewish scholar that the day of Jewish deliverance was draw- 
ing near. 

His reasoning he developed in the tract ‘The Hope of 
Israel’ which he wrote in Spanish (1650). With full credence 
in the story of Montezinos and the evidence culled from 
Jewish and Christian writers, he arrived at the conclusion 
that the Israelitish tribes, scattered over many countries, 
had wandered from Tatary across China to the American 
continent, thus carrying the dispersion to the farthest parts 
of the globe. That was in fulfilment of Daniel’s prediction ° 
that, ‘when an end hath been made of breaking in pieces and 
scattering the holy people,’ the redemption shall be accom- 
plished. Moreover, in the Torah there was the promise: ‘If 
any of thee that are dispersed be in the uttermost parts of 


CROMWELL 497 


: om isehos will the Lord thy God gather thee.’ 
chaps e writer argued, tenis to perk that the restora- 


at fa return bine ie dist tart cont cy (the world 
cn e to the futiee delivernnce. Signs of ite coming are 
es on the one hand the untold sufferings of the 

: e, beginning wirk the expulsion frou England 
pwith the cutaytr: pire in Spain aad Portugal, 
thet hand the divine mercy vouchsafed to ius- 
exalted to high tation, such as Nainerides, 
(the ancestor of Manasrh's wife), Joseph Nasi 
or hies nearer his wwe $ tne. eH ih) 
« i meanwhile senor republican (49), Crom- 
faith and twitches fortirude to peace and 
us Way was plraghios, dominated the Caun- 
had ayy eye to iin cl aM eas ‘of the hews in 
“steinapad —- ies bd CA ENS re} inl ce. 9 eo AN 


Iehese siresestive +" ang civ had sasdiienake io 
Hic Cromweil’s { interest in the Jews was assuming 
aspect, anci icant Wa tect Cane « treats 


4 
> 
na 
Pik? 


nt, ja which he alicia: 3 fave ai eexnl- 
ftered Jewish nation | , | 
inaty of coalition pronowed to Cie Netherlands 
not miscarric: d, the Jewish wievchants of Amster: 
mmediately have heen able ve establish them- 
ad, With the Navigation act cased, aiming 
de foreign nations frye she colonial arade, 
ig desire on the part 2 PS carrying: on 
West Indies to obtain » foattwit in Londen. 
the Dutch metrapolle were i  sgeaedaieeeh 
> In the first place there were among them 
ac I nc lave for the regic tikes across the Chan- 


years, wus at ae Ad-ai prelinin 
ish people, it wat held, wehitel be 
home (and, as the Clwistians ade 3 
ef Christ). Barty in ertier gsc: tes | 
plete, it wan: Lege yee im } 
that ferael, or the Low Tena fi 
hudah, W aebaiions: were the 1 
Tie Soensterdar rabbi had. 
de Sis ntege (i ‘Aaron Levi), 
oan deh ae! ae bad come tas 
World, f re religious prach : 
, were of the hihe wf Ret 
‘4 Joba | mi «, Thomas Thor 
2s velit (hvitws utterested. in 
Kins, Who wee eager for a? 
a EY Jopeat fathers, on 
prorciies to tt Te faraplitiah G 
Latiawed he PO kd the English 
the ciouble cespht: a manifesta : 
lewish ¢ sean in Rnglasd, and a, 
rene? wholar tag an ay & 


eoee 


Pe 
“4 


ries CANT ‘he developed 
lsczel’ which be wrete- da Spe ate 
m the story of igeiesinod 2 
lowish ana € ite pent 3 writ ters, 
wat the deraelitigh tribes, scat 
wi waredered from) qty ae 
Herknent, thus carrying the ¢ 
of the globe. That wassia fale 
that, ‘when an end hath been -n 
wattering the holy peopihes$ “the 
plishect. Moreover, in the Doral 
uriy of thee that are dispersed b ! 


IAL 


: 
s 
z 
*) 
a 
=: 
; 
4 


1649] CROMWELL 491 


heaven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather thee.’ 
Scripture, the writer argued, tends to prove that the restora- 
tion under Cyrus was incomplete and that therefore the 
prophecies of a return from the distant parts of the world 
must refer to the future deliverance. Signs of its coming are 
multiplying: on the one hand the untold sufferings of the 
Jewish people, beginning with the expulsion from England 
and concluding with the catastrophe in Spain and Portugal, 
and on the other hand the divine mercy vouchsafed to illus- 
trious Jews exalted to high station, such as Maimonides, 
Abrabanel (the ancestor of Manasseh’s wife), Joseph Nasi, 
and other worthies nearer his own time. 

England had meanwhile become republican (1649). Crom- 
well, who ‘by faith and matchless fortitude to peace and 
truth his glorious way was ploughing,’ dominated the Coun- 
cil of State. He had an eye to the usefulness of the Jews in 
building up British colonial and commercial expansion. A 
small number of Maranos had by that time found their way 
to London, but their presence in the city had hardly come to 
public notice. Cromwell’s interest in the Jews was assuming 
a practical aspect, and Manasseh’s tract came opportunely. 
He rewrote it in Latin, with a dedicatory epistle to the Eng- 
lish Parliament, in which he besought its favor and good- 
will to the scattered Jewish nation. 

Had the treaty of coalition proposed to the Netherlands 
government not miscarried, the Jewish merchants of Amster- 
dam would immediately have been able to establish them- 
selves in England. With the Navigation Act passed, aiming 
as it did to exclude foreign nations from the colonial trade, 
there was a strong desire on the part of Jews carrying on 
trade with the West Indies to obtain a foothold in London. 
Not all Jews of the Dutch metropolis were in sympathy with 
the movement. In the first place there were among them 
Royalists who had no love for the regicides across the Chan- 
nel, and then they shared largely in the Dutch resentment 
of the blow to their shipping trade. 

Overtures to the Jews had come from the British govern- 
ment, and Manasseh was invited to come to England (1652). 


492 AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG [1652-5 


Matters were necessarily suspended during the Dutch war. 
Upon the conclusion of peace, when the policy of the Naviga- 
tion Act was practically maintained, Manasseh’s brother-in- 
law, Manuel Martinez (Abraham Abrabanel) Dormido pro- 
ceeded to England (1654) on his own behalf. He had no 
difficulty in interesting Cromwell in an effort to secure the 
restoration of his property seized by the Portuguese at the 
conquest of Pernambuco. In May, 1655, a second invitation 
to come to England was conveyed to Manasseh; in October 
he arrived in London, where he was received as the guest of 
the Protector of the Commonwealth. 

From his lodgings in the Strand, Manasseh submitted to 
the Protector his ‘Humble Addresses’ in which he appealed 
for the readmission of the Jews to England. The Messianic 
motive was reiterated: ‘this Island’ was necessary to the 
completion of the dispersion upon which the deliverance 
hinged. But in the foreground of the plea were more tangible 
considerations, the benefits to England’s welfare which were 
to accrue from the presence of the Jews. Cromwell was 
entirely sympathetic. In his colonial schemes, especially 
since the acquisition of Jamaica, he had availed himself of 
the advice of London Maranos, chief among whom was 
Simon de Caceres, a relative of Spinoza (p. 496), and a mer- 
chant with large interests in the West Indies. It was even 
planned to colonize Surinam with the Jewish fugitives from 
Brazil. 

Despite Cromwell’s good-will and preponderating influ- 
ence in the Council of State, Manasseh’s appeal met with 
opposition from narrow-minded divines, who brought up the 
usual accusations against the Jews, and particularly from 
the merchants of the City of London who feared Jewish 
competition in trade. At the national conference held at 
Whitehall in December, 1655, a formal declaration was 
elicited from the lawyers present that there was nothing in 
the English law to prevent the settlement of Jews in Eng- ? 
land. But the question of desirability still hung in the bal- 
ance. Prynne’s hastily written pamphlet, ‘A Short Demurrer,’ 
drew from Manasseh a spirited reply (‘Vindiciae Judae- 


* 


_ READMISSION 10 ENGLAND 493 


‘ith i: Spada, Lhe natural, the providential enemy 
brought matters to a climax. The Maranos were 
panish subjects, and pursuant to the proclama- 
| 1656, their possessions were subject te seizure. 
tonio Rodrigues Robies, a wealthy Marano 
merchant, was ultimately decided in his faver, 
Of his being a Jew fleeing from the Inquisition. 
y were free to throw off their former allegiance. 
ie ot openty, Were: tacitly readmitted; their 

Deeg at; it was a sort of backdoor adimis- 
s rit is true, failed to win for the Jews open 
dren i soit: Yet ‘the very fattans of his 
t Detter results than lis success inight have 

~ An oficial act lit favor of the Jews would 
ICCC Hed undoubiedly by special legistation, 
, ee placed thes: at a disadvantage as com- 
h other Citizens. This mes Jews were or The 


e for the holding od abe vine services, ar bebe 


’ 


bplace was acquired. The lews cemtinued to be 
Daag the Restoration. fh 1054. lacob Sasportaa, 
‘accompanied Manaseeh on hiv mission, became 
of the community, bul a yeur larer, owing to the 
a Plague, he accepted a siinilar position in 


9 comamnunity of Hamburg warnbered then about 
red and twent) families. Porisguese Maranos had 
in di ing the sixteenth century: by the beginning of 
mteenth their presence bad hecume noticeable, and 
at of residence, i in consi sie ation of a yearly tax, was 


i by the senate. As e ar $6at, they possessed a 
2 ag Torah, in the house of Elijah Aboab 


t Altona; i in 1627 = ‘y havi a stall place of wor-— 


g other prominent tle of the ee 


“pony detion of the. 


difficulty i in interesting pitas: ' 
resturation of his property seize 
conquest of Pernanebinia In Mi 
to come to England was com 
he arrived in London, where h 
the: Protector of the Commony 

From his lodgings im the § 
the Protector his ‘Humble A 
for the readinission of the Je 
motive was reikerated ‘this. 


hinged. But in the: hetaubien of 
consicer aticaa,;' t the henehts to. 2 
io accrue froin the presence 
entirely sympa thethe, tn hen 
since ai acl quisition of Jai 


Slovan det “nceten, 8 1 obedient 
chang. with large interests in th 
plannet ta colendze Surinam with 


Despite Cromwell's gnod- a 
ence in the Couentl af State; I 
Sp POoe FOn 3 Tretia ie eonbelndetl 
usual accusations wagainat the Je 
the terchante of athe Laity of (3 
competinon int trae, Ait the - 
unig a” Decumber,  1655,: 
ictted. fram the Teves pret 
ihe English law t prevent the se 
and. But se juestion of desirabth 
ange. Pryrne’s hastily written pai 1 
Grew from Daneel a spitited yey 


1656-64] READMISSION TO ENGLAND 493 


orum,’ 1656) in which the Jews were vindicated against 
hateful charges. 

The war with Spain, ‘the natural, the providential enemy 
of England,’ brought matters to a climax. The Maranos were 
nominally Spanish subjects, and pursuant to the proclama- 
tion of March, 1656, their possessions were subject to seizure. 
The case of Antonio Rodrigues Robles, a wealthy Marano 
and Spanish merchant, was ultimately decided in his favor, 
on the ground of his being a Jew fleeing from the Inquisition. 
The Maranos were free to throw off their former allegiance. 
The Jews, if not openly, were tacitly readmitted; their 
presence was connived at; it was a sort of backdoor admis- 
sion. Manasseh, it is true, failed to win for the Jews open 
readmission into England. He returned to Amsterdam dis- 
appointed and broken in spirit. Yet the very failure of his 
mission brought better results than his success might have 
made possible. An official act in favor of the Jews would 
have been accompanied undoubtedly by special legislation, 
which would have placed them at a disadvantage as com- 
pared with other citizens. This the Jews were spared. The 
Marano families were enabled to live as Jews; an arrange- 
ment was made for the holding of divine services, and ground 
for a burial-place was acquired. The Jews continued to be 
tolerated during the Restoration. In 1664, Jacob Sasportas, 
who had accompanied Manasseh on his mission, became 
minister of the community, but a year later, owing to the 
outbreak of the plague, he accepted a similar position in 
Hamburg. | 

The Jewish community of Hamburg numbered then about 
one hundred and twenty families. Portuguese Maranos had 
drifted in during the sixteenth century; by the beginning of 
the seventeenth their presence had become noticeable, and 
their right of residence, in consideration of a yearly tax, was 
granted by the senate. As early as 1611, they possessed a 
cemetery at Altona; in 1627 they had a small place of wor- 
ship, styled Talmud Torah, in the house of Elijah Aboab 
Cardoso. Among other prominent members of the com- 
munity were the physician Rodrigo de Castro (since 1594), 


494 AMSTERDAM AND HAMBURG [1671 


who by special grant of the senate was permitted to own real 
estate in the city, and the physician, philosopher, and lin- 
guist Benjamin Mussafia. The Portuguese Jews were engaged 
in the import business and took part in the foundation of the 
Bank of Hamburg (1619). 

By 1652 two other synagogues had been opened, and the 
three together were consolidated into one large congregation, 
Beth Israel, with the learned David Cohen de Lara (died 
1674) as chief rabbi. Jacob Sasportas was attached to a small 
synagogue and school (Beth ha-Midrash) founded by Man- 
uel (Isaac) Texeira, minister resident of Queen Christina of 
Sweden. German Jews were less fortunate in being admitted 
to the city. Some fifteen of the wealthier families had escaped 
the order of expulsion of 1648. After 1654 other German 
Jews drifted in, but for the most part they belonged to the 
poorer classes, eking out a living as small shopkeepers. Until 
1671 the German congregation was subsidized by the Por- 
tuguese Jews and remained under their control. A separate 
organization was effected afterwards, consisting of the three 
communities, Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck, under the 
jurisdiction of the chief rabbi of Altona. 


CHAPTER LXV 
DA COSTA AD BARU CH SPLEGZA 
(phes-1 2, 


Hein ies morthera eetnmnities arr ti tra- 

het 5 res. The Se ‘ioveddie: (; es a amet eer LUE rege; 

st — er, or haham., wna iM ne oxuactts corapare in Awarh 

| Airlie th an Avhhenazic (Cres man oy 

2) een, t ager a hoeher cultural levebia 

se communities, acl ge nun who were ress 

vides excellad in weculee Karrine. Religious die 

: enety mameipat. Peiape it was that the 

fewe, by reasoa wf tieir wariy cwociations wiih 

ge istires te Seclactice} controls er re 

ich they hud Acierpncte re vivier te End ther 

0 the ancestral faith cervei ts onhonce the warch : 
Bspossession. Buk ad. reath re widined cmsthae tt 

tl Other to 7 nies viene. ‘ren. herctasdr 

Ment win) Fie stwachccacey St Ameterdam on 
i to two Of iis disietics. ot peu —o it. every way 

) sweet examples hi the Pate tun hone ay 
firatecase ender! in tragedy. fhe ov! grvolvnd the 
btn thinker wins tepid himeelf on the 

hic tho ght of madris me “Cite! db Chetachubeutt 
came to Ameterderm fies !tortugal sone time 

1 wand 1618. Of & gued beta). be had etaudied 

; had. been appointed e<cx-r of acnbuch 

g 101 rat his clans, fein. Sturieus teach uyeitrt- 

. S iahalets in Arnetendue Se ated his four 
miittéd inte’ the covert The Casiity, ae 
ta branch of its rome 19. Ham are, ard 
Seiel there. Fravt Mace we i “oont hia - £, 
ast Tradition’ to the Scphewtin commmuanity of er 
bidding Leon da Micaiase (px. SQ) prepared MOP rs 


~ “aagaaa to recast, ick! 2 aeOREqueRte i 
495 iia 


snaal at Te! ‘ 
Pa 4 si * soy . 
—< -* et | 7 
23 rv 7 bys i” 4 4 
a at a aes J ve: 3 
re 4 a & ee Py + Sau Pee ns : J 
A i Sth 2 fai ay 


wih by special grant Of the ost a 
estate in the city, and the physi 
quist Benjamin Museafia, The Por 
im the import business. and took part 
wae k of Hambure (1619)... 

Ay isi 52 ewes » other syne; 


oe “a aes! oid the Jeamed p 
1674) an chief rabbi Jaco i 
sypagugue Dh echool (Beth b 
et | nef i Temeiva, minister | 
Sawedicars (ea hmat Jews were less 
oy the an . Sumtie fifteen of the 
the orler a> expulsion afb 
ir we united is, but for. the. 
re wre figs ni eking out a liv 
‘a, . te (oer congregal 
ruygaese Fee ane onsen 
Devt dation wes effected | 
tthe Pea AT ee Altona, Ham De 


ee ee,” ee oe ee OO 


CHAPTER LXVI 
URIEL DA COSTA AND BARUCH SPINOZA 
(1585-1677) 


EWISH life in these northern communities moved in tra- 
ditional grooves. The Sephardic (Spanish-Portuguese) 
minister, or haham, could by no means compare in depth 

of talmudic knowledge with an Ashkenazic (German or 
Polish) rabbi. There was, however, a higher cultural level in 
the Portuguese communities, and the men who were their 
spiritual guides excelled in secular learning. Religious dis- 
cipline was rigorously maintained. Perhaps it was that the 
Sephardic Jews, by reason of their early associations with 
Catholicism, were inured to ecclesiastical control; or the 
hardships which they had undergone in order to find their 
way back to the ancestral faith served to enhance the worth 


_of the rewon possession. But it really required neither the 


one thing nor the other to oppose deviation from practice or 
belief. The treatment which the community of Amsterdam 
accorded to two of its dissidents comported in every way 
with more ancient examples in the Palestinian home. 

If the first case ended in tragedy, the second involved the 
loss to Judaism of a thinker who impressed himself on the 
philosophic thought of modern times. Uriel da Costa (about 
1585-1640) came to Amsterdam from Portugal some time 
between 1612 and 1615. Of a good family, he had studied 
canon law and had been appointed treasurer of a church. 
But like many another of his class, this Marano had experi- 
enced a longing for Judaism; in Amsterdam he and his four 
brothers were admitted into the covenant. The family, it 
seems, established a branch of its business in Hamburg, and 
in 1616 we find Uriel there. From Hamburg he sent his 
‘Proposals against Tradition’ to the Sephardic community of 
Venice, at whose bidding Leon da Modena (p. 510) prepared 
a refutation. Uriel refused to recant, and as a consequence 


495 


496 URIEL DA COSTA AND BARUCH SPINOZA [1618-40 


was publicly excommunicated at Venice (August 14, 1618). 
The decree was also announced at Hamburg. The heretic, 
however, had in the meantime returned to Amsterdam. 
From the very beginning, the ideal Uriel had constructed 
of Judaism from the reading of the Scriptures, clashed with 
the realities of Jewish life as they presented themselves in 
Amsterdam and in Hamburg. He possessed neither the learn- 
ing nor the insight into history to understand the process of 
development from the Bible onward. He still operated with 
the Christian conception of ‘Pharisaic’ Judaism as the anti- 
thesis to biblical prophetism. He could not find in the Scrip- 
tures the clear-cut doctrines of the immortality of the soul 
and of retribution in another world. He was neither a clear 
thinker nor a strong character. He was denounced to the city 
government and imprisoned; he recanted (1633) only to 
lapse back into his errors. From opposition to the oral law 
he came to disbelief in the Bible. He emancipated himself 
from accepted religious practices and dreamed of a deistic 
natural religion with a minimum of obligations. Excom- 
municated by the rabbinate, he again became penitent and 
submitted to disciplinary humiliation in the presence of the 
congregation gathered in the synagogue. This degradation so 
preyed upon his mind that after writing his ‘Exemplar 
Humanae Vitae,’ in which he vindicated himself and bitterly 
condemned his opponents, he took his own life (1640). 
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza (1632-1677) was born in 
Amsterdam, of a Marano family which had left Portugal in 
the first quarter of the century. His father Michael was a 
merchant in fair circumstances and held repeatedly the office 
of warden of the synagogue. The young Baruch received his 
early training under Morteira and Manasseh Ben-Israel, 
perusing the writings of the rationalists Ibn Ezra and Mai- 
monides, familiarizing himself with the criticisms of the 
Maimonidian system by Levi son of Gershon and Crescas, 
and snatching glimpses of the theosophical mysticism of the 
cabalists. His instruction in Latin Spinoza obtained from the 
physician Franz van den Ende, a man of erratic and rebel- 
lious temperament, who instilled in his pupils a love for the 


“SPINOZA EXCOMMUNIC ATED 497 


» ssedbaciatenapenata and wnorthodox opinions. Through the por- 
aul gained access to the writings of Des- 
te er 561650 Vhus from two #ies came powerful 
li which operated in developing Syrra's philosophic 
nt and resulted | jn alienating him for the synagogue. 
uly as a boy of fifteen he plied his ses inical teachers 
questic bwhich indicated the trent of 2s miiact, it 
to b sbruited about that hie unorth«xies as eines were 
. ipa laxity of religious observa. “i was siuim- 
prabbinical college to give an ac oon! of himgell, 
: 1 to recede from his Sonitiialt thet fw was free to 
4 himaclf in accordance with bs. own lights. . 
-temporaril ‘excluded from commana: with his 
ists, _ in the hope that he Saar gens and thus 
pub ic scandal. ‘The lighter disciplinary oysaeire dad 
ei | heavily ‘on the offender, who had ‘yy Stet tame 
in certain Christian circles. He way S*ered an 
4, on condition that he would at leaet eenform 
noza spurned the offer, ant whe » /anatic 
sful atternpt to stab him in the ig ‘ot leit 
cup his abode in a neighboring vives wach @ 
ed to the unorthodox sect of o%% ‘calles 
pza had burned his bridges beh 1 Sm and 
from the Jewish communies, “+ the 
ynarogue pranminced upon hide abe Gpqrous 
a act took place in the synagogay & & Shurs- 
of Ab (July 22), 1656, ‘with the men of the 
i this hely congregation, int the servence of. 
which are contained six | hunt wa aah thir- 
nents,’ the faithful being wale against 


4 


cation of Stora was rem anaes a mat- 
sing discipline within. It was reve inspired 
- Voinwing aff corporate respensibility for 
d subversive of all religion, including the 


> to the city government. { No svsiceeaiaaid 


xs accursed heretic and the seivhng of his 


| ordi sly, Spinoza was denounced by the elders | 


“ae Zee: TRIEL DA costa AND 


ayes publicly exrommunicated at 
“The decree waa also. announced 
however, hacl if the. meantime re | 
From the very beginning, the i 
of Juclaisin from the reading of 
the realities ivf jewish life as. fF 
Amsterdam aiviin Hamburg, Ne 
ing uot the sosigght 3 inte history: 
develooment from the Bible-on 
the Christian’ conception ot!/Ph 
thesis to bikdieal prophetism. He 
Lures tar Jearout doctrines: 
and of ret heion mm another 
ihinker sor-a strong Character, 
POVETIET IE and imprisoned; | 
lapse back inte his ertors, Ft 
Ne came to disbelief in the Bi 
from arcepred religious practi 
nviural relent with a mine 
municated tye fhe rabbinate, he. 
abt th disciplinary hum 
congregation gathered in thes 
preven — hie avind that 
Him anae vite a” in which hes i} 
condemned bis apponents, he took 
preven (Renedict) Spinesar {i 
Amsterdam, ef a Marane fami 
the first one of the sid 
merchant in fair cireumetances a) 
if warden: of tee evuagogue. The 
e isis training inder Morteira a 
re rising they Ww citings of the ral 
monides, familiarizing himself 
Maimonidian syste by Levis 
aact snatching glimpses of the th 
mavahsets. Hj 5 (riety Ec tion: in Ladi 
giysician Prone wan den Ende, a) 
Dye temperament, wha: instilled | 


~, 


1656] SPINOZA EXCOMMUNICATED 497 


natural sciences and unorthodox opinions. Through the por- 
tal of Latin, Spinoza gained access to the writings of Des- 
cartes (1596-1650). Thus from two sides came powerful 
stimuli which operated in developing Spinoza’s philosophic 
thought and resulted in alienating him from the synagogue. 

Already as a boy of fifteen he plied his rabbinical teachers 
with questions which indicated the trend of his mind. It 
came to be bruited about that his unorthodox opinions were 
translated into a laxity of religious observance. He was sum- 


-moned by the rabbinical college to give an account of himself, 


but he declined to recede from his position that he was free to 
think and conduct himself in accordance with his own lights. 
He was temporarily excluded from communion with his 
coreligionists, in the hope that he would repent and thus 
avoid a public scandal. The lighter disciplinary measure did 
not weigh heavily on the offender, who had by that time 
made friends in certain Christian circles. He was offered an 
annual pension, on condition that he would at least conform 
outwardly. Spinoza spurned the offer, and when a fanatic 
made an unsuccessful attempt to stab him in the dark, heleft 
the city and took up his abode in a neighboring village with a 
friend who belonged to the unorthodox sect of the Colle- 
giants. Thus Spinoza had burned his bridges behind him and 
had withdrawn from the Jewish communion, before the 
elders of the synagogue pronounced upon him the rigorous 


ban. This solemn act took place in the synagogue on Thurs- 


— 


day, the sixth of Ab (July 27), 1656, ‘with the consent of the 
Blessed God and this holy congregation, in the presence of 
the holy scrolls in which are contained six hundred and thir- 
teen commandments,’ the faithful being warned against 
intercourse with the accursed heretic and the reading of his 
writings. 

This excommunication of Spinoza was not merely a mat- 
ter of maintaining discipline within. It was rather inspired 


by the motive of throwing off corporate responsibility for 


views which seemed subversive of all religion, including the 
Christian. Accordingly, Spinoza was denounced by the elders 
of the synagogue to the city government. No serious conse- 


498 URIEL DA COSTA AND BARUCH SPINOZA 


quences followed immediately, the quarrel apparently being — 
considered an internal one. Spinoza drew up a protest, which 
was later expanded into the ‘Theologico-political Tractate.’ — 
The publication of this work anonymously (in 1670) pro- | 
voked a veritable storm which led to its being condemned by ~ 
the Church authorities and peremptorily suppressed by the 
States General. Yet the author showed a studied deference 
to Jesus and the apostles, and his criticism was leveled 
against the faith he had forsaken rather than against Chris- 
tianity into which he would not enter. The plea for liberty — 
of philosophical speculation within the state he supported 
by a distinction between philosophy, which has to do with © 
knowledge ascertained by logical deduction, and religion, — 
which is concerned with obedience and conduct. Such, he © 
maintained, was the religion of the Old Testament; Mosaism 
was a polity designed for the Jewish state during its exist- — 
ence in Palestine, inculcating obedience in its citizens and © 
holding out to them the promise of temporal blessings. 
Hence the contention that the covenant, by which the © 
Jewish state was created, ceased to be binding (in its en- 
tirety, be it noted) with the fall of the state. Hence also the ~ 
curious notion that the retention of the greater part of the © 
Law by the ‘Pharisees’ was inspired by opposition to Chris- — 
tianity rather than by the desire to please God. According to ~ 
Spinoza, the observance of these rites, like circumcision, so- 
contrary to those of other nations and making for separative- 
ness, suffices to account for the universal hatred in which 
the Jewish people is held as well as for its persistence during — 
so many centuries of dispersion. He adds his conviction that, 
unless the Jews are weakened by the fundamentals of their — 
religion, it is not at all impossible that, given the opportu- — 
nity, they will once more erect their state and again become 
the elect of God.°The conviction, be it said, was not the — 
product of theoretical reasoning; it was borne in upon him | 
by the actual events of his day (p. 563) an echo of which — 
reached his quiet study. 
In order to leave the philosopher free in the pursuit of — 
truth, Spinoza endeavored to prove that prophecy was not 


See yA tgs ‘ | 
| — $ BIBLICAL CRITCHAN £99 


<<. ee 


magir re The notion a. x hat whe imbonhess 
be bast peor seas io rkar’ qvaarte. Dagt upon 
1 the Scrip g thenwelves, Tue o> sing wf Scrip- 
con om Scripture no forex 4 Mapai should 
Mit. Spinoga ch ven proceeds pa how ivew diffi- 
Pat the sense of the ambigiusn: Lee pal dicwvon, 
e » the text ie not Searyeth it he Corsves) form, 
w aecribed to certain 4h ees were not, 
: mat all, This, tied ih thes & get's welled 
the Mosaic authorship of sir “eecameisch 
Ton the question is te the eur cen the 
of the Bible, beginning wee weenie ane 
Book: of Rangs, constitam ash orek, writ 
= ‘ by E Fara. it ip true that Peele pee) the 
neth jeat Sy sHeal Crititaean > 7%. tha ee has 
Pw Hebrew Schipihures. came’ ve be Se Ter: as 
ype thought nor as Comrphrete . & tyler in 
made it out t be 
ad his host to Rosh 3 feeiae ¢ ie Beer 
place WHIZ ear: 4 OF the Abu ~ sted: Senter 
pital itself. Hie feed most fries eae 
fhe grinding  fensce; a {friewt Sty Pits os 
which he acereved in part , Be hee ei eed 
sine -s, and Wak Visi pe by i PR. BREA 
r brought hive ah trvitatium &s spr ews co 
. eke se wees by ae REL HRD 


ri vee ebinigsic per ae aes 
fer Work, “The Efi.” #2: Gan) os pe jated 


LOS hical SVSOGE: Sees sill nie he man- 
atical propositiexg, is a2! atheism, 
rested upon the qr ‘Matic Niet £ bee jewish 
38 “The Unity of Godt sa ‘ion ot in wae GEMS Ve 
left :no room for the Lnhvereie ey seat eae Whether 
au od or hsiiahad malien ac 2 Soaccnies far God is 


neences | alae — 1c iately, » the a rel 


¢ Leet sept 
Le 4 cet; led Tt} i> 
4 a oe Be P : 
3 $u Wet A? Lae 
+ wees 4 4 Fy! oe reeryi wh Bi h edie 
Boi et VRE Aes o & & at 
r be: ae ‘ a = i oe ’ F nd “ 
Church authorities ar beter. 
a» 5 3 r eA 
| Ges § seTyerae ¥ Ht the 
4 ‘she cee 
7 pS a 458 » seat 5 
inst the farth hea 
ee | bi 
Panty Fhi + Freee 
yr ta at tte 
s 4 LAs eas 


Spinoza. the obsermaner = of these 


C evry ea 
ALLE 14 


i 


weyH wwlerge Se certain by kperse: 


vy the acai es’ wad ins 
nity rather es he desire to F 


eee 


TESS, BU “ oes to qteoent hae th 
ie ; eye ets Pepe AS 4 bast as we 
; naan te Vet eg anF apersion 


2 . ; 
’ 4 - 3 se 
oe S| st t¢ TA are q 


nity, they will once’ a one p erect 
“ert te ou 


reached tis cpuiet tat) 


SPINOZA’S BIBLICAL CRITICISM 499 


arrived at by the exercise of the reasoning faculties, but by 
heightened imagination. The notion of what the prophets 
were should not be based upon theories of our own, but upon 
the data in the Scriptures themselves. The meaning of Scrip- 
ture must come from Scripture, no foreign thoughts should 
be injected into it. Spinoza then proceeds to show how diffi- 
cult it is to get at the sense of the ambiguous biblical diction, 
how, moreover, the text is not always in its original form, 
and, lastly, how books ascribed to certain authors were not 
written by them at all. Thus, starting with Ibn Ezra’s veiled 
hints, he denies the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. 
His own thought on the question is to the effect that the 
historical books of the Bible, -beginning with Genesis and 
ending with the Book of Kings, constitute one book, writ- 
ten, as he believes, by Ezra. It is true that Spinoza laid the 
foundation for methodical biblical criticism; but the process 
by which the Hebrew Scriptures came to be is neither as 
simple as Spinoza thought nor as complicated as his modern 
successors have made it out to be. 

Spinoza followed his host to Rhijnsburg near Leiden; later 
he removed to a place within reach of the Hague and lastly 
to the Dutch capital itself. He lived most frugally, sustain- 
ing himself by the grinding of ‘lenses; a friend left him a 
small annuity, which he accepted in part. He had a host of 
friends and admirers, and was visited by Leibniz. His reputa- 
tion as a thinker brought him an invitation to become pro- 
fessor of philosophy in the university of Heidelberg. Spinoza 
declined the honor, preferring the tranquillity of his sur- 
roundings, away from the distracting labors of a teacher. He 
spent his time in concentrated thought and in the prepara- 
tion of his chief work, ‘The Ethics,’ which was not printed 
until after his death. 

Spinoza’s philosophical system, developed after the man- 
ner of mathematical propositions, was a mystical pantheism, 
which largely rested upon the speculations of his Jewish 
predecessors. The Unity of God was for him so conclusive 
that it left no room for the universe outside Him. Whether 
we say God or Nature, makes no difference; for God is 


500 URIEL DA COSTA AND BARUCH SPINOZA 


realized in the order of the universe, and the universe is a * 


manifestation of God. God is the one Substance, twoof whose — 
attributes are Extension and Thought. He isin the corporeal _ 


world and in the mind alike. Nothing outside God can 
modify Him, but He is capable of infinite self-determining. 3 
Man attains freedom only by willing what God wills; com- ~ 
pleteimmersion in God is loving Him intellectually. 3 
Spinoza has been called the ‘God-intoxicated’ man. Other — 
Jewish thinkers before him had striven to conceive God as — 
in-dwelling (immanent) in the universe, and Spinoza might ~ 
well have remained within the Jewish communion. Judaism — 
was far from that rigidity with which Spinoza invested it, © 
just as he failed to comprehend the undying power of the 
community from which he sprang and the rich spiritual life 
by which it was sustained. 


i apace REFUGE 
tree. #663) 


mathe political disucion which made-of 
e of :. reget pereer to the 


sags "elore Gey ent ga CR th Wie ig Fe 
‘Adriatic. Jsaac a (437-509) 
: dorm of Naples when hic ete to avert 
bat expulsion proved feily, This gifted 
Glar came of one of the chie and moat 
t agiliien of Spain. He wise born in 


leecpend be ee 1. Of abet the eal 


© of Braganua: his fortuse ao! valuable 
ited, and he barely escayws woh ‘sis life 


the books of joshua, Judges ss) sionuel. 
pwWork 25 commentator at ° core when the 
Op te sit his ered hack to the sational 


nd dt. of Naples (1458- +46 and his suc- 
mere iad to employ the talented financier. 
ft, Was cut short sak the Ad enh — 


neo made ie necessary fer nim to pa is 
ec #% Monopoli i in Apulia and lastly in 
Beet bik sine Joseph, whe was a physician 
t at Mepzin in Calabyia. In Venice, the 
e mie ssepe for diplomatic business in 


: eens between the Venetian 
bat 


i Beets arenrifather ba hail commoved. After 


There he eutered! the serves Sots Catholic - 
iwehitiself of the internicser’ i2 write a 


s 


4 avin Sa we, | Ae - . ae : (2 ile weet 
i a . T ‘Te Pas 1 o ‘wee oT “opey ) *ee0 se se ee 


ayy 


realived in the order: of che universe, « 
manifestation of God. God is the ones 
attributes are Extension and Though 
weed and in’ the mind alike, Ne 
ne modify I im, but He is capable of. 

fan attaing freedom only by wilt 
‘Slee warnersion ‘in God is piles 

Spinoza has been called the 4 
lewish thinkers before hita bud 
in-dweNing (inumanent) in thet 
we'l aie remained within the 
wis fax, from that rigidity with 
just ag he failed to comprer 


community frem whieli he — | 


bie i i 

by which it was sustained. 

¢é 4% 

ad 
hig 

+ 

tae a 
“—e 
. ‘ % 


CHAPTER LXVII 
THE ITALIAN REFUGE 
(1492-1663) 


TALY, by reason of her political disunion which made of 
| her an agglomerate of states, offered herself to the 
Jewish exiles as a domicile which, if uprooted in one 
dominion, could be planted in another; at least, they paused 
there for a while before they passed on to the friendlier 
empire across the Adriatic. Isaac Abrabanel (1437-1509) 
turned to the kingdom of Naples when his efforts to avert 
the Spanish decree of expulsion proved futile. This gifted 
statesman and scholar came of one of the oldest and most 
distinguished Jewish families of Spain. He was born in 
Lisbon, whither his father or grandfather had removed. After 
the death of Alphonso V. of Portugal, whom he had served as 
treasurer, he was accused by John II. of abetting the con- 
spiracy of the Duke of Braganza; his fortune and valuable 
library wére confiscated, and he barely escaped with his life 
to Castile (1483). There he entered the service of the Catholic 
Sovereigns, availing himself of the intermission to write a 
commentary on the books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. 
_ He returned to his work as commentator at Naples when the 
calamity of his people brought his mind back to the national 
catastrophe narrated in the Book of Kings. 

King Ferdinand I. of Naples (1458-1494) and his suc- 
cessor Alphonso were glad to employ the talented financier. 
The respite, however, was cut short by the French occupa- 
tion of the city, and Abrabanel followed the court to Sicily. 
The death of Alphonso made it necessary for him to flee to 
Corfu; then he settled at Monopoli in Apulia and lastly in 
Venice at the house of his son Joseph, who was a physician 
established. at first at Reggio in Calabria. In Venice, the 
father found once more scope for diplomatic business in 
negotiating a commercial treaty between the Venetian 


501 


502 | THE ITALIAN REFUGE [1518 


republic and Portugal. However, he was broken in spirit, 


with his family scattered and his fortune gone; he found ~ 


solace in literary work, completing his commentary on the ‘ 
major part of the Bible. He also wrote on philosophy and 
devoted considerable attention to the Messianic doctrine, — 


the anchor in Israel’s tribulations. 


His eldest son, Judah Leo Medigo (referred to by Chris- 4 
tians as Leo the Hebrew), was physician to Gonzalo de — 
Cordova, the conqueror and viceroy of Naples, who ruled — 
the kingdom in the name of Ferdinand the Catholic. The — 


Great Captain would not countenance the banishment of the — 
Jews of Naples, on the plea that there were not many of ~ 


them and that those few would transfer their industry and © 


wealth to Venice, thus enriching the rival northern city. ‘ 
However, the immigrant Maranos were not left in peace by : 
Ferdinand, and the Inquisition was set up at Benevento. — 
Soon the viceroy was dismissed (1507); Leo withdrew to. e 
Genoa and subsequently rejoined his father at Venice. He 
was a grief-stricken man, his only son Isaac having been — 


detained in Portugal and forcibly baptized. He followed — 
medicine as a vocation; but his leisure hours were devoted to 


astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy, and these inter-_ ? 
ests brought him in contact with Pico della Mirandola. Leo — 
caught the spirit of Neo-Platonism then cultivated by Italian f 


humanists; the conception of affection as the basic principle 
of the universe he made the theme of his Dialogues on Loved 
written in polished Italian. 

The youngest son of Isaac Abrabanel, Samuel (1473—_ : 


5 


= 


aes 


1550), was sent to Saloniki to perfect his talmudical learning. — ; 
He lived for a time at Ferrara, and then at Naples, where q 
the viceroy Don Pedro de Toledo engaged him as financial x 
agent. He amassed a considerable fortune which he employed ~ 
generously to relieve distress among his unhappy brethren. 
Since the community was too small to have a salaried min- — 


ister, he installed at his own expense David Ibn Yahya, a 


refugee from Portugal, as rabbi (1518). At Samuel’s house & 


this well-instructed scholar delivered learned discourses. 


Many another student found welcome there. It was said of 


THE FURRARA COMMUNITY? 503 


t he was thrice great-—in tearcing, in aoble sta- 
a wealth His gecond wife. Henvenida, was noted 
courtly. manners, The vieveroy regarded it as 

Sdaughter Leonora to wan late with the cul- 
wed alter the acble 


Te Y : reyes Weer 


his wife wert able to stay (he oseciution at the 
jort tune, atteneth the distungaohed palr retwed 
— jews jaund a refin) & at Atconayt tet 


pores Of Este had weltoueet the rediares 
_ ey: wearof their ex 1 ot, Heregiew f. 
te -Perrara tweety families thet 
OL ‘ aed these were scorn weaned oy arama 
he imnenigr: ante took art avviis nost in dowel 
merce ol the <ity, but etre ao: spared the 
Sa iacdive baticge, With: 4s. jewish oom 
ihe Own separate eye. rabon, with 
schol, and: burial-greiwis, 1551, the 

as their CWT Synageey=. “a % ecici teen Sy 
Native-Ttalian heruses oS «i .ctcp. Ferbare 
Dulwark of religious fitment e yoo heextiqn: 
(1597), The pseemeleieg ston visited tie 
mimber of poorer § Bae pssciinee- bgt 
ken care Of by the waattixier sacnbers oF ti 
‘calamity brought tha: veer er sections ae 


= 


4 


elements; langats wea the leadership 
yel’s son re Re sage W 
le the Seyihmaeiix. few. < _ hee wre 
ad his aunt Gite. a we bave seemdip. 
ss in the frye Me | WF sone as a 
gateway pai: snares eine Oo 


if peak ea Reet: pe, Meany cand his- 
and als jst HR of NOM-Jewish 
» Hie — he si kaaed 


‘expelling the Jews free ‘Noples: Though 


organization ace soclerted whieh: 


ess, ‘TRE ITALIAN 2) 
—. and i ortugal. However, 
with his family scattered and his. 
enlace in literary work, eompleting 
niajor part of the Bible, He alsa: 
devoted + celal attention 
- the anchor tn Israels : tribulations.” 
His eldest son, Judah Leo Me 
tians as s Lae, the Hebrew), was: 
Cordova, the conquerdr and vit 
kingdon in the name of F 
sreat Captain would not oo 1 
 lewa ¢ of Naple es, On the plea 
ther’ and that those few would's 
wealth to Venice, thus efi ' 
However, the tnumigrant. A 
Fertlinand, and the Inqaist 
Soon the viceroy wus.disr 
Genoa and subsequently 30 
was 2 ¢rief-etricken: man, Tt 
detained tn Portugal and fore 
medicine ag @ Maresnaish bie! 


catoht the -apieitok seca mY 
humaciana; the conception © 
of the voberse’ he made 
written iv polished Italian 
The youagest son of 
(550), weak sent to Salontl 
He livett fora time at 
the viceroy Deon: Pedro. ae 
went. He; amassed a consi 
generously 6" relieve dist 
Since the community: was 
ister, he installed at his. 
refugee from Portugal as 
this Wei it instructed 
“Many another student, fo 


1471-1597] THE FERRARA COMMUNITY 503 


Samuel that he was thrice great—in learning, in noble sta- 
tion, and in wealth. His second wife, Benvenida, was noted 
for piety and courtly manners. The viceroy regarded it as 
profitable for his daughter Leonora to associate with the cul- 
tured Jewess, and the friendship continued after the noble 
lady had become duchess of Tuscany. Charles V., however, 
was bent upon expelling the Jews from Naples. Though 
Samuel and his wife were able to stay the execution of the 
edict for a short time, at length the distinguished pair retired 
to Ferrara. The other Jews found a refuge at Ancona or fled 
to Turkey. 

The dukes of the house of Este had welcomed the refugees 
from Spain in the very year of their expulsion. Hercules I. 
(1471-1505) admitted to Ferrara twenty-one families that 
had landed at Genoa, and these were soon joined by Maranos 
from Portugal. The immigrants took an active part in devel- 
oping the commerce of the city, but were not spared the 
ignominy of the distinctive badge. Within the Jewish com- 
munity, they had their own separate organization, with 
synagogues, rabbi, school, and burial-ground. In 1531, the 
German Jews erected their own synagogue, in addition to 
the Sephardic and native-Italian houses of worship. Ferrara 
continued to be a bulwark of religious liberty until the extinc- 
tion of the Estes (1597). The earthquake which visited the 
city in 1570 made a number of poorer Jews homeless, but 
they were well taken care of by the wealthier members of the 
community. The calamity brought the various sections to- 
gether, and a communal organization was perfected which 
included the several elements, largely under the leadership 
of Joseph Abrabanel’s son Isaac. The Germans worshiped 
with the Italians, while the Sephardic Jews clung to their own 
rite. Joseph Nasi and his aunt Gracia, as we have seen (p. 
487), found a refuge in the city; the Usques lived here; so 
did Azariah dei Rossi (1514-1578), who, however, was of 
native Italian stock. This scholar was far ahead of his times 
in applying scientific method to Jewish literary and his- 
torical questions, and also in making use of non-Jewish 
sources in his researches. His work ‘The Light of Eyes’ 


504 | THE ITALIAN REFUGE [1521-2 


(published in Mantua, 1573-1575) is replete with erudition 
derived from Jewish and Christian books. 


In 1597, the duchy was added to the Papal States. Clem- 


ent VIII. (1592-1605) committed the administration to his 
nephew, Cardinal Aldobrandini. When he entered the city of 
Ferrara, the populace shouted: ‘Down with the Jews.’ About 
one half of the Jews left for Modena, Venice, and Mantua. 
Those that remained were subjected to restrictions of all 
kinds, and in 1624 the ghetto was instituted. As in the other 
cities in the Papal States, the Jews of Ferrara were compelled 
to listen regularly to conversionist sermons. Such sermons 
had been ordered by Nicholas III. in 1278, but it was not 
till 1584 that Gregory XIII. made weekly attendance of one 
hundred Jews and fifty Jewesses compulsory. It was part of 
the Catholic reaction, known as the Counter-Reformation, 
and the consolidation of the unity of the Roman Church 
through the Council of Trent (begun in 1545 and closed 
in 1563). 

Back of that period, the situation of the Jews in the Papal 
States had been on the whole more tolerable than anywhere 
else in Italy. Alexander VI. (1492-1503), the Borgia pope, 
was absorbed in the aggrandizement of his family; Julius IT. 
(1503-1513) was occupied with shaking off dependence on 
France; Leo X. (1513-1521), the humanist in the seat of 
St. Peter, gave his attention to safeguarding his dynastic 
interests by playing off France and Germany one against the 
other. Clement VII. (1523-1534), the second Medicean pope, 
truly merited the title of a prince gracious to Israel which a 
Jewish writer of the day bestowed upon him. Not only did 
this pope confer privileges upon certain Jewish physicians 
and their families, but he also suffered Marano fugitives 
from Portugal to settle in Ancona and profess their Judaism 
openly. Moreover, he gave sanction to a new constitution by 
which the community of Rome henceforward managed its 
internal affairs. 

With the conquest of two bulwarks of Chiistendene Bel- 
grade (1521) and Rhodes (1522), by the sultan Sulaiman II. 


(1520-1566), it is comprehensible that Clement should have — 


REUBEN! AND MOLKO 505 


Bn ica: Phwish adv ne ohn on Aralee who promised 
* paniong the jews of the Eas an arnive against the 
) David Reuben: mace claim a ct hve was the ambassa- 
€ this Drothey joseph, supposed!+ rcigning over the 
sche nts of the tribe of Piste ?Y weumwherme yw Vatary, 
hat he had heen commissioned tm obtait waranitions 
Mf, y pope. He Was of AB & arthy eye leew is it, abort of 
eeeeniniss ahd ancexpert hotecuwe4, af ae same 
mand given tefreduent fasting. |. pepe. semaved 
“ nadie mee (1524) and in due cour t fuvatched Hine with 
ta als to the kings of Portugal and A KAVA, Ge ni 
by virtue @ their maritime esate to rhe 
Hthe Ethiopians by reason = Sir prowiimty 
be ablé te ter into elation tame at Jews 
me Jews of treaty paid marked teiemnre to the 
whom the prertig:. Tancd. thus honesrsct “emresernta- 
the Jewish commawniiny of Rome, xmmey em Oba- 
no and the plewrsician Jud uh Ascii: 4 aed hive 
, the wife of easel Abrabanel, He a x farmby of 

Jehiel tredy upyalied him 4 sears for has 
, King Totti i {P522--2357) 
ina Switch high: gh «; the twreresoed Maranos 


i some of them even ventured to rise in are, 
onal hitetne alive ts the danger, and 
Sel At tiscreet to ied by sees: of 


t post, “id d himself ints stab’ te a oove- 
of ia n, and secretiv icft his aanew country. 
! nM olko, as he now called himself, crrna:* co Salonika 
6 Safed; His associations with cabalisric a uncles created 
tthe fin his Mere'imsic dignity, ga he won many 
ents. He was convinedd <i. % the place for playing his 
: be pada thie seat ons hee oie indies to the 


i 


— .. 


of 


er 


i 7 


oe EY le i, er 


a 


f « 


af 


* 


. 


aes 


a 


fHE ITALIAN a 


“~ 
- 


+ 1597. che duchy was 


ent VIEL. (1592-1005) conte ths 


E14 
roe f 


* if al in J ats ws teft for te 
4 ed were — 


” (“e are, 
, et sary Staves, : 


% 


wer stannic 18s ea 
anc? the care hig sion: of ches seers 
through the Coumell¢ { Trent (bes | 


Back at Cats yeriod, the situa 
states fad bainssld Py a the whole more col 

se in ftaly. Z ‘jexander Vix ‘(1492-4 
vas absorbed in the agerandizement 


(1503-154) wee occupied with 
France; Lea Ke (1518-1 — 


other, £ lscaall Vi ‘i (1823-18 
truly x acters angi itle of a prin 
jewinl: writer f the day best 


thie pope pai bsg ti w 


il ie ‘daoae! in Asean if | 
OPO T iy . Moreov oe n he gave sane | 
_ the corny panty. of F ‘ 
int mal affairs. ier 
es, With the conquest ‘of two nulwas 
grade (1321) and Rhodes (1522), 1 ; 
(1520 156 ), itis comprehensible | 


—— 


1524-9] REUBENI AND MOLKO 505 


lent an ear to a Jewish adventurer from Arabia who promised 
to raise among the Jews of the East an army against the 
Turks. David Reubeni made claim that he was the ambassa- 
dor of his brother Joseph, supposedly reigning over the 
descendants of the tribe of Reuben somewhere in Tatary, 
and that he had been commissioned to obtain munitions 
from the pope. He was of swarthy complexion, short of 
stature, but spirited and an expert horseman, at the same 
time pious and given to frequent fasting. The pope received 
him in audience (1524) and in due course furnished him with 
credentials to the kings of Portugal and Abyssinia, since the 
Portuguese by virtue of their maritime expeditions to the 
Orient and the Ethiopians by reason of their proximity 
would best be able to enter into relations with the Jewish 
kingdom. The Jews of Italy paid marked deference to the 
ambassador, whom the pope had thus honored. Representa- 
tives of the Jewish community of Rome, among them Oba- 
diah Sforno and the physician Judah Ascoli, visited him. 
Benvenida, the wife of Samuel Abrabanel, and the family of 
the wealthy Jehiel of Pisa supplied him with means for his 
voyage to Portugal (1525). King John III. (1521-1557) 
received him with high honors; the impressed Maranos 
flocked to him in the belief that he was none other than the 
Messiah, and some of them even ventured to rise in arms. 
The Portuguese authorities became alive to the danger, and 
the ‘ambassador’ thought it discreet to depart by way of 
Spain and France to Italy. 

The presence of Reubeni in Portugal stirred the imagina- 
tion of one Marano, Diego Pires. In consequence, he. gave 
up a government post, had himself initiated into the cove- 
nant of Abraham, and secretly left his native country. 
Solomon Molko, as he now called himself, turned to Saloniki 
and to Safed. His associations with cabalistic circles created 
in him the belief in his Messianic dignity, and he won many 
adherents. He was convinced that the place for playing his 
part must be Italy, the seat of the power inimical to the 
divine redemption. At Ancona, in 1529, he met with the 
opposition of the saner elements among the Jews; people, 


506 THE ITALIAN REFUGE [1530-31 


nevertheless, flocked to hear him preach. A public disputa- — 
tion with a prelate placed him in jeopardy and he accepted 
the invitation of the duke of Urbino to take shelter in Pesaro. 
He was impelled, however, to go to Rome. Disguised as a 
beggar he mixed among the poor and the sick close by the 
papal palace; for thus, as an old legend had it, the manifesta- 
tion of the Messiah was to be enacted. 

Molko gained access to the pope and communicated to 
him his prophecy of an inundation of the Tiber and an 
earthquake in Portugal, accompanied by the appearance of 
comets. Though the masses clung to him, he had his enemies 
among the influential members of the community; so he be- 
took himself to Venice where he fell in again with Reubeni. 
The Signory had the case of the adventurer from Arabia 
investigated by Gian Battista Ramusio, the well-known 
traveler with pretensions to a knowledge of sundry Oriental 
tongues. Molko began to have doubts as to the genuineness 
of Reubeni’s tale. The predicted overflow of the Tiber actually 
came to pass (October 8, 1530). Molko was accorded an 
honorable reception by the pope and was domiciled in the 
papal palace. . 

Among his uncompromising opponents was the accom- 
plished physician Jacob Mantino, the favorite of powerful 
princes and Church dignitaries, translator of philosophical 
and medical books into Latin, the only Jew whom the 
Signory of Venice exempted from wearing the distinctive 
hat. Mantino chanced upon a writing of Molko in which the 
latter had used offensive language against Christianity. He 
translated it into Latin and placed the translation in the 
handsof theclergy. Molkowascondemned by the Inquisition 
to death. Clement, however, had conceived a great liking for 
the plausible dreamer; so he facilitated his escape by a timely 
warning, while a man who resembled the accused in appear- 
ance and dress was turned over to the tribunal and burned 
alive. 

In the meantime Portugal had been shaken by earthquake 
(January 26, 1531) and the portended comet had been seen. 
But despite papal favor Molko was beset by enemies among 


iris and eave was graated him to depart. 
“ch IN ae northern Italy, aed che two together 
: ~ donaty Ratishon. With a fying banner, bearing 
is) Bs toons Who is like mato Thee, O Lord, 
| ty?', they appeared redibcse Charies. ¥.-and 
to persuade the: emperor. ta call ite: ses to 
the Turks. In-vain did the sugacious feeatts of 
4i o iamaanaarye against thew folly Het heir 
; x syed their undoing, i he cmpe fra teed 
Sand condi in his team to tab ehes2). 


‘ phe mhaintanred fs belted tu ink 
as and amaiitastly died «i the stale. divs 
L ri ed away wy C harles i ines ee ayn ara aha 


34. 4549) lelliieesi im his @ nbeccnece’’ baast~ 
u 2 Jews-ol dus own States Were CONCEAL 
‘yielded 6 the setting uD of te. Inquieht rats 
ut he ‘etrove biy mitigate its aoverition tie tbsin 
‘ar nC The reaction, however. as fully ae 
o Midiesacendancy of Cardina: radia, ike 
1555-1559} jatroduced: the wiricsess RebiNe:. 
hich<rippled the Jews of ( pe pal dame 
and spieituiiiy and, barrie; shore campatee. 
oie to the Napoleonic: OTK 4p FER Fier 
ad-within cramped quartes «1% the dhe 
eset . tegulate the closing of the yee es 


: — meanest bcoupaatons «coal 
® yellow het fox men hip Ber vellowr sei fon 


one snag in aca RO Joye se pt 


er: sions. wer jaite frequent The Je 
the maintenssice of houses for theweception 


facut 4 
‘ - 7% 

“¢ ne 9 <2 

f + 14, 

a) ae ei “> pm 
on i. 2 oS 
Kr 7 hh ie 


THR PAPAL STATES | 507: 


ely cuudemned by the inquisithytas # 


gt Mire sii neh eatate cereal ae 


al fees xginet his wl both peoeice 


wars so converte, {onversionist nee AN: often — 


mG Me THER: ITALIAN. 


Nf Bile Ta! athe le 2a oe ta hear him p 


Hoe invitation a hid dake iy Urbink 


ife was impelled, however, to gor 
imc he Pines: silk: the epi 


him his prophecy of an town 
earthquake ta Portugal, accom 
comet, Uheuwgh the masses oh 


tet 


The é maha had ied Case. pe 
nvestige ae nel by Gian Battinta 


ONE OER. ‘tke baer ee ae 
i. Veber stale. The predicted: 
came to tars (October 3, 
hone REE reception by ies 
papal ¢ va ste - 4 3 

Amowue has unconprom 8 
phahed phascian Jacob 
ainces sod Churth dienit 

and pert val books - inte Li. 
Simory of Verige exempted 
hat. Matting chanced upon a: 
latter hack eset offensive lat un 
‘rauslated je Beto! atin ame ale 
hands Gf t ree hengeyt. Molke was mn 
fo death. € “Tement; however, G Of 
the platisible dreamer: ao he a 
warning, whils afin Whe: 
ance and dress Wad! = Oy 
Give,” ; nae 
. dn the meantime «Pavia 
(January 26, 15303 ard the j 


Bat despite papal favie® 


PR oe en le ee 


de ee! eee ye ge a eee Me 


1559] THE PAPAL STATES 507 


Jews and Christians, and leave was granted him to depart. 
He rejoined Reubeni in northern Italy, and the two together 
made their way to Ratisbon. With a flying banner, bearing 
(in initials) the legend, ‘Who is like unto Thee, O Lord, 
among the mighty?’, they appeared before Charles V. and 
endeavored to persuade the emperor to call the Jews to 
arms against the Turks. In vain did the sagacious Joseph of 
Rosheim (p. 547) remonstrate against their folly. But their 
stubborn persistence proved their undoing. The emperor had 
them put in chains and conducted in his train to Italy (1532). 
Molko was immediately condemned by the Inquisition as a 
renegade from Catholicism; he maintained his belief in his 
mission to the end and steadfastly died at the stake. His 
companion was carried away by Charles to Spain and there 
suffered a like fate. 

Paul III. (1534-1549) followed in his predecessor’s foot- 
steps as far as the Jews of his own states were concerned. 
Reluctantly he yielded to the setting up of the Inquisition 
in Portugal, but he strove to mitigate its severities to the 
unfortunate Maranos. The reaction, however, was fully on 
its way, thanks to the ascendancy of Cardinal Caraffa, who 
as pope Paul IV. (1555-1559) introduced the strictest canon- 
ical restrictions, which crippled the Jews of the papal domin- 
ions economically and spiritually and, barring short respites, 
remained in force down to the Napoleonic era (p. 611). The - 
Jews were confined within cramped quarters in the ghettos, 
and watches were set to regulate the closing of the gates at 
night and their opening at dawn. No real estate could be 
owned by a Jew, and all such holdings had to be disposed of 
at a sacrifice. Jews were kept from the exercise of the pro- 
fessions; none but the meanest occupations remained open 
to them. The yellow hat for men and the yellow veil for 
women were obligatory. A community was not permitted to 
own more than one synagogue. In theory, no Jew might be 
led to the baptismal font against his will; but in practice 
enforced conversions were quite frequent. The Jews were 
taxed towards the maintenance of houses for the reception 
and training of converts. Conversionist preachers, often 


508 THE ITALIAN REFUGE [1593 


renegade Jews, would invade the synagogues during the 
most solemn service, and the religious feeling was outraged 
by setting up a cross in the Holy Ark, if it so pleased the zeal 
of the preacher. The Talmud was repeatedly burned or 
else mutilated by the censor. Periodic expulsions from this or 
that locality or from all of the Papal States occurred; in the 
interest of the papal treasury an exception was made in 
favor of the communities of Rome and Ancona. 

Ancona was an important port and the seat of the Levan- 
tine trade, which was largely in the hands of Jews, among 
them Maranos driven from Naples and others who owed 
allegiance to Turkey. The privileges granted them by pre- 
vious popes were rescinded by Paul IV.; the Maranos were 
particularly subjected to cruel persecution. An order went 
forth to force them back into Christianity; about sixty- 
three renounced their faith, while twenty-three men and one 
woman were burned at the stake for their steadfast perseve- 
rance in the religion of their forefathers. Those who could 
escape fled to Pesaro, where the duke of Urbino offered them 
protection, hoping thus to draw the important Levantine 
commerce to his own domains. A serious effort was indeed 
made to bring this about, but the Jews of Turkey could not 
all agree to transfer their trade to Pesaro, and so the Maranos 
were expelled (1558). However, the pope was compelled to 
‘comply with the request of Sulaiman II. for the release of all 
Turkish subjects; but those Maranos who had no such pro- 
tection languished in dungeons. The ostensible reason for not 


including the Jews of Ancona in the general decrees of ban- — 


ishment from the papal dominions in 1569 and 1593 was that 
there, as in Rome, the ecclesiastical authorities had them 
under their watchful eye. But so great were the vexations 
that hundreds of Jews left Ancona of their own volition. 
Among the victims of those fateful decrees was the histo- 
rian Gedaliah Ibn Yahya (1515-1587), who was driven out 
from his native town Imola near Ravenna and, after a tem- 
porary residence in Pesaro and Ferrara, wandered about 
until he settled in Alessandria. In his ‘Chain of Tradition,’ 


disparagingly called ‘Chain of Lies’ because of the large 


VENETIAN Rs PUBLIC 509 


: end | impossible siortes sda h the un- 
od from all kinde mi acurees, Yon Yahya 
his —anielagile Nioses ty bis own day. 
1a if me ija- 
‘He: was ‘ena at is extlen from 
pe) medicine ate . Ve the jews 
ty in 1550, i P wre peeled woea by 
aggio Rc eeebaditi sh Seis ee. PEigwewer, 
ag were ardered to ua’ errited ¥ of 
| he Sent to Montes i the dast 
ene Permitted to rote '* Genoa, Me 
io) manigan researches; s& sexi Inblical 


Piance of arrangement mildew Grant the 
re pied the Cai isan 2s, ptople in 
“ping | He devoted hims Kas ee Ve general 

: a work cut the his dank Si ege. OF 
or ! n Ruters,. the TWO Ties: i Oe 
aad gt the € TOSS ang 7-4 “et etek. 
fated a Spanish week ou Acweties 
es CnC) Sad the history of tes. cscwaerengint 


< Aaa 


£ 

Pa 

ao 
} 


lant e territory was ¢ oven! ov Spx 
of intoleranre, 
cor id. not be Jonz in tutseter ogee 
e if i Jews and (Christiane <1 © ree tec 
of some ; ONES thonsand Soe Ts ee 
via Ladi, and other locahine (28 ‘3 
‘the Ven etian, alee wrest es le ante it, 
it fralian cities sila We Ae syetta 
ss whic ed vet been 
siecitl dilasese ion tees aor, det the 
cai wher the Jews. ost aened them- 
| n consisting of three gronpe, Lewan- 
a SF eoatiah Pert tuguese (Oeeidentals). 
ned for the teaching of Hebrew and 
principal soclesies had tede with 
i jews, The wer sdth Tarkey over 
dof Cyprus, the Venantans E1IS~ 


nd 4 4 
iasuing ees Saudiagee 


ay 
x 


ronepine Sree, “would invade the 
iat Wejency ponies, and the at BI 
tv oerew cations fy the Holy Aj 

At hes sceanieaias cre Talmud wa 


a fren all ia the 6 
ae — papery 


ei gw ™ <A agen of th 
vivir tein Pesaro, where 
pe RR: % oper thas te ‘ 

ir ened $e his own ise 


rae ¢ 
i 


ERY 0b Hed 1888), Howe 
cobioty wie! ve renyure 
Turtio’ sobvinectac helt shine 
teenicwy angina in dean. CMS. 
including cle feel: Ancona: 
ahem ¢ fn ay the papal don 101 
nse8 a ti + Rye, heed nic 


ms a finde of Jews mn A 
Amony the vietie of 
rian Cecaliahe Tony Ye 
Prva his native: ten 
porary residence eet 
util en sett tiles mA 


1597] THE VENETIAN REPUBLIC | 509 


number of miraculous and impossible stories which the un- 
critical author gathered from all kinds of sources, Ibn Yahya 
traced the history of his people from Moses to his own day. 

Another historian of far greater accuracy was Joseph ha- 
Cohen (1496-1578). He was born at Avignon of exiles from 
Spain and practised medicine at Genoa. When the Jews 
were driven from the city in 1550, he was prevailed upon by 
the citizens of Voltaggio to establish himself there. However, 
when in 1567 the Jews were ordered to quit the territory of 
the Genoese republic, he went to Montferrat; in the last 
years of his life he was permitted to return to Genoa. He 
was painstaking in his historical researches; in good biblical 
style, but with no semblance of arrangement other than the 
chronological, he narrated the misfortunes of his people in 
his ‘Vale of Weeping.’ He devoted himself also to general 
history, producing a work on the history of the Kings of 
France and the Ottoman Rulers, the two opposing forces 
representing Europe and Asia, the Cross and the Crescent. 
In addition, he translated a Spanish work on America 
(India), wherein he told also the history of the conquest of 
Mexico. 

From 1535 on Milanese territory was governed by Spanish 
viceroys. The spirit of intolerance, issuing from Madrid and 
supported by Rome, could not be long in manifesting itself. 
Friction between the Jews and Christians at Cremona led 
to an expulsion of some one thousand souls from that city 
as well as from Pavia, Lodi, and other localities (1597). 

Conditions in the Venetian republic were precarious. 
Venice was the first of Italian cities to introduce the ghetto 
(1516) by reviving older statutes which had never been 

carried out. In 1527, a partial expulsion took place, but the 
exiles were recalled in 1534, when the Jews organized them- 
selves into a corporation consisting of three groups, Levan- 
tines, Germans, and Spanish-Portuguese (Occidentals). 
Schools were maintained for the teaching of Hebrew and 
secular studies. One of the principal societies had to do with 
the ransoming of enslaved Jews. The war with Turkey over 
the possession of the island of Cyprus, the Venetians sus- 


510 | THE ITALIAN REFUGE [1571-1648 


pected, had been brought about at the instigation of influ- 
ential Jewish advisers of Selim II. After the victory in the 
battle of Lepanto (1571), the Jews were threatened with a 
decree of expulsion; but no sooner had it been passed than 
it was recalled. 

Life in the Venetian Jewish community, the second largest 
in Italy during the seventeenth century, reflected the general 
decadence in the city worn with much warfare. Questionable 
pastimes penetrated into the ghetto, but also the taste for 
letters, at a time when the art of poetry had become a mere 
exercise. Deborah Ascarelli rendered Hebrew hymns into 
ornate Italian stanzas; Sarah Copia Sullam (died 1641) 
wrote verses of her own in elegant Italian. A curious mixture 
of faith and superstition, of ideal flights and worldly fri- 
volity characterized the gifted, versatile, but unstable Judah 
(Leon) Modena (1571-1648). He was descended from a fam- 
ily originally located in France. His grandfather Mordecai 
was a noted physician, whom Charles V. created a knight of 
the Golden Fleece; his great-uncle Abtalion (died 1611) was 
a scholarly man and conversed fluently in Latin. 

Judah was born in Venice, and in its ghetto he spent the 
greater part of his life. The family fortunes had dwindled by 
reason of frequent migrations, and he was compelled to eke 
out a living by a variety of employments—in all, he enu- 
merated twenty-six—ranging from preaching to teaching 
children, proof-reading, writing letters for other people, or 
matchmaking. He had an inveterate passion for card play- 
ing. When a ban was pronounced upon it by lay heads of the 
community, Judah opposed the act with an array of argu- 
ments, though in his youthful days he had written against 
the engrossing pastime under the caption ‘Turn away from 
Evil.’ Yet this man, who squandered his earnings and idled 
away precious time in gaming, composed a penitential 
prayer for the eve of the new moon (the Lesser Day of 
Atonement) which has passed into all Jewish rituals. For 
the benefit of his Christian friends, he wrote in Italian a book 


on Jewish observances. Against Uriel da Costa (p. 495) he — 


constituted himself defender of talmudic Judaism and the 


SIMHAH LUZZATTO 5il 


withstanding his readines i prescribe ie ee 
“ be reste set himself aywinst the esoteric lore 


Luzzatte (1583- ‘}qasd), ds ah Modena’ § 
mate, was likewise wverse to my sticism 
‘to Reason and Authority ec) iad own sphere. 
TSE on the Statusof the Jews, writen in che ttal- 
and printed in 1638, he dwelt «1 «he repyble's 
on of the unprogressive sje" of its pleawure- 
+ He pointed out how its world commerce 
ay and how it were oath Mir thesthte mm =< 
: ews wire had connecties ©? & the Onent 
i contritated to the treat: ee «oes than tey 
d fiity thousand ducats a year a4 ys ve empley 
thousand Christian laborers Mi ie mate Lae 
L student of political econe arey wp to the 
spake own failings. It iste, os aamntainert, 
fenetian Jews were superior to 72) ssethres ese 
2, however, traits whieh «om. asamonr i 
adfast devotion to thaic: wanesteal fash, 
domestic life, charitablenes Show Jews. 
er aide there were unoomeneedebie char 
quious defatence ta 21) es: opt laesr tyre, 
ok: seasons inl ab WES te Petey “et 


| yn ain Thi notions: af step te pianos 
é hallowed crasicvay. of iow wh bie wt wich 
epebbis Syst ef, Rrivtetiariract the chaeeral 


TUR ITALIAN RE 


oot 
_ 


wected, had been brought about at 
ewtial Jewish acbvisers-of Selim Atte 
fatile of Lepanto (1571), the Jews 1 yet 
derree of ecpul ist fa a4 but no: nee 
owas recalled, 

Life in the Venetian Jewish came 
in itaty during the seventecnthy Sali 
decadence in the city worn with 
pastimes pene trated into the g 


vvotitpash ee checteesd es 
(Lovar? io Gar ee pnd 


a sch ee nian and ae 
Judah was born in Venice, ar 
greater past sed we life. oe m1 


aut a eke “e bay Eo v actiefi @ 
merited Tw yen by agi “rangi 


matchme ing. He had an inv 
ing. When 6 batwas pronoun 
Oo fnimunty, Jur jab oppesed 
Menges, a chy ith his vouthh } 
the chgrossing raat ‘under 
Pil * Ve er ras Ra, who s quar 
away ows time in gam 
prayer pe gee eve wf the 
Atonement) which: hiss 1s 
the benefit of his Christian be 
Ori ja - observances. 7 ce 


1583-1663] SIMHAH LUZZATTO 511 


Torah. Notwithstanding his readiness to prescribe amulets 
for others, he resolutely set himself against the esoteric lore 
of the Cabala. 

Simhah (Simeone) Luzzatto (1583-1663), Judah Modena’s 
colleague in the rabbinate, was likewise averse to mysticism 
and assigned to Reason and Authority each its own sphere. 
In his ‘Discourse on the Status of the Jews,’ written in the Ital- 
ian language and printed in 1638, he dwelt on the republic’s 
decline by reason of the unprogressive spirit of its pleasure- 
loving citizens. He pointed out how its world commerce 
was slipping away and how it were profitable for the state to 
protect its native Jews who had connections with the Orient 
and at the time contributed to the treasury more than two 
hundred and fifty thousand ducats a year and gave employ- 
ment to four thousand Christian laborers. At the same time 
this rabbinical student of political economy held up to the 
Jews a mirror of their own failings. It is true, he maintained, 
that the Venetian Jews were superior to their brethren else- 
where. There were, however, traits which were common to 
all Jews alike: a steadfast devotion to their ancestral faith, 
purity in their domestic life, charitableness to fellow-Jews. 
But on the other side there were uncommendable char- 
acteristics, as obsequious deference to all except their own, 
betokening unmanly timidity, and a woeful incapacity in 
present conditions for self-government, each one being con- 
cerned with his own private affairs and caring little for the 
weal of the corporate body. This criticism of the Jew’s inner- 
most self and the hallowed traditions of Jewish life in which 
the two Venetian rabbis engaged, foreshadowed the internal 
conflict which was to burst out a century later. For the time 
being the structure of tradition stood solid and the de- 
pressed minds found solace in the very unreasonableness of 
mysticism. 


CHAPTER LXVIII 
UNDER THE CRESCENT 


(1492-1579) 


received with greater willingness than in the Ottoman 

empire, then on its course of greatest expansion. Planted 
on the European side since the capture of Constantinople 
(1453), the ‘Turks, in rapid succession, made themselves 
masters of the entire Balkan peninsula, from the Pelopon- 
nesus in the south to the lower Danube in the north as far 
as Buda. Moldavia was snatched from the Poles and Crimea 
from the Tatar khan; Trebizond, Georgia, Mesopotamia 
were yielded by the Byzantines and Persians, Syria, Pales- 
tine, Egypt by the Mamelukes. Venice lost its islands in the 
Aegean Sea; the Berber states of North Africa acknowl- 
edged the suzerainty of the sultan at Stambul, and the 
Turkish fleet dominated practically the whole of the Medi- 
terranean and harassed the Portuguese colonies in the Indian 
Ocean. 

In these vast domains the Jew could drop the mask of 
enforced adhesion to a religion which was not his, and be 
himself again. The Turks demanded of their subjects the 
surrender neither of their nationality nor of their religion. 
The poll-tax, levied on all non-Mohammedans (unbelievers), 
was not oppressive; the road was open to all to rise to the 
highest positions in the state. The Jews who arrived from 
the West soon became the preponderant element in old- 
established communities. They were more enterprising than 
the native Jews, who had suffered under the oppression of 
the bigoted Byzantine rulers. They were wide-awake to the 
opportunities of commerce on a large scale, trained in the 
arts and crafts, cultured. These Jews taught the Turks the 
manufacture of the new firearms, cannon, and gunpowder. 


Siz 


I: NO country were the exiles from Spain and Portugal 


SES ee ne ee oe 


SS ee ee ee 


| ee ee tANTINOPLE COMMUNITY 543 
fiom: the school oi Stnenaiie ot were much 
if skill and discreste.vs 

he community 4 {oar irc niet See grew 

} Europe, with neaps shitty thousand 
y had its pwn syngas SRR ; 


ried to countless ys pootinngs but 
to’ the. ‘citiée whence Kars batae. Ato dirst, 
5 f predominated. Sone tne the con- 
) Mohanimed 1. wspsceowt Moses 
D ichiet rabbi As such iy; «4s tie recog- 
thele ba pnt Tackich Foss ‘Beet “Tt a wet 
that of the mufti. Capmith 6 > kwmeeded 
45547326), a thoroughav is woeaudist 

dab; ‘Moz at Padua, RS eet alee 
| id strane Of all hie sun. oe 2nper- 


was Papaged ina ‘Sem athe K ig ov Picrrives - 


but she grew older, hie Sis: ae mare 
ted with ali might da oe eee & 
Oo praneuneed a bar QR Se~ ewe Kuc- 
$ by Rabbanite teacter aie tig, as 
ae mot he binding egeigsotee af 


ihe aartied | in 1 1408; baila ‘boron 


an attained @ postion of promi w fer” 


$f... 11481-1393). 5 oe Sees 


. His SoH, Moses Haines a | & Sk pie +s 
BETS (1S20-1566), stern 2a night fap 
dnfluence with the ar ox ant he 
imrerest of his corelighsat.., ine 
hi fi t was invented agg: “hers 
| cat Hamon’s request, the ag 
abel the Pema that rie ab 


a Whether from near oy der Legt ty thern- 


in Venive saw ifs mw So apis 7 


scompanied Selim on bis eee Od 
sditions in tiie East, he “ee ‘sd ed | 


pane ac the exiles 


ad with greater willl 
a ire, then on its courses 
-arepean side since ’ 
thee foie a 
+ vei tee 
5G sie bi : 
front i" atar khan Trebi | 


weno ey the By; E, 


c vast Pees : 
coined pore toa religion 
himoe! 3] ag sine, The: Turles « mi 
etnyeder ae ither of their y 
rh ‘ni polltax, levied on all tt 
Was not hisses the road 
highest positions ip the state 
the Wast oon hetame the pr 
established cue he 
the native Jews, who had. suffer 
{ie big robet Aezantine “rulers, 
opportunities of oommperce o 
arts and crafts, cultured: | 
manufacture of the new fh 


1532] THE CONSTANTINOPLE COMMUNITY 513 


Jewish physicians from the school of Salamanca were much 
sought after for their skill and discreetness. 

In a short time, the community of Constantinople grew 
to be the largest in Europe, with nearly thirty thousand 
souls. Each group had its own synagogue and organization; 
the incoming Jews, whether from near or far, kept to them- 
selves, not merely according to countries or provinces but 
also according to the cities whence they came. At first, 
naturally, the natives predominated. Soon after the con- 
quest of Constantinople, Mohammed II. appointed Moses 
Capsali (1420-1493) chief rabbi. As such he was the recog- 
nized head of the whole body of Turkish Jews and had a seat 
in the divan next to that of the mufti. Capsali was succeeded 
by Elijah Mizrahi (1455-1526), a thoroughgoing talmudist 
from the school of Judah Menz at Padua, and a student also 
of mathematics and astronomy. Of all his works the super- 
commentary (published in Venice 1527) on Rashi’s exposi- 
tion of the Pentateuch was probably the most important. 
In early youth he was engaged in a feud with the Karaites 
resident in Turkey; but as he grew older, he became more 
conciliatory and resisted with all might the intolerance of 
the hyperorthodox who pronounced a ban upon the instruc- 
tion of the dissidents by Rabbanite teachers. The ban, as 
Mizrahi pointed out, would not be binding upon the in- 
coming Jews from Spain and Portugal. 

Of the Spanish exiles who arrived in 1492, Joseph Hamon 
(1450-1518) soon attained a position of prominence; he be- 
came physician to Bayazid II. (1481-1512) and Selim I. 
(1512-1520). He accompanied Selim on his campaigns; dur- 
ing one of these expeditions in the East, he fell ill and died 
(1518 at Damascus). His son, Moses Hamon (1490-1565), 
physician to Sulaiman IT. (1520-1566), stood in high favor 
at court; he had great influence with the sultan and he used 
this power in the interest of his coreligionists. In 1532, a 
ritual murder charge was invented against the Jews of 
Amasia (Asia Minor). At Hamon’s request, the sultan or- 
dered an investigation with the result that the calumniators 
were punished and a firman was issued declaring that in the 


' 


514 3 UNDER THE CRESCENT [1550-53 — 


future all such charges were to be tried in the sultan’s own 
court. It was Moses Hamon, likewise, who interceded on 
behalf of Gracia and her nephew Joseph Nasi (1550; p. 487). — 
The second largest community was that of Saloniki. It 
grew rapidly by reason of the influx of Sephardic Jews; ina 
short time there arose ten congregations, and subsequently 
the number increased to thirty-six. The Jewish population ~ 
soon outnumbered the non-Jewish residents, chiefly Greeks; — 
Saloniki was spoken of as a ‘mother-city in Israel.’ One of 
the most prominent members of the community was Judah 
Benveniste, grandson of the Castilian chief rabbi and states- 
man Abraham (p. 457). He had saved of the family fortune 
as much as he could and had taken with him his large collec- — 
tion of manuscripts and books, which he generously placed 
at the disposal of scholars. Thus Jacob Ibn Habib (1460-— 
1516), who hailed from Zamora, was able to produce his _ 
collection of the haggadic portions of the Talmud, which © 
appeared under the title ‘The Fountain of Jacob’ (En Jacob) 
and came to be a favorite book in lay circles. Cabalistic 
studies were transplanted to Saloniki by Joseph Taytazak, ~ 
Samuel Franco, and others. Important Sephardic com- — 
munities were established also at Adrianople and Nicopolis. 
At Adrianople, Solomon Ibn Verga, basing himself in part 
on an earlier work of Judah Ibn Verga, composed the ‘Rod — 
of Judah,’ an account of the persecutions of the Jews in the — 
various lands and periods down to his own day. 
The outstanding figure among the immigrants to Turkey — 
was unquestionably Joseph Nasi (died 1579). We have fol- — 
lowed his migrations, in the company of his aunt Gracia, — 
from Portugal to Antwerp and thence to Venice and Ferrara 
(p. 487). At last the family set foot in Constantinople (1553). — 
Here Gracia established her extensive business and unfolded — 
her rich benevolence; a synagogue which she built still bears — 
her name. Here also her nephew Joseph, to whom she gave — 
her daughter Reyna in marriage, rose to dazzling distinction. 7 
Letters of introduction from French statesmen paved the 
way for his favorable reception at court. Sulaiman II. recog- — 
nized in him a valuable adviser on political affairs in Chris- 


« 


in) leds smn, DUKE OF NAXOS 515 


ieee thoroughly sdeseeciell ait of which 
eh tafermed through bre ramiiied connec- 
the cause of privice Selim, whom his | 
a pith all his power, ugidcst the younger 
di the grateful prince mei» of the Jewish 
idart and had him enol in hia guard of 
pinterested Hithseelf in dermrdi nye, on pehalf 
Hi prince’ Joseph, from the j —— cone the 
e family’s holdings: in -Piwece which had 
confiscated. Three years | bsber! " okies erdered 
toes pale of every large iarge that came 


_ as wine. to ponerinessd bas fa rorite 


wa tthe « hocprees sacecpna ee nie it inie. 
rely for Jewish refugees, — 4; 
n to the throne, Selim ff. 96-1574) 
» duke of Naxos ahd of a nurtxe << other 
oa p of ¢ the Cyclades, to be hed? a Sef for a 
mate. The duke’s official rescrips on ‘We, 
duke of the Aegean sea, lord of Aven. make 
attempt was nade by him te: =< 2 & eer i 
islands, and he secured an ordes (os: the 
“Mohammedare settle thera, re relat te! 
The duchy was administered hy a © Yerrstian 
"t nobleman by the name o: ia sematio, in 
flowed the blood «f the baptign! “ercham 
), while the duke himself resided’ ix Ss faauti- 
Belvedere; near Constantinople. Keim fare he 
: b theneformers at Antwerp, Ine lees ing’ vat the 


1 is copra ang suing for peace with the 
‘ad Pie dewiei dignitary tO seis: tS goad - . 


r tthe toe measures which joseph sei 
— Hine. ¥ here was es eat Bren ey iost 


ae! 


‘wat dgainst Philip Ili; kee Saxperr =~ e 


‘tal J “a LTE See eee 
t t ¥ ae 4 
fe : 
> é 44 
{ 
. 
4 
" 
. 
" 
; 
x 
4 
- 


soon oubsumbered the tion- Jewiits residents, 


selon was 8 Sy} woken Ok as & oe rep 
che most promimett rem bers of the comma . 
Ben vesiste, sgt rand SOn. of tt ne ae 


4 Cu CRF of the Ragen’ portiens 


‘wiedl his rely v2 tions, in. the. CO 


44 UNDER THE’ Ch 2ESC) 


rey ay ‘ aby bare reaASOT Be ti he ‘singe of of Sephaatl 
cit 1 > There arose. tet ongregations, and 
rber increased to thi irty-aixd T he Jews 


44 


“Janam sus 457). 


&. 
= 
S 
7 
i”. 
eas 
a 
a 
Se 
Fes 


hae cepa mh sc ie ars. Tha , 


1Si6), whe hated from Zamora, 4 


V4 Capped t Ext ide ce the ii tle “The Fountain 
to be a ais ite book i est 


bi acs 


om ple ep rwatisS: Ibn ot Ad 


pe ety 4 


on as ijer work ne — ne a 


Was UT ues sna, iy teak Nasi 


TOM Portuga E to Ante érp and thene 
(p. 487). At last the feogily set if 


Fiere Gracia established her ex pris 
her rich benevolence} a synagog 
her name, Here also her nephew 
her daughter Reyna in marriag : 
Letters of introduction from. 
way for his favorable reception: 


nized in hime aw aluable adviser | 


1566] JOSEPH, DUKE OF NAXOS 515 


tian Europe which he so thoroughly understood and of which 
he kept himself well informed through his ramified connec- 
tions. Joseph espoused the cause of prince Selim, whom his 
father supported with all his power, against the younger 
brother Bayazid; the grateful prince made of the Jewish 
diplomat his confidant and had him enrolled in his guard of 
honor. Sulaiman interested himself in demanding, on behalf 
of the ‘European prince’ Joseph, from the French court the 
restitution of the family’s holdings in France which had 
been wrongfully confiscated. Three years later Selim ordered 
the confiscation of one-third of every large cargo that came 
from France to Egypt, in order to reimburse his favorite. 
The sultan made over to Joseph, as a perpetual gift, a dis- 
trict about Tiberias for the express purpose of turning it into 
a settlement exclusively for Jewish refugees. 

On his accession to the throne, Selim II. (1566-1574) 
named Joseph duke of Naxos and of a number of other 
islands in the group of the Cyclades, to be held in fief for a 
nominal tribute. The duke’s official rescripts read: ‘We, 
Joseph Nasi, duke of the Aegean sea, lord of Andros, make 
known, etc.’ No attempt was made by him to settle Jews in 
these Christian islands, and he secured an order from the 
sultan forbidding Mohammedans to settle there, in order to 
prevent friction. The duchy was administered by a Christian 
governor, a Spanish nobleman by the name of Coronello, in 
whose veins flowed the blood of the baptized Abraham 
Senior (p. 471), while the duke himself resided in his beauti- 
ful palace at Belvedere, near Constantinople. From here he 
_corresponded with the reformers at Antwerp, holding out the 
promise of a Turkish war against Philip II.; here Emperor 
Maximilian II.’s ambassadors, suing for peace with the 
Porte, waited on the Jewish dignitary to secure his good- 
will. | 

France resented the forceful measures which Joseph took 
to collect the money due him. There was likewise no love lost 
between the Venetian republic and the formidable Jew. 
Both plotted against him with the aid of one of the duke’s 
Jewish agents, and, moreover, they were able to count on 


516 UNDER THE CRESCENT [1567 


the support of the all-powerful grand vizir, Mohammed 
Sokolli. This shrewd minister, a renegade Bosnian, was per- 
sonally at odds with Joseph; in addition, he was favorably 
disposed towards the Venetians. However, Selim overruled 
the vizir. Upon the news of a disastrous fire in the Venetian 
arsenal, the Turks speedily descended upon Cyprus, Nicosia 
was taken by assault, and Famagosta capitulated (1571). It 
was said at the time that the sultan had promised to make 
Joseph king of that island. 

Mohammed Sokolli, with a view to his own designs, availed 
himself of the services of an agent, who likewise was a Jew 
and subsequently supplanted Joseph. Solomon Ashkenazi, 
of a German Jewish family settled in Udine, had traveled 
extensively and for a time was physician to King Sigismund 
Augustus of Poland. As a Venetian subject he placed him- 
self in Constantinople under the protection of the diplomatic 
representatives of the republic, and these in turn introduced 
him to the grand vizir. Solomon had a hand in the negotia- 
tions for peace between Venice and Turkey; in 1574 he was 
sent to Venice to offer the support of the whole Turkish army 
if the republic undertook to go to war with Spain. Thanks to 
the prestige of the sultan’s Jewish agent, the decree of expul- 
sion against the Jews of Venice was revoked (p. 510). 

With two so highly stationed men as Solomon and Joseph 
to protect their interests, the Jews of the Ottoman empire 
were in a most enviable position. The wealthy Esther Kiera, 
who stood in high favor with the sultana, was a patroness 


of Jewish learning; the physician Samuel Shullam, a Span- — 
iard by birth, was beholden to her generosity for the means — 


to publish at Constantinople (1566-1567) the historical 
work of Abraham Zacuto. After his flight from Portugal 
(p. 475), King Emanuel’s astronomer (p. 474) had found 


a refuge in Tunis, where he remained until the Spanish © 


invasion. There he wrote an annalistic history, both gen- 


eral and Jewish, “The Book of Genealogies,’ from the — 


beginnings until the year 1500; he died in Turkey about 
1520. Historical documents were published by Isaac Akrish. 
Driven from Spain, this talented man, though lame on both 


; 


a 
r: 
* 
% 
& 
4 
z 


: 


’ 
2) 
ee 


TIRERIAS REBUILT 


d most wt his life. From Spain. be went to 
iro ioheg oem by whe 1 bh = ae Ibn 


€ found « rest in a house of thee 34 Perc of Naxos at 


ad Tiberias rebuilt with. the inrveotiesn of turn- 
Hmanutacturing center in Patestme, Mulberry- 
ited for the purpose of raising vil kwornis, and 
ec from Verice. An invitation was arkteessed 
settle in the new colony; thoes “1 the Papal 
esperation by Paul TV. ani sore remenily 
to. he thipeported in Joseph = own sate. 
: » Feacied their destination, th« majority 
aitesetsrates and sold into slaves. The ver- 

did net fhird.outa success, anc jews 5 was far 
his political achemes*to give it hie! atten, 
his benefactians at home were morsded te 
A college presided over by pies Athen Kab 
: =i duke's expense, hikewn Hee att 


“yt ; UNDER THE CRESCE: 


Yee anpport of the all-powerful (gr 
Sapolli. i his'shrewd minister, a remegas 
eanaily at vations with peat ve in yee: 


was said att ewe time 


oseph king © oo ind Bi oe 


with a view bs soto 


self in Co erent 
representatives of the republicyamd: 
hiew tothe. grand vizir. Solomon hi 
trons 40¢ peace between bene: . 


if the republic rica to-go POW: 
stige of the ear s Jewiali 


. 


With (vo so highty vse men’ 
to protect their interests, the 
were in & most enviable position. 
who stood in high favor with 
of Tewish leatming; the physici 
jard by birth, was beliolden to. 
to publish at Constantinople: 
work of Abraham Zacuto, - 
(p. aa i ving Emanuel's astro: 
a refuge ja Tunis, where he r 
imVvasion, "tas he wrote an: 
eral and Jewish, “The Book | 
beginnings ur ie the dsbeey a 
£520. ee rica 


1579] - TIBERIAS REBUILT Sih7 


feet, wandered most of his life. From Spain he went to 
Naples; at Cairo he was befriended by the rabbi David Ibn 
Abi Zimra, himself a Spanish refugee; Candia held him for a 
time, until he found rest in the house of the duke of Naxos at 
Constantinople. 

The duke had Tiberias rebuilt with the intention of turn- 
ing it into a manufacturing center in Palestine. Mulberry- 
trees were planted for the purpose of raising silkworms, and 
cloth was imported from Venice. An invitation was addressed 
to the Jews to settle in the new colony; those of the Papal 
States, driven to desperation by Paul IV. and more recently 
by Pius V., were to be transported in Joseph’s own ships. 
Very few, however, reached their destination, the majority 
being seized by Maltese pirates and sold intoslavery. The ven- 
ture accordingly did not turn out a success, and Joseph was far 
too busy with his political schemes to give it his full atten- 
tion. However, his benefactions at home were extended to 
Jewish students. A college presided over by Joseph Ibn Lab 
was maintained at the duke’s expense, likewise a printing 
establishment for the publication of Hebrew books which 


after her husband’s death (1579) was carried on by the 


duchess. 


CHAPTER LXIX 
PALESTINE 


(1488-1628) 


r “ue experiment at Tiberias bears witness to Joseph’s 
comprehension of a general feeling that the Jews, 
driven hither and thither, must look to the Holy 

Land as a home from which they might not be dislodged. 

The statesman, of course, had an eye to political independ- 

ence under Turkish suzerainty, made feasible, as he thought, 

by his possession of the small tract about the Lake of Galilee. 

As a matter of fact, the Jewish population of Palestine had 

grown considerably since the catastrophe of 1492. In 1488, 

scarcely seventy families were to be found in the Holy City; 

within seven years the influx of refugees brought up the 
number to two hundred, by 1521 to five hundred. The new- 
comers brought wealth and a higher standard of culture. 

Their conduct contrasted sharply with the high-handed and 

oppressive manner in which the affairs of the community 

had been managed when Obadiah of Bertinoro (in the Italian 
province of Flori) set foot in Jerusalem (1488). This scholar 
and gifted preacher, whose toleration extended even to 

Karaites and Samaritans, introduced salutary measures of 

reform. Whereas before his advent men of wealth and piety 

had been constrained to leave the city, now with the improve- 
ment of conditions the very kindred of these men returned. 

Thus Isaac Solal, the last head (nagid) of Egyptian Jewry, 

transferred his wealth and beneficent activity to Jerusalem 

(1517), leaving the rabbinate of Cairo in the hands of David — 

Ibn Abi Zimra. 

For the great number of incoming Jews, who entered the © 
land from the north, Safed, perched on the loftiest hill of 

Galilee, proved attractive. Joseph Saragossi, who in the — 

exodus of 1492 wandered to Sicily and thence to Beirut and 

Sidon, found in Safed but a handful of Jews, whose rabbi — 


518 


poet outa living. A bundred years later 
‘ek Malaudical aseves and twenty- 
igogues. *  Bertinoro acderplished fer Jeru- 
Sara 0S: i did for the Galilean wexe Me planted the 
with the incorising influe « ~ephaske Jews 
ito @ floutipking centtr. font ag the new- 


t it sie Jacob Berab, wha ame 10 Saded 
€ age ef eighteen, this ex's ‘elo: Spain, the 
ab Up. 274), had landes i + tencen and 
rab in Pee; after the Spare. ocak he 
to, Jenuasiem, and Deaiiesines. ie Wiebe 
* feskied Safed. His wiih »+ well.ae 
wed fér hin 2 promines? gen ons in the 
‘now hartowed many dist: sig aptat sole 
da plan te revive the act < | ie veation 
ng the Hadrianic persecuiim .\~ srantion 
sand Judah son of Baba cree cowced the 
at the cost of his life (p. 296). (Sesion & 
aplied t judges, who thus wer « .comeped 
and only he who was pers: -sedheeisnant 
N Others (p. 206). Simex he chabi Bee 


thich, however, he left ape» Arete. 
: } Gite entire body of Paleeta ree is 


ae 


=r up an jure 
ious ahslese pytiens The Hab with the 
is enight apprive of the step aryl ecemp ardina- 


fACOB BERAB et ae 


Mahetoides incorporated: & iis (eee. - 


t 
bi “A 

- -< 
N 3 

ee 

a 

Pan 

Ay, 

a an 


Py “Aur experiment at T iberia 
comprehension of a ge 
driven ‘hither abel _— ner, 


two, 


L. and 


M5 his 


E} el 
Leeks 


CONTE 5 bees i pi 
ett > ome contrasted sh 
apps eesbve manner. in whick 


Kara lites ee Gantt es 
fem, i before his. 
nae 
ment of | codicient the very kin 
Thus Isaac Solal, the last head: 


tr ransferred Kis wealth hive be 


fous Abi Ziel ve 
For thé great abel i 
land from the north, ‘Safe 
Galilee, proved attractive. 
exocias of 1492 wandered ° 
Sition, found in Safed but 


| 1538] JACOB BERAB 519 


kept a small shop to eke out a living. A hundred years later 
Safed boasted of eighteen talmudical colleges and twenty- 
one synagogues. What Bertinoro accomplished for Jeru- 
salem, Saragossi did for the Galilean town. He planted the 
seed, which with the increasing influx of Sephardic Jews 
soon ripened into a flourishing center. Just as the new- 
comers excelled the natives in developing trade and various 
manufactures, so they were instrumental in raising the 
scholastic level of the community. Eminent men were drawn 
thither and found scope for their ample learning and rich 
inner life. , 

A strong personality was Jacob Berab, who came to Safed 
about 1534. At the age of eighteen, this exile from Spain, the 
pupil of Isaac Aboab (p. 473), had landed in Tlemcen and 
been accepted as rabbi in Fez; after the Spanish invasion he 
had wandered to Cairo, Jerusalem, and Damascus. He was a 
man of sixty when he settled in Safed. His wealth, as well as 
his ripe learning, secured for him a prominent position in the 
community, which now harbored many distinguished schol- 
ars, and he conceived a plan to revive the act of Ordination 
long defunct. During the Hadrianic persecution the practice 
was forbidden and Judah son of Baba contravened the 
emperor’s edict at the cost of his life (p. 216). Ordination, it 
_ should be said, applied to judges, who thus were empowered 
to impose fines, and only he who was properly ordained 
himself could ordain others (p. 206). Since the chain had 
long been broken, Maimonides incorporated in his Code a 
personal opinion, which, however, he left open to discussion, 
that if at any time the entire body of Palestinian scholars, 
with unanimous consent, chose to reinstitute Ordination 
they were free to do so. 

Accordingly, Berab assembled twenty-five rabbis of Safed, 
who created him their chief with authority to ordain judicial 
functionaries (1538). Among the first four who were thus 
ordained were Joseph Karo and Moses da Trani. A declara- 
tion was drawn up and sent to the chief rabbi at Jerusalem, 
Levi son of the Saloniki scholar Jacob Ibn Habib, with the 
request that he might approve of the step and accept ordina- 


520 PALESTINE [1554 


ee i ee a 


tion for himself. Levi felt that he had been slighted and that, — 
if not for his own dignity, then because of the prestige of the 
Holy City, he should have been consulted beforehand; more- 
over, he had legal scruples against the innovation. Berab, as 
Maimonides before him, had his mind set upon a recreation 
of the ancient Sanhedrin as a visible expression of religious — 
autonomy in Palestine and as a preparation for the advent 
of the Messiah. Levi Ibn Habib, supported by his colleague 
Moses de Castro, was not clear whether the rebuilding of © 
the Temple, in obedience to the order of the Messiah or of — 
an accepted prophet, should not precede the formation of © 
the Sanhedrin. Moreover, he saw no practical need for the © 
convocation of the Sanhedrin, since for the absolution of 
Maranos returning to Judaism—one of Berab’s avowed con- : 
cerns in taking this step—no penances were required beyond . 
penitent confession. Berab had indulged in offensive allu- 
sion to the fact that the Jerusalem rabbi had in childhood ~ 
undergone forcible baptism. At all events, Ibn Habib’s op- B 
position led to a collapse of the whole undertaking, which — 
did not survive the passing away of its originator (1541). , 
Joseph Karo (1488-1575) was brought to Turkey in early — 
childhood at the time of the exodus from Spain. His father — 
Ephraim, who was his first teacher in Talmud, settled in 
Nicopolis. Subsequently Joseph removed to Adrianople, 2 
where he established a reputation for himself as a thorough ~ 
talmudist and attracted disciples. At the age of thirty-four, — 
he began his commentary on the ‘Four Rows’ of Jacob son ~ 
of Asher (p. 439), which he styled ‘The House of Joseph.’ — 
For full twenty years (1522-1542) Karo labored to produce — 
this gigantic work of erudition, in which the source for every _ 
statement in the Talmud and cognate literature was indi- — 
cated and the opinions of later authorities quoted; and twelve 
more years (1542-1554) were spent in revision. Painstaking i 
student that he was, he led an inner life touched by the < 
breath of mysticism. All his days he believed himself at- 2 
tended by a mentor-power, in which he saw the personified 
Mishnah and which admonished him daily what to do and — 
what not to do, regulating his hours of sleep and imposing — 


SPEEA AROSE OER 


SES i Rae 


ae fOSEFH KARO say 


m acetic Seauciousness. Ife came into contact with 
alistic circles of Saloniki; be hui a great veneration 
longed eo be worthy of a martyr’s death like 


At, 


abe thee: \Masalaic: dreamer had met. This oppor- 
fet come Kare’s way: bur his presentiment that 
ed to play gnenet part took hum to the Holy Land. 
been the Meira ik Teerab's far-reaching 
C in Kars te detecmtuation to solidify the 
y peer Snersre. with b8e7 was published the 
Karo’s: fede, “The Pragered Table’ (Shut. 
Soom rere to this day BOY VHS AS 
slew ad tit xeaw of lewry. 1t-wae 
ened the Your Rew’ with the addi- 
celeb am that work; it waste 
be hamids at vie ives eather than of the 
. nthe latices ‘ew wax the author's banger 
ood wey Menogne:, mas given. Thue diet 
Sime tad beso directed ageanst 
1. Troe posterity of the product oo 
apic peta aii and Its speeud 
r: te Drispee sis = Vivace was room far 
: “but eithed the ¢ wide orliosed thoes of 
or which she jade porter csking rested. The 
ENB Uj weeeiestiy wich cha avowal of 
e Mishwaly iakes & S pronted char the 


de cen the Se $s tee tienes ee piigaie 
Maker, if & the ce -rcte that Com 


oe Ses wage seal sree ick dt ww hee 
. pa wigan Secu, ill oe 


bes | wt Sakon atertsen, th 
F ra d white thay ‘ite: weer 


oo - ae Via: sya etares on with 7 


fany obsensiene prt tae sot 2 Oe Ng 
y are icui Witenes cova! whieh bie gals 


for himself. Levi felt that he had: 
jet for his owned igtt nity, then becau: 
ily City, be should have beer coms 
evr. he had k al decree presi am 
Sta 
af the ace Sai fies rin as @ | 
autononty hepa and asia prepas 
@ the Messiah: Levi ton Habib, suppe 
. Moses de Cost, w as not clear wh 


ieee Mae in. accepted into het. “should not P 


} So nn oh ieee | 

Lé wie Ae Nearish, mei 
: ; ; e 
con VOCaTiOn cet 


‘on 8 ie enna that the pie 
indergone TOKe ible bapa, \t a 
vosition fed to a “ ae of: the: 


$ 


childhoe ith het ie me ee pre 
phraim Ase was his fix rat. 


where he sr rik a pet 


talinudist sp attracted dicipheg 


S Aichi r cate 436 ee hich his sty. 
For full twenty years (1522-154 

his ¢ iwantic work of erudition, 

arti as. statement in \ the Talmud and 
cated and the ~ pint mas . 

(Hore Vears 


w 


student t vat was, he led 


— 
a3 
ae 
Le 
Pe oe 
See’ 
ce 
ma 
“.: 
Z 


tan<d ix by a pees 
sae hah and which admonished 
Pee Ct ue areey not to do, reg erating his 


1567] JOSEPH KARO 521 


upon him ascetic abstemiousness. He came into contact with 
the cabalistic circles of Saloniki; he had a great veneration 
for Molko and longed to be worthy of a martyr’s death like 
that which the Messianic dreamer had met. This oppor- 
tunity did not come Karo’s way; but his presentiment that 
he was called to playa great part took him to the Holy Land. 

It may have been the miscarriage of Berab’s far-reaching 
plans that ripened in Karo the determination to solidify the 
unity of Israel by another means. In 1567 was published the 
first edition of Karo’s Code, “The Prepared Table’ (Shul- 
han Aruk) as the author called it, which to this day serves as 
a guide for the religious life of the mass of Jewry. It was 
meant as an abridgment of the ‘Four Rows’ with the addi- 
tions found in his own commentary on that work; it was to 
be placed into the hands of the tyro rather than of the 
mature scholar. For the latter there was the author’s larger 
work, where the basis of every decision was given. Thus did 
Karo escape the criticism which had been directed against 
the Code of Maimonides. The popularity of the product is 
attested by the rapidly succeeding editions and its spread 
to all the confines of the Dispersion. There was room for 
divergent opinions, but withal the Code eclipsed those of 
remoter times upon which the last undertaking rested. The 
Law of Moses opens up majestically with the avowal of 
God as Creator; the Mishnah takes it for granted that the 
Jew daily confesses God as One; Maimonides starts in with 
the fundamental affirmation of the First Cause; the first 
words in Karo’s Code bid the Jew rise betimes and prepare 
for the service of his Maker. It is this key-note that dom- 
inates the whole. If any obsolete and outworn notions were 
carried into it, they are lost in the sum total which blends 
the multitudinous fragments of Jewish conduct into a har- 
monious unit of devotion to God’s revealed will and to the 
hallowed traditions of a long past. 

Among Karo’s intimate friends at Safed, with whom he 
took counsel, was the cabalist Solomon Alkabez. Their friend- 
ship had been formed while they were yet in Turkey, and it 
was on a Pentecost night, during the wakeful hours spent in 


522 PALESTINE (1569 ; 


Scripture reading and the study of the Mishnah, that Karo 
was urged by his mentor-genius to depart with his friend for 
the Holy Land. Alkabez infused the mystic longing for the 
Messianic redemption into the poem he composed for the 


reception of the sabbath, with its beautiful refrain: ‘Come, ~ 
my Beloved, and let us bid welcome to the Bride.’ The poem 
was speedily accepted by all Jewry. The Safed circle in-— 
cluded a number of other kindred spirits, all grouped about — 


their masters as associates and given to a life of inward piety, — 
in which frequent confessions and the ener of spiritual — 


experiences held a place. 

The Safed school of mysticism Feanked its fullest develop- 
ment in Isaac Luria (1534-1572) and his pupil Hayim Vital 
(1543-1620). Luria was born in Jerusalem of a German fam- 
ily; hence he was styled the ‘Lion’ (ARI, abbreviation for 


Ashkenazi Rabbi Isaac). In early childhood he lost his father — 
and was taken by his mother to her rich brother in Cairo, the — 


tax-farmer Mordecai Francis. He was given a thorough 


training in Talmud under the care of Ibn Abi Zimra and © 
Bezalel Ashkenazi. But Luria’s temperament was not satis- 
fied with the scholastic career. He immersed himself into the — 


study of the cabalistic classic, the Zohar (p. 432), which had 
just been printed (Mantua and Cremona, 1558). He lived 
the life of a hermit, withdrawing from human society and 
visiting his home only on the sabbath day. His ascetic life” 
and devout praying brought on ecstatic visions, and he ~ 


believed himself to be the prophet Elijah, the forerunner of FS 
the Messiah. In Egypt he met with little encouragement; so 4 
with his cousin-wife and child he settled in Safed (about : 


eed I Se ee a 


id 


1569). Here he gathered about himself a company of dis- — 


ciples, ranged in two divisions, as novices and initiates; they 


q 


all, with their families, formed a community apart, occupy- — 


ing dwellings about a common court. From time to time — 


ae 


the master would take them to Meron, to the grave of Simon i 


son of Johai (p. 220), the reputed author of the Zohar, and 
there reénact the imaginary sessions of those far-off days. 
Luria now believed that he was the Messiah from the tribe — 
of Joseph, who was to usher in the advent of the Messiah of 


a 
: 
: 


Hin ) eearA AND VITAL §23 


vei gabbath was oot a an ni 


yi. ¢ the four wa of the ined faible: Ninos: At 
Tol Set himself with three or four ef his dis- 

ers. most indimate atterd qe t belede whom 
nermost payagaal war Viet, 


Xs P pcotoandly oS by io hive atin 
ite a wa Povered but afew woara, Ueiote 

ae ént short prematurely by che plage 
y assumed. the leadership of the civrie of 
vy dP hiraself-to be heir to the ~seter's nite 
rec ©. tn him Luria's - te silt frsutred a 
ro - It had both a theoretic: a) Grit * nepctiea) 
utia wat oie first to dev — the ater seat, ote 


eke Cabala, he Sanight: barienes somite 


| then throvigh Vafious graders wiet 
rez red i formed, and made.’ Wilh da eSNG 
tion’ ‘of divine Cnerey, the chanwek ee 
ith their cortent. 
tical conception of Creatut she hart = Bree 
; Te ‘al, that is, ethical dkeetesne ot Warld 
oe dedile gouls were tinittd Gs the Pre- 
that is; the idea of Man. Pranig tarry & 
Lr en there is not a Nace soubor 
ie OF- the Whagicer int it, DOr te the Sarot wal free 
eden thai the ascent mae iy cumde te the 
id sundered from God, the most px«iect arid of 
ic period, the souls must be ger fied fone all 
tion is aceomplished, ox the oneland, by 
ation, the purer syals expiacing their imper- 
Aro ech enteritig int fess refined bodies, even into 


PALESTINE, ‘ 


} iis men tor-eenius tod 
seen lkabez infused t 
pedem a“ n — the 


—F 4 — 
7a hak 


CK vied 3 and let us abit id selec 
speedily accept ~ pf ae) Je WYYs 


reque aa con 
s held a ‘Place. ee 


hence Oh t Was aria the. 

eto P A. Rabbi Isaac). In € 
ovbowas taken by his nother te 
LAN Ee: ‘Mordecai Fra. ¥ 
sin Talmud under 
hkenazi. But Luria’s! 
with the scholastic ee: , 
fof the scitbaliatic el lassi¢ | 


i 
© 


. 5 
dong eS: 
an OE aa i .F: 


= 
es ig 
= ee 


coiahs aes igypt pe 
: cousin-wile and - 


9} “Here he gathered a 
red in two divisions, 
ar area { 


a 
beet 
raat 
44 


cae €@ reenar : the ee 
Lasria now believed that he wv 
seph, whe was te ueher 


LURIA AND VITAL 523 


David's lineage. On the sabbath he was wont to dress him- 
self in white, the color of Grace, and wore a quadruple gar- 
ment to symbolize the four letters of the Ineffable Name. At 
the last he surrounded himself with three or four of his dis- 
ciples; the master’s most intimate attendant, before whom 
he unfolded his innermost thoughts, was Vital. 

Hayim Vital was the son of an immigrant from Calabria. 
He came under the influence of Moses Cordovero and the 
preacher and Bible commentator Moses al-Sheik; but natu- 
rally he was most profoundly stirred by Luria. Altogether 
their intimate associations covered but afew years, before 
Luria’s career was cut short prematurely by the plague. 
Vital immediately assumed the leadership of the circle of 
mystics and believed himself-to be heir to the master’s réle 
as Messianic precursor. In him Luria’s teaching founda 
zealous propagator. It had both a theoretical and a practical 
side. In effect, Luria was the first to develop the practical, or 
applied, Cabala, just as he was the first to give tangible form 
to the doctrine of divine Self-concentration. Emanation, the 
basic principle in the Cabala, he taught, becomes possible 
through the Infinite Being contracting Himself into finite- 
ness. Thus the divine effulgence passes over into the part 
sundered, and then through various gradations into the 
actual world, ‘created, formed, and made.’ With each descent 
there is a dissipation of divine energy, the channels or ‘ves- 
sels’ bursting with their content. 

All this theoretical conception of Creation is but a pre- 
amble to the practical, that is, ethical, doctrine of World 
Perfection. All the possible souls were united in the Pre- 
existent Man, that is, the Idea of Man. Through Adam’s 
sin good and evil intermixed; there is not a lower soul that 
has not something of the higher in it, nor is the best soul free 
from impurity. In order that the ascent may be made to the 
original world sundered from God, the most perfect world of 
the Messianic period, the souls must be purified from all 
dross. This purification is accomplished, on the one hand, by 
soul transmigration, the purer souls expiating their imper- 
fections through entering into less refined bodies, even into 


524 PALESTINE [1628 


stocks and stones, and, on the other hand, by soul super- 
fetation, when in addition to the soul received at birth there 
is incarnated another which formerly dwelt in some superior 
‘person. The ascent should also be facilitated by means of 
certain practices and ceremonies. This is the applied Cabala, 
which prescribed especially the thoughts one was to carry in 
one’s mind while praying, so that every word and every 
letter was ‘directed’ towards the various scales in Creation. 
Ecstatic joy was injected into divine worship, the worship 
that was not confined to the synagogue. The sabbath meals, 
particularly the third, towards the outgoing of the day of 
rest, were accompanied by hymns which described in sen- 
suous terms the bliss of the sabbath, itself preéminently a 
revelation of the Divine Presence, the Infinite made mani- 
fest in time. 

The teachings and practices of the school of Luria were 
spread far and wide by the ‘Lion’s Whelps,’ as his disciples 
and followers were called. The system was fitted into the 
scheme of talmudic Judaism by the eminently learned and 
saintly Isaiah Hurwitz (1570-1628), who, after filling rab- 
binical positions in several German and Polish communities, 
spent the closing years of his life in Palestine. Conditions in 
the Holy City were, however, quite lamentable; the learned 
rabbi and the notables of the community were cast into — 
prison by an oppressive pasha. The Jews of Jerusalem scat- — 
tered in all directions; Hurwitz escaped to Safed and then to — 
Tiberias, where he completed his work “The Two Tables of 
the Covenant,’ replete with mystic directions and ethical © 
admonitions. The trend of the age was distinctly towards © 
mysticism. Nor was its hold lessened in the next generation, 
despite the critical acumen of Leon Modena (p. 510) or the — 
feigned apology by Joseph Solomon del Medigo of Candia — 
(1592-1655), the pupil of Galilei and physician of Prince» 
Radzivil in Poland. 


r ER LXX 
JF PRUSSIA AND POLAND TO THE 
OF ‘THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 


Sew $01) 


es # Straits which connext the Black Sei nie 
f Anapa om the eastern «ite of the Tasean 

‘north, im Olbia af tke mouth w the 
&, residents of the Bosporan kindle: 
inguage and miist have come at a od 
1 Asia Minor. Be possessed & dls 
‘ ] organization rth houses of wey kn 
settlements, edetéi, 5. from ania ae 
pere attracted ty the fewish faith. * ‘ Ait 
; 18 and Jews joined i a revolt again nad 
r ivity p of Christian remain Even. wheels | 


ee) 
coe 


headway in those ey!ons i 

I which the Charch fait upon ga Joxiy ol 
re drove many o! (hers eorthwar tes she 
the Wewish populetien on both es il the 
Crimea as: well as in the Caccasus, bad increased 
en Principal seut was « aya ob (or 

a), which came to be practice’, a jewish town. 
ts achievement Was the cons 2 8i0n tO Judaisre 
hakan of the Charary febout 749), Beginning 
th: ‘century, the Chasars formed an organized Paes 
; 1¢ borderland of Europe and Asia, between. the | 
he Volga, and the Won. Their main strain was 

ce, but their gt aad polity were akin 
é Huns and Turka 3) when they were held 
F a time. At the zenith «! chat power, terchante 


- §25 


Sie baiand stones, and, on chee ° 
Retation, when in addition to’ the soul r 
% igeatnated another which forme! 
Gerson. The ascent: should also” | 
eertnin practices and ceremonies," 
which prescribed especially. thes 
anes m ind while praying, sof 
teer was ‘directed’ cowards th 
Bost: atic joy was injected, in 
that was Aot confined to the: sy 
particularly the third, towan 
rest, were accompanied by 
ous terms the bliss of the 
revelation off the’ Divine I re 
fest in: time, | : Bhp 
The teachings’ stat oxiietetl 
spread far and wide by the G 
‘er vids obowers were: called. Th 
scheme of talmudic Judaism 
sdintiy Isaiah Hurwite (1571 
binical positions in. several 2ermM 
ent ¢ oh closing years of his life 
a ve } Holy Civy were, however 
rabbi and the notables..o be 
prison by an oppressive past a 
tered in aff directions; Hurwit e: 
Tiberias, where he completed : 
the Covenartt,’ replete with 
admonitions. The trend of 
mysticism, Nor was its hold 
detpite the eritieal acumen 
feigned apology by Joseph 
(4562~ 1653), the: pupil of 
Radzivil in ‘Poland. - eh ie 


he 


a 


CHAPTER LXX 


THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND POLAND TO THE 
END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 


(100-1501) 


S FAR back as the first Christian century, Jewish com- 
A munities were established in Panticapaeum (Kerch) 
west of the Straits which connect the Black Sea and 
the Sea of Azov; in Anapa on the eastern side of the Taman 
peninsula; further north, in Olbia at the mouth of the 
Dnieper. These Jews, residents of the Bosporan kingdom, 
spoke the Greek language and must have come at a still 
earlier period from Asia Minor. They possessed a fully 
developed communal organization with houses of worship. 
As in all other early settlements, adherents, from among the 
pagan population, were attracted to the Jewish faith. About 
the year 300, pagans and Jews joined in a revolt against the 
missionary activity of Christian bishops. Even when the 
northern shore of the Black Sea had passed under the sway 
of the Christianized Byzantine empire, Christianity was 
making but slow headway in those regions. 

The heavy hand which the Church laid upon the Jews of 
the eastern empire drove many of them northward. In the 
eighth century the Jewish population on both sides of the 
Straits, in Crimea as well as in the Caucasus, had increased 
considerably. Its principal seat was at Phanagoria (or 
Tamatarcha), which came to be practically a Jewish town. 

A noteworthy achievement was the conversion to Judaism 
of Bulan, the khakan of the Chazars (about 740). Beginning 
with the sixth century, the Chazars formed an organized 
state on the borderland of Europe and Asia, between the 
Caucasus, the Volga, and the Don. Their main strain was 
of the white race, but their language and polity were akin 
to those of the Huns and Turks by whom they were held 
subject for a time. At the zenith of their power, merchants 


525 


! 
> 
om 
*) 
7 


526 | THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND POLAND [1016 


of many lands and divers peoples met in the marts of their 
capital Itil, at the mouth of the Volga. A renewed and more 
lasting turn toward Judaism took place under Obadiah, the 
first khakan who bore a Hebrew name. From that time until 
the eclipse of Chazar ascendancy, none but a Jew in religion 
was permitted to ascend the throne. Those in the immediate 
entourage of the princes and a substantial part of the people 
embraced Judaism. The poorest among these converts broke 
with the custom of their pagan compatriots to sell their chil- 
dren into slavery. Members of other religious bodies were ~ 
free to live according to their faiths and had their own 
jurisdiction. 

The khakans were held in high regard at the Byzantine 
court, honored above even the pope and Christian mon- 
archs. One of the emperors married a Chazar princess; her 
son mounted the throne as Leo IV. (775-780). The khakans 
protected Jewish interests in adjacent lands. Within their 
own dominion the Hebrew language was an object of study. 
It is with the last Chazar ruler, Joseph, that Hasdai Ibn 
Shaprut corresponded from Spain (p. 310). Shortly after 
Joseph’s reply reached the Jewish statesman, the power of 
the Chazar nation was broken. The blow was dealt by the 
Varangian princes of Kiev. Svyatoslav I. (964-973) took 
the fortress Sarkel (965) and then seized the capital Itil as 
well as the second largest city, Semender (969). The last — 
vestige of Chazar dominion, which maintained itself for half 
a century in the Crimea, was blotted out by Mstislav I. in 
coéperation with the Byzantines (1016). 

The friendly relations with Byzantium had been cemented 
by Mstislav’s father, Vladimir the Great, who accepted 
Christianity in 989 and married a sister of the Greek emperor 
Basil II. It is said that he spurned alike the overtures of — 
representatives of Judaism and the missionary efforts of — 
Catholic Poland. The preference for Christianity in Greek 
form was founded on political considerations which led — 
Russia to regard herself as heir to the decaying Roman 
empire of the East. The spirit of Byzantine intolerance © 
transmitted itself to the dominion of the grand prince of — 


a ee ey ee 


amma tion OF GERMAN Tews” Eee 


| ab is of the Pechers monastery, and 
netre @litan of Kiev, peteched hateed of the 
ies «1 ores epee tk. 41093-1113) pro- 
SH Fesidenis of his capinm:|: some of them 
© rane Sollectors of the custome. But, 
fp whith followed hi elesch, rfote broke . 
t fell. to looting Jews nroperty, until 
| By the eniry ot Viwtiear 1: {Menc- 
Wedn the twelfth canine. che Jews of 
alls  spolre the languerr a thee CVMTES'Y 
inte contact with thely-iee oo of Ger 
erCantile assockatint s+) by reasce 
westerns Jaws into Slavie « ts wftet the - 
Jews now had marsha an} morithes. of 
there Was a hay arias? State iy the 
Moses at Kiev pperenponitet, Ce Bercters at 
son of Ab at Basdad (p: 44%. © 64. f atars, 
Russia in $259, were toheeai a chelous 
idolaters And waiter: they ecoae: taiam:. 
ourse was established luxwor Oy and 
the old Jewieh cOmnitinitet 28 s setreme 
tinto relation with they ie Seder th, 
the First Crusade (1065 an necially 
a (1147) a Srird (11 ROP PES 4 tea cone 
re became ve snd more. Teas sie, the 
i migration poured into fits. fre prov 
border were the first to be ac % a ot et Qa 4 
Posen, Kahag, Silesia. Taex: oe OS: 
Pot mumber Gr becauee &¢ +> oir aaperthy 
yi Modimposed upon the ofde: s-..tente tel 
; i their very apecch, The encarae 5 wamties 
ced among Polish Jewry. Throvyh ator n fromy fea 
his speech mele 2 wie re rR, qubfecin iz 
@ it in vocabulary free the Slavic wert sees LORE, 
eapite Mads hy4rg isfiuemces (oe Dae Caronan 
re of thas time. Prartiy: one ee od « pit binders was 


: Pot ; fHS SRWS OF RI 
. nt many lands } divers peoples na 
; eapital itt!, at the s aaard of the Volga a4 
asting tur towat ze J hudaisrn wala EU 
ree fret khakan who bore a Hebrew nam . Fror 


: , a he: € Mei se of Chazar ascendancy 
ers was peravitted to ascend the thron 
he entourage of the princes and a su : 
ius | embraced Judaism. The poorest a | 
; with tie su stom of their pagan com 
en & , slavery. Members’ of ot! 


free tO es xccording iQ 


9 ‘Si 

ates gat ee" 
 . Phe Khakans were held: in high 
; court, “ae vnored above. ever the. 


archs. One of the emperors. mari 


n mounte df the throne as Leo IV. 


ee 


pee eet ted J Jewish intereats in. age 
‘eh ston sie He cbrew Janda ap 


0 


Shaprut “correspon ded from Soe 


we it as the second ban if 
vestige of Chagar dominion, 
a century in the Crimea, was 6! 
cooperation with the Byzantin 


friendly relations with 


ro 
nk 
as 
ey 
pry 


by Mestislay’s father, ~Vied 
Christianity i OR9 as ad marri 


Basil U1. tiv said Hint he spl 
representatives of Judaism ¢ 
Catholic Poland, The prefer 
form was founde <4 Gn politi 
Russia to regard hemelf ag 
enpire of the East, The spa 
transmitted itself to the domix 


1096-1192] MIGRATION OF GERMAN JEWS 527 


Kiev. Theodosius, abbot of the Pechera monastery, and 
Hilarion, the metropolitan of Kiev, preached hatred of the 
Jews, ‘the enemies of God.’ Svyatopolk IT. (1093-1113) pro- 
tected the Jewish residents of his capital; some of them 
served him in the capacity of collectors of the customs. But, 
during the interregnum which followed his death, riots broke 
out, and the populace fell to looting Jewish property, until 
order was restored by the entry of Vladimir II. (Mono- 
machus, 1113-1125). In the twelfth century, the Jews of 
Russia, who naturally spoke the language of the country, 
began to be thrown into contact with their brethren of Ger- 
many, both through mercantile association and by reason 
of the influx of western Jews into Slavic countries after the 
Crusades. Russian Jews now had rabbinical authorities of 
their own. At Chernigov there was a learned rabbi by the 
name of Isaac. Moses at Kiev corresponded on matters of 
law with Samuel son of Ali at Bagdad (p. 343). The Tatars, 
who conquered Russia in 1240, were tolerant in religious 
matters, both as idolaters and after they accepted Islam. 
Commercial intercourse was established between Kiev and 
the Crimea, and the old Jewish communities of the extreme 
south were brought into relation with those of the north. 
Beginning with the First Crusade (1096) and especially 
after the Second (1147) and Third (1189-1192), when con- 
ditions in Germany became more and more lamentable, the 
stream of Jewish migration poured into Poland. The prov- 
inces nearest the border were the first to be sought out as a 
refuge: Cracow, Posen, Kalisz, Silesia. These new-comers, 
whether by weight of number or because of their superior 
training in Judaism, imposed upon the older residents their 
culture and their very speech. The German dialect was thus 
introduced among Polish Jewry. Through isolation from its 
native home this speech assumed a form of its own, suffering 
admixture in vocabulary from the Slavic and other tongues, 
yet retaining despite modifying influences its basic German 
structure of that time: During the period when Poland was 
split up into a number of principalities, Jews were protected 
against mob violence by the princes. Mieczyslav III., duke 


528 THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND POLAND [1298-1348 


of Great Poland (Posen and Kalisz) issued an edict forbid- 
ding attacks upon the Jews by the students of ecclesiastical 
colleges (1173). During the reign of his immediate successors, 
Jews farmed and administered the mints both in Great and 
in Little Poland, and the coins bore the names of the ruling 
dukes in Hebrew characters. At the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century Jews owned land in Polish Silesia. 

The devastations wrought by the Tatar invasion (since 
1241) made it necessary to invite settlers from Germany, 
and no distinction was made as to Jews and Christians. 
Between the two fixed classes, the nobility (szlachta) and 
the peasantry, a middle class element of traders and crafts- 
men was introduced into Polish society for the first time. 
The Christian immigrant burghers, organized in guilds, were 
antagonistic to their Jewish competitors, and the Church 
strove to make operative the canonical restrictions against 
the Jews. The rights of the Jews within Poland were defined 
in a charter issued by Boleslav the Pious (1264); it was 
largely modeled after the one granted by duke Frederick of 
_ Austria in 1244 (p. 377). But the provincial synod, held in 
Breslau in 1267 under the presidency of the papal legate 
Guido, introduced for the Polish archdiocese of Gnesen’ 
measures calculated to cut off social intercourse between 
Jews and Christians. With a view to protecting ‘the tender — 
plant of Christianity in these regions,’ it was recommended — 
that the Jews should be segregated in quarters of their own 
and always appear with the sgee headgear prescribed in — 
general council. | 

The rulers, with an eye to the economic needs of the coun- — 
try, were not swayed by the narrow-minded attitude of — 
Church synods or councils. The butcheries committed by 
Rindfleisch (1298, p. 402) and the worse massacres at the © 
time of the Black Death (1348, p. 404) brought fresh masses — 
of German Jews. Casimir the Great (1333-1370) ratified the 
charter of Boleslav. He furthermore placed under the juris- : 
diction of the Crown all lawsuits between Jews and Chris- — 
tians, since the municipal magistrates were hostile to the — 
Jews. He also granted to the Jews access to the municipal — 


| JASCENDANCY OF Tem CITeRCH $29 


a", ' 
j r 


one 


tabl ents alongside # ( *ristiams, as well as 
g ki f free transit through te country and of unre 

ncile many of the cities i <itages, It was made 
eto rent or mor eine ‘seates of the nobil- 
etepesifarced : exeiill | on and fore- 


roy moneyed meén 40 Lia >* al thises they 
y to dupply the treasury wir) /riets. 
> appointed @ Christian ofteas! te try Jewish 
vied enieap o+ some Othe ieres in aetord- 
vw ext the representaifess - ‘he Jewish 
erin laid the foundativ: Ms «%4 régime of 
ny as it subsequently deweice: =. Upon the 
‘ Polisi university at & nee ie! BA64), Be 
L bam fancier to raise iy aoe Ioana to 
ents. The Jewish commun “ae Cemberg 
relgr of this monarch, “G ns thede Red 
ponding to Galicia! feo Bey real: 
th! of ecclesiastical power ee; © > succes- 
fngary (1370-1582) aed (a4 (y= caler of 
st , Viadislaw U1. (1386-43 ar ‘ m oacutions 
nd The archbishop of Psi pair ona spro- 
t ‘the Jews of Rosen on *% so ted charge 
cured “and desecrated thre ai ‘vom the 
ho The rabbi and thirtee: 4 ~ < the Jews 
by were roasted alive (1307). ftjss.< cr, a fine 
d. “upon: the Jews of Posen, ost ioe tine was 
tually by the Dominicans dew <s the eight 
ih nab at Easter time, & o> +) 0) Cracow 
in wt of a rumor wr ha jews har 
by id. Te Jewish quarsdi «4s mumiediately 
ews were killed and thei: « “igen baptized, 
soted and dwellings wete «* on fire. The 
14%} yeénacted all the api meas: 
‘at the synod of Breslau. 
$6 | was gram! duke of i amanielaiiee be as- 
sh crown. The two states were now united 


of Ps18 


MOMS PO beef MO 
; EWS OF RU SSA AND, 
¥ 15 
i%.. PREC 
Lit 4 ny 
ae Tae? a ‘3 
Pes Bese 
histieneml grant Crh Fs 
ses pelle eters thes afi 
ee a tekta of the Jews 1 
oe 
aver eu od by Boleslay . 
ia $26) 
af 
ey ate ; hisoitiea AS. With a vie 
ef (erietian Wy. in 
vet te Degen hited be sce 
wares appar welt the 
és F 5 
boise 
sot chet md 
ve mrt a pA ‘Ss 
hes J A a 
i tan Bt ; 
eS, Bite: 
¥ 
ste. Lit aw 
L 


PRA 


; 


1420] ASCENDANCY OF THE CHURCH 529 


bathing establishments alongside of Christians, as well as 
the privilege of free transit through the country and of unre- 
stricted domicile in any of the cities or villages. It was made 
lawful for the Jews to rent or mortgage estates of the nobil- 
ity, with provisions for enforced settling of debts and fore- 
closure. The motive of all these enactments was the medieval 
theory that the Jews were the property of the Crown. It was 
their business to be moneyed men so that at all times they 
might be ready to supply the treasury with funds. 

Casimir also appointed a Christian official to try Jewish 
lawsuits in the synagogue or some other place, in accord- 
ance with the wishes of the representatives of the Jewish 
community. Thus was laid the foundation for the régime of 
internal autonomy as it subsequently developed. Upon the 
opening of the first Polish university at Cracow (1364), the 
king appointed a Jewish financier to raise funds for loans to 
professors and students. The Jewish community of Lemberg 
originated in the reign of this monarch, who added Red 
Russia (nearly corresponding to Galicia) to the Polish realm. 
With the growth of ecclesiastical power under his succes- 
sors, Louis of Hungary (1370-1382) and the first ruler of 
the Jagello dynasty, Vladislav II. (1386-1434), persecutions 
of the Jews began. The archbishop of Posen instituted pro- 
ceedings against the Jews of Posen on the alleged charge 
of having procured and desecrated three hosts from the 
Dominican church. The rabbi and thirteen elders of the Jew- 
ish community were roasted alive (1399). Moreover, a fine 
was imposed upon the Jews of Posen, and this fine was 
extorted annually by the Dominicans down to the eight- 
eenth century. In 1407, at Easter time, a priest of Cracow 
made public announcement of a rumor that the Jews had 
slain a Christian child. The Jewish quarter was immediately 
attacked, many Jews were killed and their children baptized, 
property was looted and dwellings were set on fire. The 
synod of Kalisz (1420) reénacted all the anti-Jewish meas- 
ures passed at the synod of Breslau. 

Vladislav II. was grand duke of Lithuania when he as- 
sumed the Polish crown. The two states were now united 


530 THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND POLAND [1454 


under one king; yet the grand duchy was administered 
separately under a prince of its own, Vladislav’s cousin 
Vitovt (or Vitold, 1388-1430). The area of Lithuania had 
grown steadily since the time of Gedymin, the ancestor of 
the Jagellos (1316-1341). In the beginning of the fifteenth 
century it embraced old Russian territory, as far east as 
Vyazma on the banks of the Moskva river and south to the 
shores of the Sea of Azov. A number of Jewish communities 
had come into existence, the most important being found in 
Grodno, Brest, Vladimir. At Troki and Luczk there were 
Karaite settlements which had moved up from Crimea. In 
1388, the Jews of Brest and other Lithuanian communities 
obtained from Vitovt a charter of guaranties similar to those 
bestowed by Boleslav and Casimir the Great. 

Casimir IV., Vladislav’s second son, both as grand duke of 
Lithuania and (since 1447) king of Poland, was very much 
averse to the clerical intrigues against the Jews. In 1453, 
at the bidding of the communities of Posen, Kalisz, and 
other cities, the new monarch ratified the charter of Casimir 
the Great from transcripts of the original document, the 
latter having been destroyed by a fire in the city of Posen 
shortly after the coronation. The archbishop of Cracow, 
Olesnicki, denounced the king for granting protection to 
the Jews and denied the monarch’s right to legislate at will 
in matters pertaining to the Christian religion. Moreover, he 
invited to Poland the legate Capistrano, ‘the Jews’ scourge,’ 
who brought evil days upon the Jews of Germany (p. 415). 
This fanatical ecclesiastic delivered incendiary speeches 
against the Jews and demanded the revocation of the ‘god- 
less’ Jewish privileges. 

Casimir was engaged in a truly patriotic enterprise against 
the Teutonic Knights. The scheme ended in the acquisition 
of the Baltic seaboard vital to Polish commerce, but it was 
so little understood by the gentry that obstacles were put in 
the monarch’s path at the most critical junctures. An initial 
defeat sustained by the army encouraged the nobility to 
wrest concessions from the king. These were the beginning of 
the curtailment of the royal powers. The Statute of Nieszava 


ucla ché Jewish charter, oT he Cake 

oat tee helpless to core to the aid of their 
a eaneeatd whirk fact been looked upon 
| for the waruleci, people. Excesses 
ir enacted in ( Hace (1495) and Posen 
ates, derelict in price king the Tews from 
Sy thied by ihe | Bie. | 

at Casimir TV., this sides -} , john f. in Poland 
id A in Lithuesia, were both un- 
Jews, s. John instituted See Pevies «ghar Rin oma 
i he in Cracow in 14 ure errs 3 


. Scabeg til ice hay hy ae tubers? th rT 


€ Were driven from the Gey, The kisgnuekieond 


- a Jewish ghetto: eit 1868, artiemter, 
for his campaign against rcs yt fie 
aie —! rH bo PR Se eb eg Sexy 


‘treasury of Bane | He id bo tes cadet 
7, The exiles fled to re sent the 
merous and imiientia! to be ation ied toa 
iM, when Alexander vucxetiat Yo) «other 
eon (1501), he was pawsetem to dis- 
tthe Jews of Lithuania. since fo. a Hime 
hy was indissolubly uniiath ©: fland. 
sion of the wealthy Abas Sapa eae avicz, 
stianity and was wnreGtad ty Sieaardder, 
By ous bier pilandice i: Yeh to their 
' y were made to isitipime Ae oy Corietians 
derec to the treasury avd «24> gated them- 
itantial yearly tax t the daar of 
resumed their resdenes, Alexander 
se of Boleslav and Caswiir the Great 
epmatitution of coagh ae nor frc Ft 


phe iaetait nent of th ne royal 


a THE (WS OF RUSSIA AND Po! 


Ld 
t@osrately under & prince 
bf 2O2 4 4% ¥) 
Sitoyvt (01 Oh, APES Pia nc 
m9 rh peg 
wes ey Ut peiilsa ¥ ity i Lae 
4 4 7, ae aie eee, Se: 3 
fagrello 16 1341). | 
eas + ore “ P. vn Tyee ~agt 
Sees YW AN CF 53 SIE RAS 
Yyasina on the banks of sek 


° p gx * % 


shares, of the Sea of AgovA 
hadi come m7bo exraten ce, the most impo 2 | 
Gresino, Brest, Viedi linn At Troki: and Lue 
Karsite settiemmite Wich bad moved up fi 
1358, th A ei of Brest and other Lithoania 


rbtained frona Vite ails cartes ) 
a , ae = Nets... 5, 


% my ae “ 
. & - 
- 
- % 
Ree 
ee oe 4 +4 
<h.* : 
¥ a ‘oy 
i Ly 
Py = % ; 


Lite. Fe Bete trai cr pts wag pene 
latter having bee a dentine: by @ fire: 
orth A fe 4 oak coronation. The 

{Mesnicii, ae af “= he oni ; . 


Lhe {UWS Ae 
sees “sie 
mMatrers Pp 
2 ete fect ote 
Pee VE, TO 
& 
f 
who for 
a | * 


bai fanarivnal’ ece lesiastio del: ‘ 
agamet the Jews 2 nd den randed the ¢ 


the Panties Kris ht of he aoe 


wo Hetle odes “Sten nad ns rhe gentry 
the monasch's path at the most @m 
deieat sustained: by the army © 
wrest concessions from the spake 


1495] EXPULSION FROM LITHUANIA 531 


(1454) marked the ascendancy of the Polish oligarchs; the 
same Statute abrogated the Jewish charter. The German 
Jews were much too helpless to come to the aid of their 
brethren in Poland, the country which had been looked upon 
as a place of escape for the wandering people. Excesses 
against the Jews were enacted in Cracow (1455) and Posen 
(1468) ; the magistrates, derelict in protecting the Jews from 
slaughter, were severely fined by the king. 

The successors of Casimir IV., his sons John I. in Poland 
(1492-1501) and Alexander in Lithuania, were both un- 
friendly to the Jews. John instituted the first ghetto in Poland. 
A fire had broken out in Cracow in 1494 and destroyed a 
good part of the city; the Jews were attacked by the popu- 
lace, upon the baseless accusation that they had caused the 
misfortune, and were driven from the city. The king ordered 
the Jews to take up their residence in a separate suburb, 
which continued as a Jewish ghetto till 1868. Alexander, 
who needed money for his campaign against Ivan III., the 
first Muscovite czar (1462-1505), issued in 1495 a decree for 
the expulsion of all Jews from Lithuania and the confiscation 
into the grand ducal treasury of liens held by Jews against 
Christian property. The exiles fled to Poland, where the 
Jews were too numerous and influential to be subjected toa 
similar fate. Indeed, when Alexander succeeded his brother 
on the throne of Poland (1501), he was powerless to dis- 
criminate against the Jews of Lithuania, since from this time 
on the grand duchy was indissolubly united to Poland. 
Through the intercession of the wealthy Abraham Josefovicz, 
who embraced Christianity and was ennobled by Alexander, 
the Lithuanian Jews received permission to return to their 
former homes. They were made to indemnify the Christians 
for the liens surrendered to the treasury and obligated them- 
selves to pay a substantial yearly tax to the magistracies of 
the cities in which they resumed their residence. Alexander 
incorporated the charters of Boleslav and Casimir the Great 
as an organic part of the constitution of the reaalm—not from 
motives of love for the Jews, he said, but rather in order to 
protect the Christians. 


CHAPTER LXXI 
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION. LURIA AND ISSERLES 
(1510-1573) 


HE number of Jews in Poland and Lithuania kept 

steadily increasing, from fifty thousand at the begin- 

ning of the sixteenth century to half a million in the 
middle of the seventeenth. During that period this north- 
eastern center attained its highest development, both eco- 
nomically and spiritually. The Jews of Poland were not tied 
down to money-lending or petty trade; they were actively 
engaged in various industries as producers and manufac- 
turers. Wealthy Jews farmed the tolls and the excise and 
were frequently employed as financial agents for the Crown; 
they leased and administered Crown domains and estates of 
the gentry. Jewish capitalists worked salt-mines or dealt in 
timber and Jewish merchants exported the agrarian prod- 
ucts of the country beyond the border. The poorer classes 
were traders, craftsmen, tillers of the soil. 

The Church, of course, was always inimical to the presence 
of the Jews in the country; the burghers saw in them unde- 
sirable competitors; the overburdened peasantry had no love 
for the exploiting nobles or their Jewish agents. The kings 
and the gentry, in conflict with one another, found the Jews 
useful as sources of revenue or as creators of their wealth. In 
order to ensure the collection of the taxes from the Jewish 
communities, it was expedient to concentrate responsibility 
in certain lay leaders and to compel the rabbis to support 
these men by their authority. To facilitate this policy still 
further, the rabbis were invested with power over members 
of their flocks, if necessary by means of the ban. Sigismund 
I. (1506-1548) appointed Michael Josefovicz, the brother of 
Abraham (p. 531), elder (‘senior’) of the Jews of Lithuania, 
and Abraham of Bohemia in the same capacity over the Jews 
of Poland (1514), But the Jews, it seems, were disinclined to 


532 


SHAKNA | 533 


jay heads had the royal permisei m to asso- 
ives tabbinical advisers. The king readily 
fis elected by the various “ivernunities. 
awe etl! persisted i ii taking thetrcieses affec- 
to the neva! bailiffs, they xere Ordered? to put | 
wapletely grater the: jaceiction of Myeirown 
In 1541, the Asya et cee: the wholepr wince 
2 two chief rabbis, werent Sache) af Cmcow 
4 of Lublin. The Siscrse » ea ered martyr |. 
ite ia the following year. <» did the letter, 
& apes of the tie, god his appoint- 


(1500-1559) iaidunsd inies F>staed ‘the sew 
Talmud study which goes by th: -.ace of ‘pilpel.’ 
‘of mental gymnastics, consianey a« establishing 
S between divergent thee « in create 
n related parts. The wetho ad ite heme 
‘of southern Germany; if wie. perfected. by 
pof Prague ‘he was ee gory serhi ines- 
| din Palestine anout 1532), ms cemil Shakna 
sistictd ; these. teachers the meths »veed the par- ee 
F ir y the acumen of eh oe wir xen ts, From 
ahd geicet forth scholar s.2@ iame aud 
1ec ‘bevarid their age, ea): «: te comme 
A became the'cradie of the ative) > )*scive polity 
ry then preparing, eo): 
e king was minded to protac! tre Jews Tmt 
fF persons, Ke was powetin» °© shield them 
tot oficiais high and kew | be cometeted 
UTES rin Posen, Cras, wed femberg 
“pudnese rivals havd ie: a tech in mearict-  - 
niwhich Jews might oper tho -haps, The plea 
e i thar # Jewish places of *j.iness were per- 
bristian weighborhoods, the (tristiaaamight be. 
y fente ade ge pote —— carried | 


INTERNAL ORGANIZATION. - 


ones bacresaitiy, yay: yf 

ning of the sixteenth centun ¥ 
miidic of the seventeenth, During. 
eastern center attained ite highest d 
nomically and spiritually. The. 
Dice 4 io money-lending’ ees tre 
engaged ln various industries a as pr 
turers. Wealthy Jews farmed dl 
were frequently employed as fi 
they leased and administered 
the da bry series capitalists 


ucts ok 1 anid beyond the b 
were traders, craft tsmen, dillers « 

The Church, of course, wag aly 
af the Jews in the country}. th 
sirable cor ipet itory i the overby “ 


ta 4S 
order to ensure ag pire! of | 
communities, it was expedient 
m certain pe leaders one | 


Sa the ‘rabble § were inv stec 
of their flocks, if necessary ic 

4, (1506-1548) speviae 
Abraham (p. ae elder (ae ! 


1541] SHAKNA 533 


submit to lay authority imposed upon them from above, 
even when these lay heads had the royal permission to asso- 
ciate with themselves rabbinical advisers. The king readily 
confirmed the rabbis elected by the various communities. 
When certain Jews still persisted in taking their cases affec- 
ting taxation to the royal bailiffs, they were ordered to put 
themselves completely under the jurisdiction of their own 
spiritual judges. In 1541, the king set over the whole province 
of Little Poland two chief rabbis, Moses Fischel of Cracow 
and Shalom Shakna of Lublin. The former suffered martyr- 
dom at the stake in the following year, nor did the latter, 
by reason of the opposition of the Jews, hold his appoint- 
ment very long. 

Shakna (1500-1559) introduced into Poland the new 
method of Talmud study which goes by the name of ‘pilpul.’ 
It is a sort of mental gymnastics, consisting in establishing 
artificial analogies between divergent themes or in creating 
distinctions between related parts. The method had its home 
in the schools of southern Germany; it was perfected by 
Jacob Pollak of Prague (he was subsequently rabbi in Cra- 
cow and died in Palestine about 1532), whose pupil Shakna 
was. With both these teachers the method served the pur- 
pose of developing the acumen of their students. From 
Shakna’s school there went forth scholars whose fame and 
authority continued beyond their age, even as the commu- 
nity of Lublin became the cradle of the administrative polity 
of Polish Jewry then preparing. 

Much as the king was minded to protect the Jews from 
violence to their persons, he was powerless to shield them 
against extortions of officials high and low. The concerted 
protests of the burghers in Posen, Cracow, and Lemberg 
against their Jewish business rivals had an effect in restrict- 
ing the area in which Jews might open their shops. The plea 
was advanced that, if Jewish places of business were per- 
mitted in Christian neighborhoods, the Christians might be 
enticed away from their religion. The argument carried 
weight with the devout king. Moreover, the Piotrkov Diet 
of 1521 passed a law confining the trade of the Jews of Lem- 


534 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION [1542 


berg to wax, furs, cloth, and horned cattle. The burgher class 
won over to its side the lower gentry, and the Diet: which 
met in 1538 adopted still more stringent measures in the 
spirit of the Church canons. The Jews were distinctly barred 
from tax-farming and forbidden to trade in the villages alto- 
gether, nor were they free to do business in any locality 
except by special royal permission and by agreement with 
the magistracies. As part of the scheme to repress the Jews 
economically and socially, the statute was renewed com- 
pelling the Jews to make themselves recognizable by a 
specific headgear. 

Rumors were afloat that Christians embraced Judaism 
and found shelter across the Polish border in the homes of 
Lithuanian Jews. Lutheranism was then making headway 
in the cities, and it was a matter of policy for the king to 
stamp out any deviation from Catholicism; hence the re- 
doubled vigilance against Jewish proselytism, which as a 
matter of fact could not be substantiated. A still graver 
charge faced the Jews of Lithuania. They were accused of 
having entered into negotiations with the enemy of Chris- 
tendom, the sultan of Turkey, planning to emigrate to that 
country together with the Christians they had converted. 
Though the accusation proved groundless, the investigation 
was conducted with gross insults and brutalities, so much 
so that the king promised to discountenance accusations 
unsupported by evidence. The Catholic clergy, led by bishop 
Gamrat, continued to agitate against the Jews by means of 
slanderous publications. The anti-Jewish measures, passed 
at the council of Piotrkov in 1542, failed to receive legal 
sanction; nevertheless, the Church became determined in its 
attitude and only waited for an opportune moment to carry 
its programme into effect. 

Under these conditions, it was essential for the Jews of 
Poland to solidify their organization for defensive purposes 
against inimical aggression from without, as well as for the 
improvement of the moral and religious life of the commu- 
nities within. Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572), the last of 
the Jagellos, had the sagacity to understand that the Jews 


Rise 2 SOLOMON LURIA 535 


tt d to order eneie wer aligive in their own 
of August 13,4431, hos bees styitly called 
al sarge self-gowestinm gy Poland. The 


d, whensoever i (AeA # parred. to 
Pkeenior denice’) avd Beetal judges 
ee) exercise Sc kevet ae ah Marshes in 
the: lexvish law, “Phb-< tant sabebh: thie ap- 


granny ble only to the Beg so ie Swenable 


pot the toyal officia ¥- er ue ep, Jaee who 
atin their spiritua: Son ia were gia 4 
on pain of deaizy was Neha Ch pata ty 


Mon tO appoint toy “> osetia fowetgn 
on y to Jewish law orice. of the city 
| pe Pronounce eigeice wa bhend 


sk 1576 the Talmud eo Link 
h had been printed 91% seaes J. “45303 at 
nedict Levita of Crate: ia vor ited the 
ting Mebrew bocks % ai from 
cia i Was obtained i 5 ~he com 
for the erection of ase @r - accom 
eand acho! for the bape. aia the 


by the rabbisata’, Gor. vovand with 


gon Israel. fe. must eve, bey ee school 
oom Lurie, who had per bei ict servewal 
f institution at Vee 6. “er 


re Jekicl Luria (15280 4, cca his 

he fee - his materma) vray Auphat Teaac 
Betive going to Caos, “Sil Reet citice 

Las re . He had 2 a <a 0 the 

ct feats of cashisties vir 

Mie wengmthy with ax arpoaetian, nach ae 


i 82 a their disciple. jaw ie he ont cor | 


d dei Masovia (tte divitietatvout War- 


y. By special : Pesce a > rine ahd ot: 


jam,” yeshibeak’ § - ‘Sh A anastet 


| removed from the comics’ fis ecoambent- 


tHe Jagclos, hast the sagecty ut 


( ; INTERNAL 
» io wan, fucs, cloth, and horned ca 
“over to its side the lower RED GY, ATG CE Et ey 
mw TSAR arh oted still more stringent: 3 cS 
fet the (Church cand ~~ Th is 5 distinetly t 
farming and forbidden to 
beter, nor were the we ree to do. bu 
ENCE Dy Bre al 
magistr ICFES, Ag a part of chs cea af 
Moromicnis and social ly; the Bharat: 
MAN the | FOS to make thane 


} 


| shelter across “the 2 Poli 
Lithuanian Tews, . meer aS 
in the cotvem, my . it WwW . 
stamp out any stations from 
Bored viene against Jewis 
matter of fact ey aot be sul } 


ing entered = 0 negotiations 
eeciclorn, eos: sultan of Turkey, 
aes sr the Chae 


that the Ming prom ied “oe 
ext corte jd herey idence ‘ The Cat 
vamrat, cate to agitate 
Senders py brrne- essen? ‘The ant 
at the coun ah Piotrkov in -f. 


a per em ales # the Chun D 


Poland to soli¢ lity their oganinat 
oguinst inimical aggression from 
Te ace ermnien! rad the moral and 6 


* 


eities-within. Sigismund Augus 


1553] SOLOMON LURIA 535 


should be permitted to order their inner affairs in their own 
way. The edict of August 13, 1551, has been rightly called 
the ‘magna charta’ of Jewish self-government in Poland. The 
Jews of Great Poland and Masovia (the district about War- 
saw) were empowered, whensoever a vacancy occurred, to 
elect their chief rabbi (‘senior doctor’) and lawful judges 
with plenary authority to exercise spiritual jurisdiction in 
accordance with the Jewish law. The chief rabbi thus ap- 
pointed was answerable only to the king and not amenable 
to the authority of the royal officials or courts. Jews who 
resisted the rulings of their spiritual heads were given a 
month’s time to repent on pain of death and loss of property 
to the royal treasury. By special rescript the community of 
Posen received permission to appoint for its rabbi a foreign 
scholar, since according to Jewish law a resident of the city 
itself might become unfit to pronounce judgment on blood 
relations. 

Between 1559 and 1576 the Talmud was printed at Lub- 
lin; the Pentateuch had been printed still earlier (1530) at 
Cracow. In 1566 Benedict Levita of Cracow was granted the 
monopoly of importing Hebrew books into Poland from 
abroad. Royal sanction was obtained in 1567 by the com- 
munity of Lublin for the erection of a structure to accom- 
modate a synagogue and school for the higher training in the 
Jewish religion (‘gymnasium,’ yeshibah). The head master 
(‘rector’), to be chosen by the rabbinate, was vested with 
all authority and removed from the control of the incumbent 
rabbi, Shakna’s son Israel. It must have been the school 
organized by Solomon Luria, who had presided for several 
years over a similar institution at Ostrog (in Volhynia, 
then part of Lithuania). 

Solomon son of Jehiel Luria (1510-1573) received his 
training at the home of his maternal grandfather Isaac 
Klauber at Posen. Before going to Ostrog, he had held office 
as rabbi in Brest Litovsk. He had a profound aversion to the 
newly introduced method of casuistical hair-splitting, and 
naturally was out of sympathy with its exponents, such as 
Shakna and his son and their disciples. Nor was he on cor- 


536 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION 


dial terms with any of his contemporaries, save one. He 
complained that in his generation ordained rabbis were 
numerous, but the scholars few. These ill-prepared ministers 
of religion would pounce upon the latest text-book and 
without examination appropriate novel opinions, so that 
ordinary men thought they were on a par with their betters. 
For that reason Luria was little pleased with Karo’s com- 
mentary on the ‘Tur’ (p. 520)—the ‘Shulhan Aruk’ had not 
yet reached Poland—because in that work the author arbi- 
trated on his own initiative between dissenting authorities, 
often sanctioning a practice held to be unlawful in Luria’s 
country and, moreover, repeatedly falling short of profun- 
dity by reason of the vastness of his enterprise. Similarly he 
found fault with Maimonides for failing to cite in his Code 
the sources, so that it frequently appears as if he (Moses son 
of Maimun) had a direct inspiration from the Almighty. 

Luria set greater store by the Tosaphists of the French 
school; but even beyond them he aimed in his own work, 
‘The Sea of Solomon,’ to revert to the fountainhead of 
religious law, the Talmud. He found the Talmud itself far 
from being an open book; difficulties and contradictions 
were not wanting, and recourse must be had to early and 
late expounders whom he sedulously consulted. He strove 
after clarity and brevity of expression; he spent upon his 
literary effort the better part of his lifetime. It took him two 
years to dispose of half of one tractate, a full year was de- 
voted to two chapters of another tractate, and half a year to 
a single chapter in a third. Critical of the opinions of others, 
no matter if they were recognized authorities of past cen- 
turies, Luria was quite diffident about his own worth. It was 
his wont daily, as if he were an ordinary person, for an hour 
to listen to the exhortations of a preacher. 

Luria disapproved of the prevalent levity as when (be it 
remarked, at weddings) young men and young women 
danced together. He was sorely grieved that those who led — 
in prayer in the synagogue were chosen solely on account of a 
good voice, with no regard to character, and that a student 
commissioned to officiate as reader would not be accepted, 


MOSES ISSERLES 337 


worth ipeeson, simply because he was sent by a 
is no ne £ i be wondercd at that the spiriqual guides _ 
} disrepute, considering that, as Luria tells us, _ 
TT | were quite unworthy, and thoee who- rose 
page were given to the divsplay of their wits 
‘Prous life of rood deeds. 
lemporary scholar, La uria did cultivate as a 
meets Isserics (1530-1572). a son-indaw of 
po wamae toa Glistinctish ed family; his 
twas lay head of the Cracew community and 
t Katzenelienbogen of Paciva (died. 1565), 
Bing bis early training in }2x'sin, he settled in 
wrt, , where he maintained of “is own expense a 
“which he presiced for twenry vears. He was 2 
Ay teen wan when choses + act. as associate 
om far-away countries scholacm submitted to 
sof religious law. His wide information im all 
wish Jearting enabled bin. to furnish the 
diled his awaptations——for Karo's ‘Prepared 
s stipplemen iar ¥ wotex Ioserles incorporated 
istoms of Germany acd Poland and the dect- 
wan authorities where they clashed with the 
he Spanish schivo! fatiaw ec by Karo: Thus:enty 
eo” et a fstotd ME Bho the Jews of Potend 
and the taflucace of the combined work is 
wish tife ti thie very day. Isserles wes also 
D Meal stiviion, which he pursued, as he 
fiexctwse to Luria, on st bhaths and. festivals, 
phimseli with: ‘Vigiter-imatters’ at a time when 
— ia Ge wtreet«. Luria, who was 
n okagened ee pianehy; raliied his friend . 

ne x | Hi@brew ( fb averles humbly confessed 
ower smear ws Var", A-scrail of the Torah, 
hand, we stih orreeveet ts Ccdoows Isserles 
+ ta the « ssiimnge ergs at the = fairs 


Mite eaiedene an esisthdbaiect natieiaein by the - 
ixtex ith century. Ptwss known at first as the 


CRENAL ORK ANIA . 


f his 2 contenipo 
st iw his 


land— pean. int rt: 


wr uvtiative between. : 
a a Ease: babe 


Bi me Lat it i rewenta pp 


eevee beyond. the 
Selenion,’ to: 


the aie a miter e 


te nl pene ee 
r best etter parte 
fp eae od half of one 
é capters of f anouh 


> yt ite ition 


* 


“lier, "He was iris 
a | | © ay nagrge were ¢ 
gaxi woe, solely nb: regaed toc 
chaise) so ofeiate ae re 


1530-1572] MOSES ISSERLES 537 


even if a worthy person, simply because he was sent by a 
rabbi. It is not to be wondered at that the spiritual guides 
were held in disrepute, considering that, as Luria tells us, 
many of them were quite unworthy, and those who rose 
above the average were given to the display of their wits 
rather than to a pious life of good deeds. 

The one contemporary scholar Luria did cultivate as a 
friend was Moses Isserles (1530-1572), a son-in-law of 
Shakna. Isserles belonged to a distinguished family; his 
father, Israel, was lay head of the Cracow community and 
related to Meir Katzenellenbogen of Padua (died 1565). 
After completing his early training in Lublin, he settled in 
his native town, where he maintained at his own expense a 
college, over which he presided for twenty years. He was a 
comparatively young man when chosen to act as associate 
rabbi, and from far-away countries scholars submitted to 
him questions of religious law. His wide information in all 
branches of Jewish learning enabled him to furnish the 
‘Cloth’—so he called his annotations—for Karo’s ‘Prepared 
Table.’ In these supplementary notes Isserles incorporated 
the religious customs of Germany and Poland and the deci- 
sions of the German authorities where they clashed with the 
opinions of the Spanish school followed by Karo. Thus only 
did the new Code obtain a footing among the Jews of Poland 
and Germany, and the influence of the combined work is 
manifest in Jewish life to this very day. Isserles was also 
interested in philosophical studies, which he pursued, as he 
said by way of excuse to Luria, on sabbaths and festivals, 
thus diverting himself with ‘lighter matters’ at a time when 
other people promenaded in the streets. Luria, who was 
uncompromisingly opposed to philosophy, rallied his friend 
on his ungrammatical Hebrew; Isserles humbly confessed 
that he had never studied grammar. A scroll of the Torah, 
written by his own hand, is still preserved in Cracow. Isserles 
was also active in the Council meetings at the annual fairs 
in Lublin. 

This Council had become an established institution by the 
middle of the sixteenth century. It was known at first as the 


538 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION [1580 


Council of Three Lands, that is, of Poland (Great and Little), 
Lithuania, and Polish Russia. Subsequently (in 1623) Lith- 
uania formed a central organization of her own, for the rea- 
son that the grand duchy had a distinct fiscal administration 
all to itself. The usual appellation for the Polish Council 
came to be ‘Council of Four Lands,’ Great Poland, Little 
Poland, Podolia with Galicia, and Volhynia each figuring as 
a constituent district. The Council met once a year at Lublin 
during the spring fair and lasted about a month. Another 
place of meeting was the Galician town Jaroslav, during the 
chief fair which took place at the end of the summer. This 
was so at least at the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
but soon it became customary to hold two meetings annually, 
one at Lublin before Passover and the other at Jaroslav 
before the autumn holidays. In exceptional cases sessions 
were held in other localities. 

The Council consisted of thirty delegates, six of whom 
were rabbis and the remainder lay leaders. The chief busi- 
ness was to apportion to each district its share in the collec- 
tive annual tax from the Jews to the government, as well as 
extraordinary expenditures entailed in propitiating high 
officials, in the defense of innocent Jews charged with crimes, 
and in warding off hostile legislation. The Council sent its 
agents (shtadlanim), representative men who by their wealth 
and station had access to the court or to the magnates, to 
watch over Jewish interests during the sessions of the Polish 
Diet at Warsaw. Especially was it imperative to be in attend- 
ance during the ‘Coronation Diet,’ when a new king ascended 
the throne and pressure was likely to be exercised by anti- 
Jewish elements to annul or curtail privileges previously 
conceded. The Council was constantly on the watch to pre- 
vent friction between the government and the Jewish popu- 
lation, or any private altercation between a Jew and a Chris- 
tian, for fear that it might be perverted into a corporate 
libel against the whole body of Jews. When the Council, as 
in 1580, was powerless to avert the enactment forbidding 
Jews to engage in farming the royal taxes or customs, it gave 
effect to the measure by an ordinance of its own, lest the 


“ree “EOUNCIL OF aot B LANDS - 539 


few might endanger tie seateyr. The Council was 
vate Oe ed with the welfare (ie Fewews a whole. 
we pareinount, and the yi vidual wes forced — 
| by the efficacious wey. of the ban which 

. empowered to use by . pe Heat eaiet OF $551. 
he proper conduct of jras. and ewe tally of 
were passed against qty agance mm dress 
fest it might rouse the ep of the Cietstian 

s stricly forbidden for © jew to surrender 
2 hter to a Christian i ift Rew ai a debt, oar wes 
‘permitted to visit the bowe of a Cerintion ‘ 
aocomparicd by gn filuli Jew. ihe m- 
i ‘ame a particular qoscern, far the fee 
the beginning af aide ’ Rolex eer fed 
eper supervision of sc foala cand few tener 

{ provision was made tz We OTS CAANS, ae weit qarbe} 

‘i tions. ‘The ady iin el sineloes. <sek 
‘in fnstructing beginners, anc oa eis 


Je 


5 give preference to pian ula free outa wR 
3 , when aecommoda tin: cond teie te Saal 


ineribed was the ecossmic Hin “Gx ovate 


\ fes were enacted bo | pen vealh By. a, SR 
itive to precla de ce wh oe ee vents 
and ‘to ensure fo the hhistfess Sen tees their 
ion, Mor 
quosiders te de buds le ii Sealine: 
f the eosruitiet - ofleiers ag 
jestings the mite of set ere ao wbatinis-: 
4  diveiees pad age ete aes Was 
wee ‘att. aunts a! cued aad “| ines 
ytiee binicmcenss banhiagsak. wire settled Bs ae 
Une casarre hast cused seve ving gom~ | oe 
‘the otier varty was 3 corporate body or ears ae 
kebve Ge high court of justice ee a . 
the place 40 fee of the:( 4 aes Seg 
‘of interes! gdministration was ‘worked 
ng eg left indefinite. the Lata Susan 


cae ol 


cam mS) INTERNAL ORGIES : 


acinus bt eyf ine baprepny= that i ie, of E 


ens hn rT: pei duchy had a dist 
ee *o itaelf. The penal appellnted 
“smee to be ‘Corneil of Four Lar 
Poland, Podolia with Galicia, tan 
epnstituent district, The Coune 
dering the spring fair and lasted 
3 ace of meeting was the Galie 
ohief fair which took place at ae 
was so at leastat the beginning of 
tat soot i Deceit Cake 10 
ene at Lublin before Passover am 
before the autumn holidays: Tm 
were held in other localities. sat 
The Council consisted of t 
were rabbis and the remains 
ness was to apportion te each d 
tive anual tax from the Jews & 
extraort inary expenditurés : er 
officials, in pou detenae at Oe 


ore 


agents htadan i), represen 


corned . he c wae was CO 
vert oR tion between the g 
lation, or any private alterca 
tian, for fear that it might’ 
hibel against the whole bedy 
iti - SSO, was powerless to al 
— toengage in atone ‘ fr 


THE ‘COUNCIL OF FOUR LANDS’ 539 


greed of the few might endanger the many. The Council was 
supremely concerned with the welfare of the Jews as a whole. 
That alone was paramount, and the individual was forced 
into submission by the efficacious weapon of the ban which 
the rabbis were empowered to use by the royal edict of 1551. 

To ensure the proper conduct of Jews, and especially of 
Jewesses, laws were passed against extravagance in dress 
and adornment, lest it might rouse the envy of the Christian 
population. It was strictly forbidden for a Jew to surrender 
his wife or daughter to a Christian in lieu of a debt; nor was 
a Jewish woman permitted to visit the house of a Christian 
on business unless accompanied by an adult Jew. The in- 
struction of the young was a particular concern, for ‘the fear 
of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge.’ Rules were laid 
down for the proper supervision of schools and for the curri- 
culum of studies; provision was made for constant rehearsals 
and periodic examinations. The advanced students were 
enjoined to assist in instructing beginners, and the rabbis 
were requested to give preference to pupils from their own 
immediate districts, when accommodation could not be had 
for more. So circumscribed was the economic life in the com- 
munities that measures were enacted to prevent undue com- 
petition. It was imperative to preclude an advance on rents 
by outbidding and to ensure to the holders of leases their 
privileges or rights which descended from father to son. Nor 
was it lawful for outsiders to do business in a community 
except by consent of the communal officers. | 

At the Council meetings the mode of the internal adminis- 
tration in the various districts and single communities was 
prescribed. There were district councils and communal 
boards (kahals). Disputes between individuals were settled 
by the local rabbis and their courts; but cases involving com- 
munities, whether the other party was a corporate body or 
an individual, came before the high court of justice which 
held its sessions at the place and time of the Council assem- 
blies. Thus a system of internal administration was worked 
out in which nothing was left indefinite. The Jew of Poland 
and Lithuania was inured to rigid discipline; he was hedged 


540 . INTERNAL ORGANIZATION 


about by prescriptions old and new which made for right — 
living, for equitable dealings as between Jew and Jew and — 
between Jew and Christian, and for a public opinion which ~ 
meted out punishment to transgressors. The system on the © 
whole was efficient in curbing delinquency in all classes and — 
in presenting a common front when danger lurked and the — 
position of the Jew hung on a slender thread which an q 
untoward event might snap. 


) CHAPTER LXxIi 
¢ ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY 
‘£6850- 1648) 


y ‘atithocity, weakened by conftiets aith the 
| y could ot always prevent (te hostile tegiela- 
of cd ciky maristracies. Thee at Posen the 
tto were strictly defined; only forty-nine 
od ta the Jews, so thar it be. ane necessary 
Of many dwellings by a<hz:onal stories. 
of VES refused to aimat teowish settlers, 
chante, visiting the city ow \«iness, could 
the 1 two OF three days. | 

the Catholic clergy agains: “oor mers and 
led by the bigoted “kacem Ludovico 
tally “resulted in turving tne battle 
“The woudl weapon wey «/xxd upon. A 
vat that Jews of Rcchaties wad procured a 
eCre ed a by stabbiiw «t antil it bled. 
intervene, three Jas ond their gm 
Christian woman, were burned at the 
rhe stoutly professes their innocence, 
jew 06 not believe that the host is the 
plea has either body or Mnod-(1556}. 

W wasexecuted at Bietsir in Lithuania. 
ng killed @ Christian yiel. The king 
(1866) ih which, on fie basis of. 
ng ihe groundteseness: of the 


} 
, 
; ' 
i s ‘ 

wn: ‘: 

aR 
‘4, 
5 < 


meter! art 
whole wae  filent ine 


position of tbe Jew hing on 
wreck oH <a oe 


‘ i ae ay 
% A 
‘ j 
) 
ty i 
. ae at 
. 
’ 
“4 ¥ 
as sf) 
ah 
a 
i" 
uM . 
al < 
nd : 
t 
+ 
A 
= 
ee 
ie ; 
, : . 
: 
' 
3 Ss 
Sond 
5 ~ 
* hey * 
- 
a 
* 
? 
‘ 
' 
- 


CHAPTER LXXII 
THE ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY 
(1556-1648) 


HE royal authority, weakened by conflicts with the 

gentry could not always prevent the hostile legisla- 

tion of the city magistracies. Thus at Posen the 
limits of the ghetto were strictly defined; only forty-nine 
houses were allowed to the Jews, so that it became necessary 
to raise the height of many dwellings by additional stories. 
The magistracy of Warsaw refused to admit Jewish settlers, 
and Jewish merchants, visiting the city on business, could 
not tarry longer than two or three days. 

The warfare of the Catholic clergy against Reformers and 
Anti-Trinitarians, led by the bigoted Nuncio Ludovico 
Lippomano, incidentally resulted in turning the battle 
against the Jews. The usual weapon was seized upon. A 
rumor was set afloat that Jews of Sochaczev had procured a 
sacred wafer and desecrated it by stabbing it until it bled. 
Before the king could intervene, three Jews and their sup- 
posed accomplice, a Christian woman, were burned at the 
stake. The Jewish martyrs stoutly professed their innocence, 
protesting that the Jews do not believe that the host is the 
divine body nor that God has either body or blood (1556). 

Again, in 1564, a Jew was executed at Bielsk in Lithuania 
on the charge of having killed a Christian girl. The king 
issued two decrees (1564, 1566) in which, on the basis of 
papal pronouncements proving the groundlessness of the 
accusation, it was forbidden for local courts to institute pro- 
ceedings against the Jews on the charge of ritual murder or 
desecration of the host. Moreover, in keeping with ancient 
Jewish privileges, it was ordained that such charges must be 
substantiated by the testimony of-four Christian and three 
Jewish witnesses and that jurisdiction in all such cases 
belonged to the king himself. 


541 


542 THE ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY [1618 


A similar decree was issued in 1576 by Stephen Bathory, 
who had been elected king of Poland the year previously. 
The occasion was a renewed libel in connection with the 
death of a Christian boy, the son of a squire. Stephen con- 
firmed the ancient Jewish privileges and insisted on an 
equitable treatment of his Jewish subjects by the Christian 
population. The magistracy of Posen was enjoined to allow 
the Jewish residents to conduct their business in any part of 
the city and to trade even on the days of Christian festivals. 
When in 1577 the Jewish quarter of Posen was attacked by a 
mob and looting and bloodshed ensued, the king imposed 
upon the magistracy a heavy fine, which was revoked only 
after the city fathers protested that they had been ignorant 
of the plot. Stephen nevertheless was committed to the 
Catholic reaction and was instrumental in turning over the 
educational system to the Jesuits. The newly established 
academy at Vilna was entirely in their control. From it and 
similar institutions issued those ‘lions of the spirit,’ who in 
the succeeding reign were to reconvert Poland to Catholi- 
cism and incidentally to Jew-baiting. 

Sigismund III. (1586-1632), of the Vasa dynasty, sur- 
rendered himself to the service of Rome and, with the aid of 
his Jesuit counselors, set himself to purge Poland of heresy. 
The Jews, it is true, found in the king a protector of their 
rights. Thus they were permitted to trade in the cities, 
though with some restrictions. The Jews of Brest were up- 
held in their opposition to the jurisdiction of the municipal 
courts (1592). The Brest community possessed an efficient 
advocate in the person of their head, Saul son of Judah. A 
contractor of customs in Lithuania, he was influential at 
court and was honored by the title of ‘the king’s servitor.’ 

However, the Jesuitic teaching bore fruit. The very same 
year witnessed at Vilna an onslaught by the burghers, during _ 
which the synagogue was demolished and Jewish dwellings, _ 
owned by the gentry, were wrecked. Posen was the hotbed ~ 
of anti-Jewish agitation;.an attack on the Jewish quarter 
was led by Jesuit teachers and students (1618). Trials on 
the charge of ritual murder became frequent; namely, at 


i) eRPHOSITLES OF THE CHURER 543 


clara then under the followrsg reign in 1636 
a y mflamed the people ry tieegeushlication of - 
mies aiming at the expulsion @ se Jews, So 
comer Girected in parti wal ‘ibd, av hi nst the 
‘Cracow, that Sigismund ordered Gre confisca- 
ous *Mixeor of the Palish Crows” ee Sebas- 
(4618). ta rhe Diet, Which rset the sa ae year, 
up! of the Loauits had @& vember of fillewers; 
: 9 the end pormarnon sense cuuried ‘gull, the 
ee naeeery was implanted ip the minds of the 
be * the jews. 

ration by the king and thu seme animosities 
ae Fews during the sage of Vigdislav 
f That et the Coronation ihe fis. aaeic 
grmed, with freedom of trade ave mie - 
1 peace of new synayor ies He ‘heer erin 
teries a royal license was reecgaae aie i aa 
pring that in the previcus rag@i “aelh wre 
nal i oni privileges depend: agian the 

gy. But the king’s wish ce Ye. Ler io the 
im in difficulties with the genes pchties, 
¥ favored the small Jewizt. wuts se as to 
n the price of staple coms ive. At Viina 


| se d to the wishes of the gentry, at the same. 


ideate the burghers, ihe Jewish traders 
“By severe restrictions which confined 


; from such trades as werd pursued by 
is (1633), No gomer were, the Jews ot 
| to. engage in export trade than, at the © 
agp merchanis, th: order was 9e-" 
1 e Diet, whiels met at Warsow in 1543, fixed 
Dae BU Reven per cent. tor native Christian 

fiz fgprens, atin! cond three nies _ The 


Wy ary 8 
“a0 Foes 


clLectedt king i ae £ Potand 


as a renewed | 


“hrtetian boy, Mang ik of es 


an i 
Le RR EERE 
resident | to. cor duct their. 
et try te ad e even on the daysof 


je Jsukeay Pi —o 


Ly tat 1eTs nachna 

phen novel ie 
serion and wi as inst ru 

a systenti to ‘the metas 


* 
Me Fr a 
Pt FANG 


} ri 
by 


IT. (1886-1682) 


% 


to oa service “a9 


custote.: i hist 
» honore A by chet 


the Te 
Lite a” 
ed at Vilna an > onslang 
synagogue was dem 


6 ee nity, were: 


1618-1643] ANIMOSITIES OF THE CHURCH 543 


Lublin, in 1598, and then under the following reign in 1636. 
The clerical party inflamed the people by the publication of 
incendiary writings aiming at the expulsion of the Jews. So 
virulent were the attacks, directed in particular against the 
rich Jews of Cracow, that Sigismund ordered the confisca- 
tion of the libelous ‘Mirror of the Polish Crown’ by Sebas- 
tian Miczinski (1618). In the Diet, which met the same year, 
this docile pupil of the Jesuits had a number of followers; 
and though in the end common sense asserted itself, the 
pernicious seed of hatred was implanted in the minds of the 
Polish people against the Jews. 

The same toleration by the king and the same animosities 
of the Church met the Jews during the reign of Vladislav 
IV. (1632-1648). Thus at the Coronation Diet the basic 
privileges were confirmed, with freedom of trade and judicial 
autonomy. For the erection of new synagogues or the open- 
ing of new cemeteries a royal license was required—a dis- 
tinct favor, considering that in the previous reign there was 
an attempt to make such privileges dependent upon the 
consent of the clergy. But the king’s wish to be just to the 
Jews involved him in difficulties with the municipalities, 
though the gentry favored the small Jewish traders so as to 
prevent the rise in the price of staple commodities. At Vilna 
the king responded to the wishes of the gentry; at the same 
time, in order to placate the burghers, the Jewish traders 
were hedged about by severe restrictions which confined 
their stalls within the boundaries of the Jewish street and 
barred them entirely from such trades as were pursued by 
the Christian guilds (1633). No sooner were the Jews of 
Cracow permitted to engage in export trade than, at the 
solicitation of the Christian merchants, the order was re- 
voked (1642). The Diet, which met at Warsaw in 1643, fixed 
the rate of profit at seven per cent. for native Christian 
traders, five for foreigners, and only three for Jews. The 
result was that the Jews were compelled to lower the quality 
of the merchandise, while with their smaller profits they 
were bound to undermine Christian trade and thus invite the 
hatred of their competitors. 


544 THE ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY [1635-9 


Beside the case of ritual murder laid at the door of the 
Jews of Lublin in 1636, a similar trial was engineered at 
Lenczyca in 1639. Between 1635 and 1637 disaster threatened 
the community of Cracow because a Pole, having stolen 
some church vessels, was induced by the municipal judge to 
testify that he had been persuaded by a Jew to steal a host. 
It made no difference that the Pole, before execution, exon- 
erated the Jew. A mob invaded the ghetto; forty Jews were 
seized, of whom seven were thrown into the river, while the 
others saved themselves by embracing Christianity. All these 
disturbances, however, were nothing in comparison with the 
storm which broke loose in the closing year of Vladislav’s 
reign. 

The first half of the seventeenth century had been a period 
in which the inner life of the Jews of Poland and Lithuania 
reached a height such as was sustained in the other centers 
at the heyday of their existence. Education was widely 
diffused. The child was taken in hand early and sent to 
school—the ‘heder’ (chamber, usually a room in the private 
dwelling of the teacher) for pay pupils, and the “Talmud 
Torah’ (Teaching of the Torah), maintained by the com- 
munity, for poor children and orphans. It was an all-day 
session in these schools. The instruction started with the 
Bible and proceeded to Mishnah and Talmud, care being 
taken that Bible study continued.all along to the upper 
grades. From these schools those pupils that showed promise 
advanced to the colleges (yeshiboth), where they were 
grounded in the Talmud and the vast literature which had 
grown about it. A minimum of Jewish education was pos- 
sessed even by the duller children, who dropped out in the 
lower grades and were apprenticed to learn a trade or put to 
work in humble service. The colleges were frequented not at 
all solely by those who aspired to the rabbinical vocation. 
Rather were these institutions nurseries for the training of 
the large middle class. The ordinary man in moderate cir- 
cumstances (baal ha-bayith), not to speak of those who rose 
to leadership in their communities or in the supreme Coun- 
cil, commanded a fund of Jewish learning. No man went 


BDUCATION 545 


iy seryines, morning amd evening. without tak- 
sin Rashi s conimentaxy an h en Bi bie, or in the 


tad was divided iets two terms, # summer 


ay sie the futile of Ausw t (iifteeath of Ab) 
Os eal tu the middie of February. 


at). The vacations were spent satin idle- 
pherever a student might hind hitwsel!. In 
© ‘ » during tie first qu: Mier OF eat b térn, a 

r Said wittl: Rashi’s commentary and the sup- 
2 ssmecehl Was read dai’s by the students, 
assmen being coached hy ie otter andl thime 
: elves by their own effort. Ales the head of 
4, difficuloes were presea tet 6. him which 
<apveetan outs Then he wed tay before 
3 Sor his own and wind wy sinh a dis- 
. abe-hner Giatinctions were Hevet? wut and 
Padictions resouciled. in thes. acer’ quarter 
‘ancigen asnae in favor of solic, 2 section in 
’ of al-fasi and, with the ‘h ce grade, in 
wb sin of Asher. Every Thee- me ihe stuf 

aned by # lay director and eves. friday by 
. college, ‘Ehis snoheie WAS aes sated high 


epembiers. we the synagogud, <sdoronce was 
Calling him up to the Torah # ban in order, 
Fe Cohen. or Levite. | 
: who for the most part cee: ior out of 
nitheir meals at the homes ef t<sy: ike af the 
lly each day at a differen: ‘feenne, but often 


and mrore Pes rei plenty had: as 


he e mastér of the Louk was a ache pide man, or it 
lat the aén sav son-in-law was « »wient. Scholar- 
ghly (priced, Rich Jews would choose for their 
nets ‘tres ginong ie student ¢lase. Matri- 


a day et aitts 


y in ane and the same home: ite oaphout the 


oe | TRE ZENITH OF POLISH 


» Resid e the case of citi patna. 


seized of w Ets sever were th 
others gsaved themselves by emt 
isturbances, however, wer 
: torm ‘which broke loase,t in 
réig eT. ‘ es 
The first half of the seven 
in which the inner difeof the: 
reached a height such. pe: Wea 
at the heyday of their 1S 
diffused.’ The ‘chid ‘was: tak 
school-r-the ‘heder’ (chamber 
dwelling of the teacher) fo s 
Torah’ (Teaching of the: To 
‘munity, for peor children 
session in these auhools, Th 
Bible gene { proceeded ig M 


graces. ee these shoul 10S@ 


advanced to the ; a y 


sessed even tie agen duller chi 
lower gr: aces — were ei 


EDUCATION 545 


home from daily services, morning and evening, without tak- 
ing in a course in Rashi’s commentary on the Bible, or in the 
Mishnah, or in the laws concerning religious practice. 

The school year was divided into two terms, a summer 
term from May to the middle of August (fifteenth of Ab) 
and a winter term from November to the middle of February 
(fifteenth of Shebat). The vacations were spent not in idle- 
ness, but in study wherever a student might find himself. In 
the higher colleges, during the first quarter of each term, a 
page of the Talmud with Rashi’s commentary and the sup- 
plements of the Tosaphists was read daily by the students, 
the younger classmen being coached by the older and these 
preparing themselves by their own effort. When the head of 
the college arrived, difficulties were presented to him which 
he proceeded to straighten out. Then he would lay before 
the school discoveries of his own and wind up with a dis- 
course in which the finer distinctions were brought out and 
seeming contradictions reconciled. In the second quarter 
these discourses were set aside in favor of solid instruction in 
the compendium of al-Fasi and, with the highest grade, in 
the ‘Tur’ of Jacob son of Asher. Every Thursday the stu- 
dents were examined by a lay director and every Friday by 
the head of the college. This principal was accorded high 
honors in his community; he was often the recipient of gifts 
from wealthy members. In the synagogue, deference was 
paid him in calling him up to the Torah ‘third’ in order, 
unless he was a Cohen or Levite. 

The students, who for the most part came from out of 
town, were given their meals at the homes of members of the 
community, usually each day at a different home, but often 
enough regularly in one and the same house throughout the 
year. The wealthier and more generous residents had as 
many as three students daily at table. There was not a home 
throughout Poland in which the Torah was not studied, 
either that the master of the house was a scholarly man, or it 
might be that the son or son-in-law was a student. Scholar- 
ship was highly prized. Rich Jews would choose for their 
daughters husbands from among the student class. Matri- 


546 ) THE ZENITH OF POLISH JEWRY [1646 


monial matches were made particularly during the Council 
sessions, when at the fairs great multitudes assembled— 
merchants, delegates, rabbis of renown, heads of colleges 
with their advanced students who flocked to the highest 
institutions of Jewish learning at the seat of the Council. 

The period was rich in outstanding scholars who left their 
mark upon posterity. Mordecai Jaffe (died 1612) was a pupil 
of both Luria and Isserles and author of the ‘Robe,’ a digest 
fuller than Karo’s ‘Prepared Table’ and in opposition to it, 
supplying ‘the salt of reasoning to the rich viands on the 
table.’ Joshua Falk (died 1614), rabbi at Lublin and sub- 
sequently head of the Lemberg college, took a particularly 
prominent position in the meetings of the Council; the 
ordinances passed in 1607, in part regulating the taking of 
interest and generally concerned with the furtherance of 
piety and good morals, were largely framed by him. He wrote 
a commentary on that part of Karo’s work which deals with 
civil law (‘Book of the Enlightenment of the Eyes’). Meir of 
Lublin (1554-1616) wrote a casuistic commentary on the 
Talmud and was kept busy replying to inquiries on religious 
law which came to him from other scholars. Samuel Edels 
(died 1631) was rabbi in Posen, Lublin, and Ostrog, and was 
a master of the dialectic method. Joel Serkes (died 1640), 
who occupied rabbinical positions in a number of commu- 
nities, is chiefly known by his commentary on the Four 
Turim (‘The New House’). Two commentaries on Karo’s 
Code, which now accompany it in all printed editions, began 
to appear in 1646: ‘The Rows of Gold’ on all four parts by 
David ha-Levi, rabbi in Lemberg and Ostrog, and ‘The Lips 
of the Priest’ on two parts by Sabbatai Cohen of Vilna. 


PTER LXXI1 


oe EN weholars iia sof) tostre eg iat. 
O ean Jewry i ti the first half nd tbc sevenimenth 
Laved mieresting persone His grust be achied, 
Lane by virtue ‘of three rcbiedtade Kis 

i thee during thy woe “renty-twe 
ME Lipcionn Vietiir esa bow ot 
rae 4579; when he eee im 1654, he 
tee ) Be eeceaved his tute . ‘> he home 
5 aie thiei rabbi of the \ 2inean CO 
Fee tive hands of sw hi fre “nazburg; 
2 e Jewieh community by Ch fohemian 
Faring in , ir existente since the feat eh Peppewets i 
th body af Cernan Jews arti? saad *: through 
des whi of ehecrer! these alee ry 3 iwse * Punade. 
ir ro which followed the aes “ca: of the 

wn by te Uahsburgs (133% i Sena 


4s 
: 
2 
+ 
sit 


osesnari) of Rosheim tu Avsewe. 
f hed af the German Jews cin 1554) WAS 
s defender during the reigax.oi es emperors 
1493-1319) and Charles \- Li19-L556). 
> Se erent thet eiteotice chi rping 


mA wey erergen-y whe (he Jews of the 
aitire ateriod. “x yleided their cauve—im Alsace 
‘Peas ne Wr ® Brandenbury or in Saxe 

rWirzburg, xed then throughout Germany dur- 


$47 


| expetil aad readmitted «6°35: yee 1561). - 
i casiin they were pe ae cx the gop - 


et sh Men’ Bets ee 


¢ War: By his learning he succersinlly 


Ne ith; ‘thei advent students who 


ee THE ZENEPHOOF POLsH 


é 


thonial matches were made partict 
mae? ONE 7 oe her wT ‘the fairs. great: 
necchaits 5 ce vray gates, rabbis of: re 


institutions of Jewish learsing at 

The period was rich in outstandit 
mark upon posterity, Mordecab Jafle: d 
fhoth Luita and Tsserles anid @ | 


Ov 


rea 


A 
fuller Lie Kar o & ‘Prepared Ta "a 
Sup prying ihe malt of reason a 


a roan 


Joctua Falk (died: 1614) 
sequently ‘ian of the Lent! 


a 


pra inert Pees: izt be 


P| - 
= oll 
Va ne} it 


interest ba pant condi 
ie iety and good morals, were 

cue critary Qu. that part 
civil lawt ‘Book of the En 
Lublin (15548616): wrote 
Felimud< ana a8 Rept ~ 2 


Shed 280 . woe rai my 
a master ea the dialectic 1 ) 
ae Oe cupid cehtipinels 


Turim { Thee Nenk. Higuee’) 
Code, whith #ow Aegonipan 
to appear in Neder he Re 
David ha-Lew, rabbria I | 
of rhe Priest’ of two parts 6 3° 


na 
a ee 


CHAPTER LXXIII 
THE JEWS OF BOHEMIA 


(1579-1654) 


O THE galaxy of scholars who shed lustre on East- 

European Jewry in the first half of the seventeenth 

century an interesting personality must be added, 
who belonged to Poland by virtue of three rabbinical posi- 
tions he held successively there during the last twenty-two 
years of his life. Yom Tob Lipmann Heller was born at 
Wallerstein in Bavaria in 1579; when he died in 1654, he 
was rabbi of Cracow. He received his training in the home 
of his grandfather Moses, chief rabbi of the German com- 
munities; in Friedberg, at the hands of Jacob Giinzburg; 
lastly, at Prague. The Jewish community in the Bohemian 
capital had been in existence since the tenth century. It 
belonged to the body of German Jews and passed through 
the vicissitudes which affected these from the first Crusade. 
During the century which followed the acquisition of the 
Bohemian crown by the Habsburgs (1526), the Jews of 
Prague were twice expelled and readmitted (1542 and 1561). 
On the former occasion they were beholden to the good 
offices of Joseph (Joselmann) of Rosheim in Alsace. 

This official lay head of the German Jews (died 1554) was 
their indefatigable defender during the reigns of the emperors 
Maximilian I. (1493-1519) and Charles V. (1519-1556). 
There was a double front to maintain, the Catholics charging 
the Jews with being the cause of the Lutheran apostasy, and 
the Reformers, including Luther himself, being none too ' 
friendly. Repeatedly Joseph appeared at the Diets to avert 
hostile legislation. At any emergency, when the Jews of the 
empire were threatened, he pleaded their cause—in Alsace 
during the Peasants’ War, in Brandenburg or in Saxony, in 
Strassburg or Wiirzburg, and then throughout Germany dur- 
ing the Schmalkaldic War. By his learning he successfully 


547 


548 THE JEWS OF BOHEMIA [1609 


discomfited the apostate Antonius Margarita in a public dis- 
putation. His wealth and connections placed him in a posi- 
tion to render notable services to the emperor. He gave freely 
to stricken Jewish communities beyond the confines of 
Germany. He interposed between quarreling communities, 
if necessary at personal risk. 

On the second occasion the Jews of Prague were fortunate 
in having among them Mordecai Zemah, of the family of the — 
Soncino printers. Ferdinand I. (1521-1564) had sworn to F 
drive the Jews out of Bohemia, exactly as he had done to the ~ 
Jews of Lower Austria and Gérz. Mordecai appeared before 
Pope Pius IV. (1559-1565) and secured papal annulment of 
the royal oath. 

Another influential personage and communal benefactor 
was Mordecai Meisel (1528-1601). He built the Jewish town- 
hall; the neighboring High Synagogue where the Jewish 
court sat; the beautiful Meisel Synagogue; a hospital, and 
other communal structures. His benefactions extended to 
other Jewish communities. He also contributed a consider- 
able sum of money towards the completion of the Church of 
the Savior in his own city. On more than one occasion he 
advanced funds to the emperor and empresseand was re- q 
warded with noteworthy privileges. Thus the Meisel Syna- 
gogue had a standard with an escutcheon; no officer of the ‘ 
law was permitted to enter the building, and it was exempt _ 
from taxation for all time. All these honors did not prevent — 
the confiscation of his wealth by the Bohemian treasury, at 
the instigation of Emperor Rudolph IT. (1576-1612), when 
Meisel died childless. k 

Notwithstanding the expulsions, each time the com- 
munity quickly recovered and counted a number of very 
wealthy men. The student Heller made his home with a rich 
merchant, Aaron Ashkenazi, whose daughter he subsequently 
took to wife. When scarcely eighteen years old, Heller was 4 
appointed associate rabbi of Prague. The principal authority — 
in talmudic learning was Judah Loew son of Bezalel (died — 
1609), who as head of the college and later as chief rabbi _ 
attracted a circle of gifted students. But Talmud was not 


eae ee ee 


7 id a | $49 


nterested raanter ask pupils; mathe- 
slaimed their sitention Hawise. From 
‘ dGans (1541- $613), whiten talmudic 
tether also. Moses: Tagerias, His pre- 
pti brought him into eentact with 
hy eae induced hig to tigaelate the 
fom Hebrew into German, His chief 
n 's ie hagtory,- both peroneal ant Jewish, 
Sent David, whieh wan gatlished 
g had been introdaccd inte Frague — 


it Stdcalsburg it Ahoravin e024, 
ers 7 1477, he was ree 1 Prague os 

| Riba rst decadé of the Thirty Yan 
s them noming to a: cl: See diated TE, 
mrar, end the military ¢ a iysenyg rie Of hes 


allenstetn were costly, J ‘tax Whe 


“ok Pohemia; the. #o« seodsinal of 
requires te pay ari annie: Ps of forty 
comission, over whith Pec iiel rabbe 
to apportion that sum ot. (ae men 
ity, Naturally the task wes spendous 


Hiemeon acted with x me ‘a seas, the 
aMbling among certain résrKs Phe die. 
A df the cabs to the civil aati es, and the 

[by the emperor. But be compares: Late 
ted tocalummy, represer te tive eyes 
Heller had in his publish Save weer 


‘major Wares, upon which his Paret tae 
ap oe CHMMentary vr tHe Viegas 
ments of Yom Tob’) and a dowzbic agt Gf motes 

Ask er.of Toledo (‘Royal Dainses,’ ane Pieas- 
it ae hot exactly the title R oval Dene ties 
ig that rotisex! the ire of Fercinauds point 
e r taries contained reference te non- 
ws ‘eonveyed to Vienna ond ineurcerated 

in did the rabbi protest that the sections 


. 


a, et y 
‘ eh see 
2 “ rye. 
a8 —_ i 
t 
4 . 
“= Th wat 
. 
ms el om ey 
§ 
a $ yy | 
q 3 ‘ S56, 
4 
7 He OS ai 
ba we OS 
aes t J 
Se a” 
iw 


tial ph a | We + Nery 
2, = f 
} 
PTs 
4 i 
i, ' 
* 4 : 
L 
+f Le fh t \ ii 
1, 
i Hr te ay 
: & Mier poe 


in the secetd octasion the beets. 
7 amang them Mordecai Ze na 

ina ponwers. Ferdinand Es (gies 
ove cart og a na 


mate 

on 

3 ; Yr 
Hie 

mm 
# < NM 
7 

+ 

‘ ‘ 
Fees ery 
aa 


ea a tebe 4 ALTE +. ina 


. ae 
nal. be, uct rtp 


‘ : 
#5 2° 
et 
; * vs 
+ 7 
i 
- 
34 
- 3 
5 a 
ie 
} 
7 Boh Cee ae oe Te be 
\e Vee ) ae i ae a bP 


Was peri ete fey east tdr the batt 
from tasntiog feat ug ne. All) . 


a a bis 
: 
# A ep 
: ed BS ee 
i . ake ote fe 
| bales 8 “ 


oul OTA 's 


gaity preg recovered an Loe 


hy 


a 


1629] HELLER’S INCARCERATION 549 


: 
| 


_ the sole subject that interested master and pupils; mathe- 
_ matics and astronomy claimed their attention likewise. From 
__ Loew’sschool came David Gans (1541-1613), whoin talmudic 
_ studies counted as his teacher also Moses Isserles. His pre- 
_ dilection for mathematics brought him into contact with 
Kepler,.and Tycho Brahe induced him to translate the 
Alphonsine Tables from Hebrew into German. His chief 
work was an annalistic history, both general and Jewish, 
under the title “The Sprout of David,’ which was published 
in Prague in 1592. Printing had been introduced into Prague 
as early as 1513. 

Heller became rabbi of Nikolsburg in Moravia in 1624, 
of Vienna a year later; in 1627, he was called to Prague as 
head of the rabbinate. The first decade of the Thirty Years’ 
War (1618-1648) was then coming to a close; Ferdinand II. 
(1619-1637) was emperor, and the military campaigns of his 
generals Tilly and Wallenstein were costly. A heavy tax was 
imposed upon the Jews of Bohemia; the community of 
Prague alone was required to pay an annual tax of forty 
thousand thalers. A commission, over which the chief rabbi 
presided, undertook to apportion that sum among the mem- 
bers of the community. Naturally the task was a stupendous 
one; though the commission acted with strict fairness, the 
result caused grumbling among certain residents. The dis- 
affected denounced the rabbi to the civil authorities, and the 
rabbi was censured by the emperor. But his enemies, bent 
upon his ruin, resorted to calumny, representing to the court 
at Vienna that Heller had in his published works written 
against Christianity. 

Two of Heller’s major works, upon which his scholarly 
fame rests, had appeared—a commentary on the Mishnah 
(‘The Supplements of Yom Tob’) and a double set of notes 
to the work of Asher of Toledo (‘Royal Dainties,’ and ‘Pleas- 
ant Bread’). It was not exactly the title ‘Royal Dainties,’ 
as rumor had it, that roused the ire of Ferdinand; the point 
was that the commentaries contained references to non- 
Jews. Heller was conveyed to Vienna and incarcerated 
(1629). In vain did the rabbi protest that the sections 


ee 


| 
4? 
2 


550 THE JEWS OF BOHEMIA [1643 . 


referred to idolaters of olden times; that the laws regulating 
the dealings of Jews with them had been framed in Mishnah 


and Talmud, two works which were a part of the religious | 


literature studied in Jewish schools. Still, through the inter- 
cession of influential friends, Heller was liberated on the pay- 
ment of a fine of twelve thousand thalers. At the same time 
he was deposed from his rabbinical office, nor was he per- 
mitted to officiate in a like capacity in any of the imperial 
dominions. 

There was nothing left for the impoverished and humiliated 
scholar but to accept a rabbinical position at Nemirov in 
Podolia (1632) and then at Vladimir in Volhynia (1635). 
Here he entered into intimate relations with the best fam- 
ilies, one of his grandsons marrying a granddaughter of the 
greatly honored rabbi of Brest Litovsk, Meir son of Saul 
Wahl. Heller also took a prominent part in the deliberations 
of the Council of Four Lands and was instrumental in the 
renewal of an old decree against the prevailing practice of 
buying the rabbinical office from the governor. This action 
served to make for him new enemies, and he was glad to 
answer the call to Cracow (1643) as rabbi and principal of 
the college. Five years later the storm broke loose which 


shattered the fortunes of Poland and brought to the Jews — 


cruel suffering such as they had not experienced since the 
Crusades. : 


_onaprer LXAXEV 


(1043 - 1655) 


r-land facuabi east lke 'eeaime), behind the 
ie Dnieper, dived the com: parAdty of the tos- 
y freebomers recrume? from Lighwaran 
the tyeck Orion Caith. Stephen 
7 ied tie Cossacks # # icfensive forve 
PB The chief of the efi tody, or hetman, 
asec} & theniselves, rescton > ad "Sie insignia et 
Polish iinws, With the Gace’ reaction at 
: othe seventeenth cota: ye Cosempetts 
under the fepressive rule « «> Polish lovths 
e hated dinably, as tyra eal “a thoties 
wr $635 arid 1636 whue or. out down 
prity. ‘Phe Polish Dict of 1%. codished the 
® ae the Cossacks, inca “oe elective 
Band introduced instead gcvewsses x bY a Com. 
ish noblemen with absolute yon.. Vladislav 
hing plans of leading the Creag +s. who were 
| persotaily, against the *: “ics and, after 
2 onda oe ert: ousnensa ba i eps winkal 


srmine aking upon Poland. When on April 18, 
Ww elected hetman by acclarae.con. che ineutree- 
¢ ton foot. ft was directed agsin« «se Polish gen- 

00 . me Peek senor oppress <8, vateleal tyrants, 
ics in religion. Between the two o; pauing forces the 
, professing a religion atiew ia the eyes of 


S51 


7 See so : , » 
c: wos os 7 es qr 3) ae | ¥ ine Se ae 
ee S aera eh Fe Oe ee eA ee fa 


Laksgasies put the nOier wine the ra ) 
Chmielnicki to ude: octh the Tatars 


reek Orthodox alike, the middleman who as 


3 E343 i JRWS OF BOHE 
; I eer Pa 
mlecred +o idolabers of older timesp that: 
as > ‘ al 1 Pont * 
ti dealings of Jews with them had been# 
i \ ¥ ree + ‘ x ¢ 
MiG iaimua, 2We ab Nis pegins ich were 
iterature 
ment of 3a 
is 
was deposed from } his r ‘ne fi | 
a ae pW ee ti ~ a | 
mitted to officiate in 
fom: er fh 


re was nothing left for hate exist 
scholar but to accept a rabbinical posing 
Podetia conte and then at + Vindale in 


a ‘4 Reet ih - core ie ee iS grands 


ream f an ‘old dao anal 
huving the rabbinical office from 
eerie make for hint new ern 
answer the callotod racow (1643) as | 

a Five years: later the 
Lered the fortunes.of Poland ar 
cre?) mutter ing such bis s they had.n 


CHAPTER LXXIV 
THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES 
(1648-1655) 


N the border-land to the east (the Ukraine), behind the 
| falls of the Dnieper, lived the community of the Cos- 
sacks, sturdy freebooters recruited from Lithuanian 
refugees professing the Greek Orthodox faith. Stephen 
Bathory had organized the Cossacks as a defensive force 
against the Tatars. The chief of the entire body, or hetman, 
elected by the Cossacks themselves, received his insignia of 
office from the Polish kings. With the Catholic reaction at 
the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Cossacks 
became restive under the repressive rule of the Polish lords 
(pans), who were hated doubly, as tyrants and Catholics. 
Risings occurred in 1635 and 1636 which were put down 
with cruel severity. The Polish Diet of 1638 abolished the 
ancient privileges of the Cossacks, including the elective 
hetmanship, and introduced instead government by a com- 
mission of Polish noblemen with absolute power. Vladislav 
IV. had far-reaching plans of leading the Cossacks, who were 
devoted to him personally, against the Tatars and, after 
crushing them, taking the field against the Turks with all 
the forces of the republic. But he was balked by the Diet of 
1647; a year later he died, at the very moment when the 
tempest conjured up by himself burst with elemental fury. 
Fear of the Polish magnates put the notion into the head 
of the Cossack Bogdan .Chmielnicki to unite with the Tatars 
in a determined onslaught upon Poland. When on April 18, 
1648, he was elected hetman by acclamation, the insurrec- 
tion was set on foot. It was directed against the Polish gen- 
try, who stood forth as economic oppressors, political tyrants, 
and heretics in religion. Between the two opposing forces the 
Jew was lodged, professing a religion alien in the eyes of 
Catholic and Greek Orthodox alike, the middleman who as 


551 


So THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES [1648 


agent of the pans drew upon himself the hatred of the 
exploited Ruthenian peasants. The land on the nobleman’s 
estates which the tenants tilled was administered by a Jew; 
the mill to which the peasant took his grain to be ground into 
flour, the inn where he obtained his liquor, the pond and the 
river where he fished—all were leased by Jews. The Jewish 
go-between collected the multitudinous tolls exacted by the 
Polish lords, whose greed and bigotry did not stop at the 
doors of the Greek Orthodox house of worship so that every 
christening and every mass for the dead was taxed. 

In two battles, at Yellow Waters and at Hard Plank (near 
the river Korsun), on May 19 and 26, Chmielnicki routed 
the main Polish army. The immediate consequence was that 
the serfs throughout the Ukraine rose against their masters, 
the Polish gentry and their Jewish stewards. Estates were 
devastated, manor-houses reduced to ashes, and human 
beings barbarously done to death. The victims were flayed 
and burned alive, mutilated and left to the agony of a linger- 
ing death. Infants were slit like fish or slaughtered at the 
breasts of their mothers or cast alive into wells. Women 
were ripped open and then sewed up again with live cats 
thrust into their bowels; many, married or unmarried, were 
violated before the eyes of their menfolk, and those that were 
comely were carried away. Thousands of Jews perished in 
the towns east of the Dnieper, like Pereiaslav, Piriatin, 
Lokhvitza, Lubny. Only those who embraced the Greek 
Orthodox faith survived. The Jews of the Kiev region fled to 
the Tatars; these at least spared their lives, satisfied with 
carrying them off as slaves to Turkey. The Jews of Con- 
stantinople, with the aid of generous contributions from the 
Italian communities, paid the ransom to free their enslaved 
brethren. Funds were also obtained from the communities of 
Amsterdam and Hamburg. 

There was no safety on the open land; ndriotdath the 
Jews of Podolia sought refuge behind the fortified walls of 
Nemirov, where they outnumbered the Russian residents. 
The Cossacks could not hope to take the city by storm; they 
therefore resorted to a ruse. On their march to the city they 


se  NEMIROY ANE) TULCEIN | §53 


henanve: the Jews were led to beleve that a. 
id come to theie peorue cad so they opened the 
— Sivan 20}. in b.gbadience re, the exhortation 


‘ ‘with blovid, 2k appreton uted thie 
, BOR i E ones, Seve. te ersal fig the 


vat of wld ane wa Pyieay ane Liven ludden. aaa ¥. 
the ity wife kad ocs00 s.5 — the teacher 
u but these De e035 far cteu to death 
‘eae who Mes yer hed the old 
had witnessed ti (owt itt Tere 
Mithe jews pathic sec! ise wt Tulehin. 
2 ayed into The fire its * aappaakoay ee toy 
of the pow, The tara. wins treweby de 
could have enka (pike cee Ss oka i ent, At 
. rabbi, Aare 06 af Wek who ras MOE Line 
a the reat of the pois ee vhund the jews 
sped ali theirs: epee. «tah the Potian 
t i made yet ee oe . cies PRS RR Ta 
town. The Cossdks Bee ¢-scxcled alee the 
. —— Poles rettiey. of pote. ot Pheve was 
hot | donc theres ys oanbrDe 
it h grim delisted, pie . Kew ah are y od abe 
‘their lips they sadit-tel sare, tees 
ymong -_ ‘these we ae + 9 we Aefves 


with hase ere %: om tom 
' three hunedret ae SO Be ae singed with 
ax nauatedd oy noes 7 OO section 
5 ide sebimeles a Mat apple. 

ov for thet jous they al ho. gh aig eemteaere 
pice: He: wise, Bigeye aia supported 
ackael of the Bey | cage; gad these 


A in oo 


Te) a) Ae oe 


a ae 


OF. , PH CHMEBT NICK Mg 


et ot the eee: drew aapon h 
expdoited Ruthenian pe ASA NtS. The: 
eacates whic ht the Leriants ie was : 


hats Fate 

i i 
eae ‘ 

ia eter ke ae " 
Fe | a yreare,o % 


gerherween dc ae the shin 
Pediah pant “ whore greed rig Di 


ork judal oa every. mass Pema | 
n tro ba tues, at Yellow Water 
river Keewun), on May 4§ 
en rain Pe lish army. The im 

serts throughout the Ukr 
the Petia eentry and | their J 


ot 
Wh 


beings ‘bat starouly se ton 
and buened alive; mutilated am 
ing death, Infante were slit 8 
oceacis of thelr mothers ar 
REE ripped open. and. then 
thrust Pte ther lowela; many 
viele ted hetore theeyes of their 
comely were corned: away,’ 

he rowns east of the Die 
Lokhvitza, Lubny. Only thes 
Ortho dox heels wirvived, The J 
the Tatars; thee, at i¢ast spa 
carrving them off as slowest 
stantinople, with the aid of ¢ Zen 
htahan commmrvunitesy paid tis 
brethewn, Pendp veces : 
——— sper: apices 


JOS at Poclotha . senaght re u 
Nemivo ey, ghia ee oa outnt 


1648] NEMIROV AND TULCHIN 553 


unfurled Polish banners; the Jews were led to believe that a 
Polish army had come to their rescue and so they opened the 
gates (June 10 — Sivan 20). In obedience to the exhortation 
of their rabbi, the Jews refused to forswear their religion; 
the Christian townspeople and the Cossacks fell upon them 
and massacred six thousand. Those that cast themselves into 
the river were shot as they attempted to swim, until the 
waters were red with blood. A Cossack apprehended the 
rabbi, Jehiel Michael son of Eliezer, in the act of crossing the 
river; willingly he followed the rabbi to his house and was 
bought off by what of gold and silver had been hidden away. 
With his aged mother—his wife had been slain—the teacher 
fled to the burial-grounds, but there he was beaten to death 
by a Christian townsman, who then dispatched the old 
woman after she had witnessed the cruel end of her son. 

A similar fate befell the Jews gathered together at Tulchin. 
Here they were betrayed into the hands of their assailants by 
the Polish gentry of the town. The Jews, who bravely de- 
fended the city, could have easily overcome the Poles. At 
the advice of their rabbi, Aaron son of Meir, who feared the 
Polish revenge on the rest of the Jewry of Poland, the Jews 
of Tulchin surrendered all their possessions, which the Polish 
magnate Czverczinski made over to the Cossacks as ransom 
for the entire town. The Cossacks then demanded also the 
life of the Jews, and the Poles readily acquiesced. There was 
not a single Jew who responded to the invitation to embrace 
Christianity. With grim determination and the cry of the 
Unity of God on their lips they suffered martyrdom, fifteen 
hundred souls, among them three scholars of note. After 
having done with the Jews, the Cossacks turned against the 
Poles themselves, with supreme contempt for their base 
treachery. Only three hundred Jewish souls, crippled with 
wounds and exhausted by hunger and thirst, were suffered 
to depart in peace. 

Count Visznievecki dealt severely with the townspeople 
of Nemirov for the part they had played in the massacre 
of the Jewish residents. He was, however, feebly supported 
by the commander-in-chief of the Polish forces, and there- 


554 | THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES _ [1649 


fore unable to hold his ground before the steady advance of 
Cossacks and Tatars. Polonnoe in Volhynia was betrayed 
into their hands by the Greek Orthodox serfs within the 
city (July 21 — Ab 2); immediately a frightful massacre 
ensued. The Polish nobility fled betimes on their horses; 
but the Jews were not allowed to escape, and ten thousand 
of them were butchered. Three hundred of the Jewish nota- 
bles, grouped about the venerable cabalist Samson of Ostro- 
pol, all clad in shrouds and wrapped in their prayer shawls, 
awaited the bloodthirsty soldiery in the synagogue and there 
they were done to death. 

The Jews of Zaslav and Ostrog fled hither and thither to 
escape the oncoming fury; those that remained, about two 
hundred souls in the one town and six hundred in the other, 
were ruthlessly slain. Three thousand Jews, among them 
Asher, formerly rabbi of Polonnoe, perished at Konstantinov, 
and as many at Bar. At Pildava the Polish army, forty 
thousand strong, was completely routed by Chmielnicki. All 
Poland now lay at his feet. The Cossacks and Ruthenian 
serfs spread in all directions. Up the Dnieper, at Chernigov 
and Gomel, at Starodub and other towns, the Jewish vic- 
tims were numbered by the thousands. Westward, in Pinsk 
and Brest Litovsk, hundreds of poorer Jews who were unable 
to escape perished. Chmielnicki himself marched on Lem- 
berg; the city saved itself by paying a heavy ransom, the 
greater part of which was contributed by the Jews. The same 
happened to Zolkiev and other strongly fortified towns. In 
order to reach Lublin and thence Warsaw, the Cossack het- 
man laid siege to the fortress Zamosc. Though unable to take 
the city, he laid waste many Jewish communities to the 
south and southeast, and tens of thousands of souls perished. 

The newly elected king of Poland, John Casimir (1648— 
1669), entered into negotiations with the rebel leader, but 
on account of his extravagant demands war was resumed. 
In the spring of 1649, fresh atrocities were committed and 
many more Jewish communities destroyed. A bloody battle 
was fought at Zborov, with the result that a treaty of peace 
was concluded (August 21, 1649). Chmielnicki was recog- 


reas MuSCONTTE INVASION OF LITRUANTA 555 


. aed permission oo can e Je owe who had 
ly baptized to return hg enon ign, Many women 
been carried off by the che pa iewivine bap- 

able to rejoin their om 2 ag yee witere there 
ere hi siof children who had tees soitineet into the 
greek rth Jos ‘religion ; the Jewish crear. ite et Poland 
| inane them. As the (owinessic lite Sad Been 


atte eal i Lublinds the eoster of 1650, 
sure . for the restoration Gi we> « rina) comely 
wer ntieth Of Sivan, the day « ree mamecie ‘at 
5 med a fast day to be lose! year by veny 
if lars aie them Helier ant Sabha te: Cotes, 
S coilimemorate the martyrs © porn awd 304A, 
it eighteen months, fresi heosittieg Sapre 
Se the ee leader, | Whol ‘eey eee Ni 


archbish op of Cecinth hact presen ten a 
“Holy Sepuichér: Chimielnicki 49a! 
mteczko (fuly 1, 1651), aa Ui aa | 
. le to Poland was obtained, 9% eae eat 
the Ukesin being restored to the * ‘. ote AE gap 
fielpichi transferce:| hic allegiaas dee ~998 

fall of hs Cossack region wal brio serene 
rite emigre (1654. fn the avers ce. ee 
wt the eastern gaits of tau ‘ sect we 
isis and Littns a et rae # aS | the 


ev on the Biiirper sews diva ewty the 
Sop {645 -10; ia. pie Ghaiiaa Baloo 
would be transferred Line the we 
oe seen ge they Wd the hve be 

B O1%: "ein toys nk SEN See 


Ake 3i' 2 ah 
} Pim Se} : 
i Te Pl as <- 


:, a ae ite oy eae FSS = ae 
Soe eee ee hm stat sd Oe ee) eee 


5 it tecatne neceimr'y for ele Coane of | 


were extermniinanesd wm ryakty? Sivas the: 


He CHMDELNECKE wasnt 
vy : wy : 3 
il " 
i { ~” 4 ta’ 
: rete h 
€2ni8 i 
$2} 


Dies, Crome shout mh en 


‘ 
‘ 
")> = - t 
> J 
f 
; Sw Las 
gr 
& Ss ii 
f 
» % : 
¥e Ae oy 
£ 
4 ee he 
; -ee aes at idar, 
} 
? hy ‘%, 2% 
$ Ae a a % 
: 
“y if 
bak asd 
<4 a 
cE; rx 
" , 
¥ 
) t mye} 
4 as 
- ‘4 : 
peop ey 1 Pi ge S > ( 
are v5, Lamy, oe 3 ¥ 44 ca We “> Et taelf ry p 
, a ; 
fou a oe ee ey ve, ee oy yew 
% ray AS. < of whi ha Was 


4 


rer to reach Labineand thence Wa 
wit lad siege to the fortre 8s Zam 
the city, he leit; waste many | 
south and sae: and tens of 


9}, 20 boos into Repel B= 

account of his extrayagant, be 
i the spt ring of 1649, fresh at : 
many mors e Jewish coniteelalal 


Paes one t ate OLOY, wath the re 
‘Was concluded (August: 2h, 1649 Ki 


1655] MUSCOVITE INVASION OF LITHUANIA 555 


nized as a semi-independent prince, and a clause was inserted 
forbidding Jews to reside in that part of the Ukraine held by 
the Cossacks. 

John Casimir granted permission to the Jews who had 
been forcibly baptized to return to Judaism. Many women 
that had been carried off by the Cossacks and likewise bap- 
tized were able to rejoin their families. Everywhere there 
were hundreds of children who had been initiated into the 
Greek Orthodox religion; the Jewish communities of Poland 
made an effort to rescue them. As the domestic life had been 
so terribly disrupted, it became necessary for the Council of 
Four Lands, at its meeting in Lublin in the winter of 1650, 
to enact measures for the restoration of the normal condi- 
tion. The twentieth of Sivan, the day of the massacre at 
Nemirov, was proclaimed a fast day to be kept year by year. 
Leading scholars, among them Heller and Sabbatai Cohen, 
wrote litanies to commemorate the martyrs of 1648 and 1649. 

After a respite of eighteen months, fresh hostilities began. 
Fortune now deserted the Cossack leader, whom the metro- 


_ politan of Kiev had hailed as the Maccabee of the Orthodox 


faith and the archbishop of Corinth had presented with a 
sword from the Holy Sepulcher. Chmielnicki was defeated 
at the battle of Beresteczko (July 1, 1651), and a treaty of 
peace more favorable to Poland was obtained, the right of 
residence in the Ukraine being restored to the Jews. Three 
years later, Chmielnicki transferred his allegiance to the 
czar of Russia, and all of the Cossack region was incorporated 
into the Muscovite empire (1654). In the same year the 
Russian army invaded the eastern parts of Poland, and as 
the cities of White Russia and Lithuania were conquered the 
Jewish residents were exterminated or expelled. Thus the 
Jews of Moghilev on the Dnieper were driven out; the 
commander of czar Alexis (1645-1676) tricked them into 
believing that they would be transferred into the camp of 
Prince Radzivil, but as soon as they left the city they were 
set upon and butchered (1655). The Jews of Vitebsk were 
robbed of their possessions by the Cossacks, many were 
slain and as many carried away captive to Pskov, Novgo- 


556 THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES [1658 


rod, and Kazan. The Jews of Polock, Minsk, and Kovno 3 


experienced a similar fate. 
On the approach of the Russians, Vilna was evacuated by 
Radzivil and his garrison (August, 1655). The majority of 


the Jewish population sought safety in flight; those that s 


remained behind were killed or banished by the Muscovite 
conqueror. Among the prominent scholars who were com- 
pelled to exile themselves were Moses Rivkes, who settled 
in Amsterdam and there published annotations (‘The Well 
of Exile’) supplying the sources of the combined Code by 
Karo and Isserles; Sabbatai Cohen, who became a rabbi in 
Moravia; Samuel Aaron Koidanover, who officiated in a 
rabbinical capacity in Fiirth and then in Frankfort-on-the- 
Main; and others. 

While Lithuania was being ravaged by the Muscovites, 
the heart of Poland was invaded from the west by Charles 
X. of Sweden. In quick succession the best part of the land 
was in the hands of the Swedes. The religious differences 
between the invaders and the invaded stirred the national 
and Catholic spirit of the Polish people, especially since the 
successful defense of the monastery of Czenstochova. The 
Catholics had ground to be suspicious of their Protestant 
fellow-nationals; it was an easy step to include with them 


the Jews. Hence the Polish militia, commanded by Czar- — 


niecki, fell upon the Jews as soon as they had reconquered 


territory occupied by the Swedes. In approved Cossack — 
fashion, the Poles perpetrated frightful massacres among — 
the Jews of Great and Little Poland. Nearly all the Jewish — 


communities of the province of Posen, save the city of 


Posen, and those in the provinces of Kalisz, Cracow, and — 
Piotrkov were destroyed. Between the Muscovite and Polish — 
horrors the Jews felt, in the language of the prophet Amos, ~ 


as if they were fleeing from a lion only to meet a bear. 


The toll of Jewish lives taken during the decade from 1648 
to 1658 was estimated as one hundred thousand at the low- — 


est. Jewish refugees were to be met with all over Europe and 


Asia. Among them was a young girl, who at the age of six 
had lost her parents in the Cossack riots and subsequently — 


Oe a Ce ee a eee 


i) sale ee ve 


ete te Ero 


TEE vic agaoale SPOUSE a 


by the nuns of a Co attic monastery. As she 
; womanhowl, she wee found wandering one 
ewis! puvial-grown!. vas rting thet she had 
thither by her deax at facher in a-vigion. The 
pher, cenr her on to Ameterdam to 
| + ere pence aceaial ty Jimdaism, 
Sp racks, amt Lace josted on Ty way of 
ohe wes, alk the Gime prota veing herset! aa the 
of pty Sa if ih a sist reached (gets at 
t when she Braye 22 Seer lee Carrie ; 


ot insane! ee! oe pit ot the Goud . 


. ad 
ts 
¥ 
’ 
4 
” 4 
e 
. 
iy 
lef 
a 
¢ 
¥ 
: ‘ 
we »* 
‘ , 
+ 
¢ ~ 
rf " “ Sey 
i 
~ 7 : 
a s * 
4 
* 
. 
¥ 
7 vat 
‘7 coe + A 
he sty Ga 
ora. ae 
4 < 13 a0 4. 
ry. 2 a 6 het ia = 


Han, > Se CHMIELNICKI 2 Ma 


ed, and Kazan. The Jews of Pol 
reece a eerie fate. | 


ie Ex 
Karo aim + Toca Sabbatat ¢ 3 
Modact ia; Sarnuel Aaron. Koidan ; 
abbinical capacity: in Forth and en: 
Maik and others, — a 
While Lithuania was cheb ray 
the heart of Poland was invac 
x. of Sweden. Tn quick successia 
was in the hands of the Swede 


berritory genes by sh Swe 
fashion, the Poles perpetrated’ 
the fews-of Great-and Little 
cormiraities of the province 
Posen, and these in the prov 
Protricov were destroyed: Bee 
horrors che Tews felt, ia. the | 
as if they were fleeing from a fi 

The toll of Jewish lives taken 
7 1658 wae extimated as one hund 
eet. Jewish refuges were to be met 
Asia. Among theme wasia young! 
bed host her parent: in the 


an 


THE MESSIAH’S SPOUSE 557 


been baptized by the nuns of a Catholic monastery. As she 
grew up into womanhood, she was found wandering one 
night in the Jewish burial-ground, asserting that she had 
been transferred thither by her dead father in a vision. The 


_ Jews, for fear of keeping her, sent her on to Amsterdam to 


rejoin her exile brother. There she returned to Judaism, 
assuming the name of Sarah, and then passed on by way of 
Frankfort to Leghorn, all the time proclaiming herself as the 
destined spouse of the Messiah. The word reached Cairo at 
the very moment when the dreamer of Smyrna openly came 
forward as the Redeemer of Israel, the Anointed of the God 
of Jacob. 


CHAPTER UXXV 
SABBATAI ZEVI 


(1626-1676) 


HE man who made a well-nigh irresistible appeal 
with his Messianic pretensions was Sabbatai Zevi 
(Zebi, 1626-1676). He was born in Smyrna, where 
his father Mordecai, descended from a Spanish family and 
formerly residing in Morea, acted as broker to an English 
mercantile firm. Father and son must have heard from those 
merchants that in Christian millenarian circles the year 1666 
was looked upon as the year of grace in which the Jews would 
be restored to Palestine. In Jewish cabalistic circles, how- 
ever, the year 1648 was accepted as the date for the Mes- 
sianic redemption. . 

Sabbatai’s talmudic education was obtained in the rab- 
binical school of Joseph Escapa. But already the youth was 
more attracted by the study of the Zohar along the lines of 
Luria’s exposition. He gave himself up to rigid ascetic exer- 
cises, mortifying his body and bathing frequently in the sea, 
by day and by night, in winter as well as in summer. Though 


married early to a girl not unprepossessing, he shunned her 


society and willingly agreed to divorce her; this happened a 
second time with another girl. He attracted to himself a 
circle of disciples, whom he inducted into fhe mysteries of 
the Cabala. At the age of twenty he was the acknowledged 


; 
a 


master of the small group, impressing everybody with his _ 


serious mien. He was tall of stature and engaging in appear- — 


ance; he possessed also a pleasing voice and sang beautifully 
Luria’s verses or poems of his own composition in the Ara- 


3 


maic tongue, which is the language of the Zohar, and also in 


Spanish. 
The advent of the year of grace, 1648, Sabbatai marked 


+ 
2 


by breaking with the age-long tradition and pronouncing — 


the Ineffable Name. This signified that the power of the — 


558 


: 
‘ 


AT atch LEM tl aoe 


eed ae it were by reason of htasxe aia and the 
fowish people, had been restiwedt and that 
ex of the Messianic: era had wt in. Sab- 
ait pass unchalivr, ee Earth pe his 
? acai teri ne ohien eter. The 


were piaben m ne hetiel itr BW. . Per- 
Comps we a part of the Aico Siam farce’. 
ties with means by hie family avd left 


x he see aie Ativan Jeon 


riouiiaat aie 

Rigee a Oe OL 
ith the 

sith the 

bere This wetoconld noe tee b- cock the 
el dar from thetic Pie excom- 
id throwe? Morea, but be fat -be Jews 
Jd Sldies. however, he wpe os sHTeSs- 
oh Cheleix, Mace 1656 Ky yet tow siaster of 
farmer wis. given to ascetii sau. sas under 

2 of Hayire Vital’s son Sartruc is: scholars 


BIHOr af the Se ashaid 


iiritual conversation. In the Ase As bbatai 

to his pretensions. He was 2i:sely com 

was the Messiair: only he hui essen maturer 
Ba tat A ’ 


hope fe suiraculous iscer -entions Bis 
rialy City won for him tinier st vespent. Pe 
prayed devoutly, wept abe nah, ei chanted 


get, The community was then in dive Gr- 
in ite had ceased to “ie from Poland 


5 Sate _ ol 
mA 


terrible Chmielnicki massacres; moreaver, an 


See 


hat 
irl 29 


a" a 


20 
cies 


ede 
‘ 


| for Sablietai te go to Jersiaireu, where if 


‘the: Rights while pacing ws @ and diewe the . 


t down dats ¥ Bt his Ras ms - Ba od, rtatned ( 


CHAPTERT 
SABBATAI 


with B iis Messianic: Dt 

} (Ae, 1626-1676). 4 

his father Mimdeats déckens Cee 
lormerly rewkding 1 in Morea, 

psi tite apm. pens: and s 


a ; a re | i vitauts Be ‘nade a: 
A. 


ever se year + 1648 was : ac 
siande tech emption.— ‘ 

Sable bal’s talmudic edu 
bintical school of Jaserts Esc 


by day a abe phe, in wi ter as 
marned carly toa gut ni | 
society and-willingly agn 
second time with anether gid 
corcie of disgiples, whom. h it 
the Cabala, Fi the age of ; 


Se 


ance; age pease sy 
ioria’s verses ar poems « i his 

“maic tongue, which is bn 

Spanish, came 

.. The advent ‘die Best ae srace, 
by breaking with: the. ng t 

the Ineflable Name 


AT JERUSALEM 559 


Godhead, impaired as it were by reason of human sin and the 
low estate of the Jewish people, had been restored and that 
the perfect moral order of the Messianic era had set in. Sab- 
batai’s daring did not pass unchallenged; Escapa and his 
rabbinical colleagues excommunicated the offender. The 
community was divided; certain highly placed members, like 
Moses Pinheiro, were unshaken in their belief in him. Per- 
secution was accepted as a part of the Messianic career. 
Sabbatai was furnished with means by his family and left 
his native city. 

In Constantinople he chanced upon Abraham Jakini, a 
preacher of marked ability and religious enthusiasm, who 
produced a supposedly ancient writing in which the birth of 
Sabbatai and his Messianic dignity were predicted. But the 
capital was not exactly the opportune place for unfolding his 
activity. Saloniki, a seat of cabalistic study, was a more con- 
genial place. Here Sabbatai celebrated his nuptials with the 
Torah, the mystic union of the Anointed King with the 
Heavenly Daughter. This act could not fail to shock the 
sedate rabbis, who banished him from the city. The excom- 
municate wandered through Morea, but he found the Jews 
there unreceptive. In Cairo, however, he was more success- 
ful. Raphael Joseph Chelebi, since 1656 Egyptian master of 
the mint and tax farmer, was given to ascetic exercises under 
the guidance of Hayim Vital’s son Samuel. Fifty scholars 
and cabalists sat down daily at his table and entertained 
their host with spiritual conversation. In this circle Sabbatai 
let drop hints as to his pretensions. He was honestly con- 
vinced that he was the Messiah; only he had grown maturer 
and more circumspect. 

It was natural for Sabbatai to go to Jerusalem, where, if 
anywhere, he might hope for miraculous intervention. His 
conduct in the Holy City won for him universal respect. He 
fasted much, prayed devoutly, wept copiously, and chanted 
psalms through the nights while pacing up and down the 
floor of his chamber. The community was then in dire cir- 
cumstances. Pious gifts had ceased to flow from Poland 
because of the terrible Chmielnicki massacres; moreover, an 


560 SABBATAI ZEVI 


extortionate pasha was clamoring for funds. Who but the 
charitable Chelebi could help, and who but Sabbatai, the 
mint-master’s favorite, might be sent? Accordingly, he set 
out for Egypt. 

Sabbatai left Jerusalem as a messenger (shaliah); he re- 
turned as the Messiah (mashiah). Cheerfully did Chelebi 
respond to the needs of the Jerusalem community. At the 
same time there came the opportunity to its emissary to — 
have his Messianic dreams come true in an unexpected man- 
ner. It was then that he first heard of the girl Sarah seeking — 
to meet her mate, the Messiah. It made no difference that — 
rumor was unkind about her free manner of life; even that — 
was part of the Messianic-prophetic programme, for did not — 
the prophet Hosea at the behest of God marry an unchaste — 
woman? Sarah was sent for from Leghorn; at Cairo she 
bewitched Sabbatai and his circle by her beauty and pert- 
ness. None was happier than Chelebi that in his house the 
Messiah and his bride were wedded. Chelebi placed his — 
fortune at the disposal of Sabbatai and became his first © 
influential upholder. In Gaza, on his return journey, Sab- — 
batai found another ally, the prophet to proclaim the good — 
tidings. | 

Nathan Benjamin Levi (1644-1680) was the son of Elisha, 4 
an immigrant from Germany, whom the community of Jeru- — 
salem sent out as a messenger to North Africa and Europe to ~ 
collect funds for the support of the Jews making their home | 
in the Holy City. The son grew up in Jerusalem, where he — 
attended the talmudical school of Jacob Hagiz (1620-1674), — 
an Italian scholar who taught in a pious foundation of two — 
wealthy Jews of Leghorn. Upon the recommendation of the — 
master, a rich Portuguese Jew, Samuel Lisbona, who had — 
removed from Damascus to Gaza, gave Nathan his daughter — 
(the girl was pretty, but blind in one eye) for a wife. He was 2 
but a youth of twenty, and when Sabbatai arrived in Gaza, — 
Nathan immediately announced himself as the prophet — 
Elijah come down to earth to pave the way for the Messiah. — 
He told of a message that had come to him, probably some — 
time in 1665, to the effect that within a year and a few 


¥ PROCLA MMI UH: WESSLAM 561 


h would manifest hintsell je. bis glory and 
iby @ peacetal conrjeest ol Turkey. 
F iaecdtt broaticast; it wan embellished 
ctastic otto» hichisding a joartey of the 
al fiver Sarah ai (pnt, where the Anointed 
is spouse the (hictern pear sh donghter 
teidherk the ten tribes « the Hiely Land. 
inJeruentem and cvs hoc oentkenen ts 
with joy. But facet> Hton2 was decidedly 
. i: the highly enivosresy 43 ees (rakante, 
h thon wekready with < tesventy meseage 
ip the position held tie ee © by Citw. Gab 
lem. Prophets were ev, Se orale: diss 
x thon Sabbatai “earn + Shoe ash a 
many by the name of Mec: uh Binck 
ber was réceived > ssumoh. A 
em store for hint kk 29¢ “ative city 
he ave In the compent’ «i She fervsale 
sie Bw his secretary in Ge ecders of 1664, 
. fd hitasclf publicly in fiw. coc: appa 
mp as the expectex bh Gelatin. ne WOR 
“enlianly: “Long ive SATE, OOF 


4 ms Apia ‘ . My : 


.* 
Sie sohe 


omg 


relia Masses was bounties. 0 metroms, 
; all children fell into a trasen xt in thw Take 
ar acclaimed tied 4 ee toe toe Sai, 
paeevers Mkernsel ves fot. the excaive te the Mek, 
5 Was al a standstill. On tie one bane gee 
iselves to ascetic exercives iy order wr syileen! 
Pind On the other hand indulved in festa 
the | eesiah. As often as the pretender apowared - 
5, pro pessions were forme i, (he mass of marchers 

joy a8 the sweet voice of pie hes ven eet leader 
hé right hand of the Lord is exalreds the fight 
re idoeth valiantly.’ ln Sinyrne and eleewhere, 
m Saloniki, children of the: tenes aye af ten 
are were united iti wedlock, ea that the re- 
unborn souls might enter inte ‘vod aad thus 


~~ 


| 


ate plisha’ was clamoring: _ 
'@ ‘deh could help, and 1 
's favorite, might be sent 


* 


Messiah 
the needs of the fe 
there came the oppor 


was then that he first he 

her mate, the Messiah: E 

sans kind about her. free. 

vas part of the haat nie-propheti 
the prophet Hosea et the behes 
san?’ Ga arah was sent: for: nr 

ched S 


a 
: 


None was ir 1a ppier than c 
tah ee his bride were 
at the disposal ol: 

af upholder. In Gaza, 


4 


fotnd another ees the PO 


: 


Air Wn re sa ay Pom pean 
ent out as a messengel 
ject funds for the support off 
he: talmudi cal school » 
tea di a scholar who. taught 
salthy fows of Leghorn. Upen 
ter, a righ Por dascpieger’ 
noved from Damascus to € 
> girl wea lpretty, but blin 
ta youth of ies 


an in bien 


i = 


1665] PUBLICLY PROCLAIMED MESSIAH 561 


months the Messiah would manifest himself in his glory and 
establish his kingdom by a peaceful conquest of Turkey. - 
The revelation was sent out broadcast; it was embellished 
with all sorts of fantastic notions, including a journey of the 
Messiah to the mythical river Sambation, where the Anointed 
King would take for his spouse the thirteen year old daughter 
of Moses and then lead back the ten tribes to the Holy Land. 

Thecommon folkin Jerusalem and the adjacent settlements 
were transported with joy. But Jacob Hagiz was decidedly 
hostile; his son-in-law, the highly esteemed Moses Galante, 
wavered. Nathan then was ready with a heavenly message 
elevating Gaza to the position held by the Holy City. Sab- 
batai left Jerusalem. Prophets were sent out to herald his 
advent, among them Sabbatai Raphael of Morea and a 
cabalist from Germany by the name of Mattathiah Bloch. 
In Aleppo the pretender was received with triumph. A 
greater ovation was in store for him in his native city 
Smyrna, where he arrived in the company of the Jerusale- 
mite Samuel Primo as his secretary in the autumn of 1665. 
Sabbatai proclaimed himself publicly in the synagogue, amid 
the blowing of trumpets, as the expected Messiah. The wor- 
shipers shouted exultantly: ‘Long live our King, our 
Anointed One!’ 

The frenzy of the masses was boundless. Staid matrons, 
young girls, small children fell into a trance and in the lan- 
guage of the Zohar acclaimed Sabbatai as the true Savior. 
All men prepared themselves for the exodus to the Holy 
Land; business was at a standstill. On the one hand people 
submitted themselves to ascetic exercises in order to speed 
the redemption, and on the other hand indulged in festivities 
in honor of the Messiah. As often as the pretender appeared 
in the streets, processions were formed, the mass of marchers 
thrilled with joy as the sweet voice of the heaven-sent leader 
rang out: “The right hand of the Lord is exalted; the right 
hand of the Lord doeth valiantly.’ In Smyrna and elsewhere, 
particularly in Saloniki, children of the tender age of ten 
and twelve years were united in wedlock, so that the re- 
mainder of unborn souls might enter into bodies and thus 


562 SABBATAI ZEVI 


the last hindrance to the realization of the redemption be 
removed. 

In the tumultuous jubilation all discipline was broken 
through. The aged rabbi Aaron Lapapa (died 1674) remon- 
strated and was speedily deposed by Sabbatai and replaced 
by Hayim Benveniste (1603-1674). The adhesion of this 
eminent talmudist was hailed with delight by the believers. 
All opposition was borne down, if necessary by force. Thus 
Hayim Pefia, a wealthy and influential member of the com- 
munity, had to flee from the synagogue; as his own daughters 
joined in the general madness, the father could do no less 
than acquiesce. Sabbatai was undisputed master of the 
Smyrna community. The local Turkish authorities were 
bribed to support him against the rabbis, of whom Lapapa 
was most inimical. | 

The scenes of the Jewish quarter at Smyrna were repeated 
elsewhere. Samuel Primo from Smyrna and Nathan 
from Gaza flooded the Jewish communities the world over 
with messages concerning the appearance of the Messiah 
and his wonderful doings. The Christian agents of Dutch and 
English firms spread the news to European capitals. The 
Jews everywhere received the good tidings with joy, and 
even Christians lent credence to the story. At Venice, Moses 
Zacuto, a fellow-student of Spinoza, inflamed the minds of 
the all too credulous Jews; in Leghorn, Sabbatai’s early 
adherent Moses Pinheiro acted with equal zeal. 

Among the leading converts in Amsterdam were the rabbis 
Isaac Aboab and Raphael Moses d’Aguilar; the rich phil- 
anthropist and theological writer Abraham Pereyra, for 
several years president of the community; and Spinoza’s 
other fellow-student Isaac Naar. The presses could not turn 
out quickly enough prayer-books, in Hebrew and Spanish, 
with directions for penitential devotions by means of which 
one might become worthy of participating in the Mes- 
sianic bliss. In one synagogue the custom was introduced of 
reciting the priestly blessing every sabbath, whereas nor- 
mally it was customary for those of priestly descent to pro- 
nounce the blessing only on the festivals. Even rationalistic 


\ : DEPARTURE FOR. CONSTANTINOPLE .) $63 


> tga the movement. The @dlosophizing 
mo 494), formerly of iamreorg and at 
to King Christian [V. of Deemark, was 


> oe. of homage sent ~ Hie Messiah ; 

of nuadens Nor was the detuehuxt Spinoza f 
Ke —* the possitrility of Jewish teetora- 
ive elders uf 1! 2¢ Portags em com- 
| thea) : Texeira (5. 494) and Bemcdie de 
“the jubsivat dances ic the synagogue, the 

besed in thir Dest garmeyin nd wearing wide 

eet sold ah their pow s0-a¢ ty be 
t Game to leave the Fi ihinocdin for itw 
| sad Hameln (died 1724) *°%+ ic her highty 
bic hy how her father: » abandonesi 
with ail ite covitents, removed fo hi idesbetm, 
mburg two large barreis ol & eee and four! 

for pouiner. The only seit who stood ‘ 


able rockin the face of thr gor ss' istoxicas 
asportas <p. 494). in London. -n vs wagered 
} — tem that withio wor years Sab 
| “eall com- 
the King- 


zh cs abid acelaim of ferr,- snet have 

d Of Battiacsi. His immedi ace devotees *ag- 

and; wherner with his conasy: = sot, spoke : 

terms. ‘These men cane #o4 an ascend 

amer wad pushed him on te > ©eceme action, 

istied a manifests in the nae: of ‘he Messiah 

AW $ throughout the world ture ‘vs fast day ef 

Tebeth. inte & festival. Nutwvlly the rabbis 

nded. Seleten Algazi, @ ce Smyrna rab- 

z “barely ener death at tw hands of the 

Pfled tha cley At last, Sabbore: net sail for Con- | 

in the enpeitacicn. that the «sitan weald do | ; 
et she ia ef the kings of the earth, When — 

ad ship pet ol! its passenyers on the coast of 


2 . : 4 
ne | . } : nv 
lye ; ; me % 5 Aah tee teat 

‘ ; f ; . P . ‘ “2 4 Sey: oF rape tke Z 
Bie Mh as ' , ; _ : i Pees a ve ae are ‘ade Ser ahs Wag We 
7 J . > ee 2. my ¢ ee ee er) ee at ae 


* 


jubilation alfe 
hrough. The aged rabbi Aaron Lap 
strated and was speedily deposed by 
by Hayvim Benveniste (1603-1674) 


eminent talmudist was hailed witht 
All opr soni was Seis doweiy if 


vad 


munity, tad t6 flees re m nthe eynagogues 
joined in the general madness; the fath 


than ageuiesce. Sabbatal was undis 
Si oad a co tmmunity: The: bees 


Wes Og batneiealt 


The seenes of the Jew 
elsewhere! “Samad Primo 


id his wat ecfu domes. =e | 


ae Ae 
: Jews 
even Chr stia 
Zacuto, a = talhe wmeulan: of 
th : > al too credulous Jews; 


erent Moses Pinheiro acted 
ppt y the leading converts it : 
‘iia arta and Raphael M 
anthropist and theological w 
several years president of the 
woe r fe 2 low-student Isaac Na 
out quick me Grote ugh pate’ 


One Ii ight bois 
sianic. bliss. In Orie ouitagbaall 
reciting the: oriestl ¥. blessing 
mally it was customary fok thos 
shounce the ie i only on the: 


bE 


DEPARTURE FOR CONSTANTINOPLE 563 


circles were drawn into the movement. The philosophizing 
Benjamin Mussafia (p. 494), formerly of Hamburg and at 
one time physician to King Christian IV. of Denmark, was 
the first to sign the address of homage sent to the Messiah 
by the Jews of Amsterdam. Nor was the detached Spinoza 
altogether sceptical about the possibility of Jewish restora- 
tion (p. 498). 

At Hamburg representative elders of the Portuguese com- 
munity, like Manuel (Isaac) Texeira (p. 494) and Bendito de 
Castro, led in the jubilant dances in the synagogue, the 
young men dressed in their best garments and wearing wide 
green sashes. Many sold all their possessions so as to be 
ready when the call came to leave the Dispersion for the 
Holy Land. Gliickel of Hameln (died 1724) tells in her highly 
interesting autobiography how her father-in-law abandoned 
his residence with all its contents, removed to Hildesheim, 
and sent on to Hamburg two large barrels of linens and food 
in preparation for the journey. The only man who stood 
out like a veritable rock in the face of the general intoxica- 
tion was Jacob Sasportas (p. 494). In London, Jews wagered 
a hundred pounds against ten that within two years Sab- 
batai would be anointed king of Jerusalem. The small com- 
munity in papal Avignon made ready to depart for the King- 
dom of Judah in the spring of 1666. 

This well-nigh universal acclaim of Jewry must have 
turned the head of Sabbatai. His immediate devotees ag- 
grandized him and, whether with his consent or not, spoke 
of him in divine terms. These men probably won an ascend- 
ancy over the dreamer and pushed him on to extreme action. 
Samuel Primo issued a manifesto in the name of the Messiah 
bidding the Jews throughout the world turn the fast day of - 
the tenth of Tebeth into a festival. Naturally the rabbis 
were dumbfounded. Solomon Algazi, of the Smyrna rab- 
binical college, barely escaped death at the hands of the 
believers and fled the city. At last, Sabbatai set sail for Con- 
stantinople, in the expectation that the sultan would do 
homage to him, the highest of the kings of the earth. When 
the storm-tossed ship put off its passengers on the coast of 


564 : SABBATAI ZEVI 


the Dardanelles, Sabbatai was arrested and taken in chains 
to Constantinople, where he was kept in prison. The able 
grand vizir, Ahmad Kiuprili, was then setting out for Can- 
dia in order to terminate the long war in which Turkey was 
engaged with the island. He thought it unwise to provoke 
the Jews by harsh measures against the man to whom they 
clung so tenaciously; at the same time it was undesirable to 
leave him in the capital. So Sabbatai was transferred to the 
fortress of Abydus, where political prisoners were kept. 

The detention was rather of a mild sort; his friends had 
access to him. Far from losing faith in him, his adherents 
looked upon the imprisonment as temporary, a necessary 
step towards the triumph of their cause, and referred to the 
place of detention mystically as the ‘Tower of Strength.’ 
Sabbatai bore himself as the Messiah. On the eve of Pass- 
over he had a paschal lamb killed for himself and his com- 
panions and he consumed it with the suet in disregard of 
talmudic law. He gave expression to the abrogation of the 
laws of Moses and the rabbis by pronouncing a benediction: 
‘Blessed be God, who looseth (permits) that which is bound 
(forbidden).’ Thanks to the rich presents, which pilgrims 
from near and far laid at the feet of the pretender, he was 
able to live in regal splendor. His sovereign superiority to 
accepted tradition proceeded apace. First the fast day of the 
seventeenth of Tammuz was done away with, because on 
that day the Messianic consciousness had come to him for 
the first time. Then on the seventh day thereafter, which 
was a Monday, he ordered the Great Sabbath to be kept. 
Lastly, the ninth of Ab, the fast day in commemoration of 
the destruction of the Temple, being the anniversary of his 
birth, was ordained a festival, a day of rejoicing, with a 
special service of song and thanksgiving. And these orders 
were obeyed, even as in all the communities, with few excep- 
tions, a blessing was invoked upon ‘our Lord and King, the 
holy and righteous Sabbatai Zevi, the Anointed of the God 
of Jacob.’ 

The turning point came about through the visit of two 
Lemberg Jews, Isaiah, the son of the celebrated David ha- 


/ §— TURNS MOBAMMEDAN Mot ae 


tk » hire ‘des i in Poland ; a proj shell by the name of 
| x Cohen Was predicting the nearness f the Mes- 
1g mm, bat Not with Sabbatai as the Messianic 
Btateent by their hand a letter to the Jews of 
ch he promise} them vindication for the suf- 
: : recently #edured and rie ermptoriiy atdered 
> a presente. The prophetcame, saw the wostld- 
a and Was uncorvinced. Seine of the bolder be- 
bol taking Nehemiah’s life. tut he esraped 
je ad iter geebiracing [slam revealed to the 
Pwhattte Sabbatian meveesent was all 
Galtbaeni Wak Heotcing to OVvertios the Otte 
Phat the constable at Abydus fons) the com: 
Jews a profitable business ena ru therefore 
periors in the dark. 
mation Was conveved by the yemeesr to the 
gamed TV. 1646-1687). Forsee se: « council 
Gonvoked. At Gre mufti’s aller » renegade 
was physician te the sultan, wee «ceciched to 
labbatai (he heed teen removed 1 ir'renople) 
alern. Whether # was that Sahiain*: courage 
accu he feared that a terres ~scestrophe 
the Jews of the Ottoman empire.  «: ssented 
vol faith. (hr: Seprember 16, 1666. S«cmarai was 
bre the sultan; he immediately cus i? ois Jew- 


aie was effected. cs Sioa thy 'Setsceh Meee. 
more, for he left the sultan’s o as Melre- 


iven after the conversion, contemsiitei a wadle- 
estruction of the would-be Messiah's fv owers Bmong 

wr an da was held back by the sultans mocher om the 
t they had been duped. But on the whole the 
1€ W: 8 quite satisfactory tothe Turkish ruler, as with- 
dodshed ‘the movenient might be icft to collapse of 


d accepted the white Turkiat orca. Thos 


in Turkish Majesty's pensioner. t: is said that 


vi re 
Re Vardanelies, Sabbatai ‘was arrester 
eo tonstantinople, where J J 
; xeaed vieur, Ahmad Kinpril 
ia in order to-termin abe the Site) wand 
. engaged the 
the lous 
uN BO eat at pps same time 
leave him in the capital. So Sabbatas 
fortress hs Abydus, where political priso 
«tine chet beth ion ei pies: ka a esi 


Sablvatas i bore hicouelE as oe Messia 
* over he had a paschal lamb killed 
ns aay . | panos and he consumed it: with 
fea ty tale daw: He gave expression 


te 


laws of Moses¢ ad ~ ES 


‘pe 
of ti 


he eee o on 
“und MALAY Fit 


the seing g was inv ok 


c 
Sebe py 


5 
’ : pnd, a, 


i Wa 


1666] TURNS MOHAMMEDAN 565 


Levi (p. 546), and his stepbrother. Both were received by 
the pretender with marked attention. They incidentally 
narrated to him that in Poland a prophet by the name of 
Nehemiah Cohen was predicting the nearness of the Mes- 
sianic kingdom, but not with Sabbatai as the Messianic 
person. Sabbatai sent by their hand a letter to the Jews of 
Poland, in which he promised them vindication for the suf- 
ferings they had recently endured and peremptorily ordered 
Nehemiah to his presence. The prophetcame, saw the would- 
be Messiah, and was unconvinced. Some of the bolder be- 
lievers thought of taking Nehemiah’s life, but he escaped 
to Adrianople and after embracing Islam revealed to the 
lieutenant-governor what the Sabbatian movement was all 
about; that Sabbatai was plotting to overthrow the Otto- 
man rule, and that the constable at Abydus found the com- 
ing of so many Jews a profitable business and was therefore 
keeping his superiors in the dark. 

This information was conveyed by the governor to the 
sultan (Mohammed IV., 1648-1687). Forthwith a council 
of state was convoked. At the mufti’s advice, a renegade 
Jew, who was physician to the sultan, was dispatched to 
persuade Sabbatai (he had been removed to Adrianople) 
to turn Moslem. Whether it was that Sabbatai’s courage 
failed him or because he feared that a terrible catastrophe 
would befall the Jews of the Ottoman empire, he consented 
to the change of faith. On September 16, 1666, Sabbatai was 
brought before the sultan; he immediately cast off his Jew- 
ish headgear and accepted the white Turkish turban. Thus © 
the transformation was effected. Sabbatai the ‘Jewish Mes- 
siah’ was no more, for he left the sultan’s presence as Mehe- 
met Effendi, His Turkish Majesty’s pensioner. It is said that 
the sultan, even after the conversion, contemplated a whole- 
sale destruction of the would-be Messiah’s followers among 
the Jews and was held back by the sultana-mother on the 
ground that they had been duped. But on the whole the 
outcome was quite satisfactory to the Turkish ruler, as with- 
out bloodshed the movement might be left to collapse of 
itself. 


566 SABBATAI ZEVI 


The erstwhile Messiah advised his family that he had 
turned Moslem in obedience to the command of God. His 
staunch supporters, as soon as they recovered from their 
first stupor, consoled themselves with the belief that it was 
not Sabbatai who had become a Turk, but a mere phantom 
that took on his appearance. The Messiah himself had 
ascended to heaven or had been translated to the regions of 
the ten tribes, whence he would come back in glory to 
accomplish the work of redemption. Nathan, the prophet of 
Gaza, clung to the notion that it was all an unfathomable 
mystery, and he traversed Asia Minor, European Turkey, 
the Greek islands, Italy, everywhere heartening the be- 
lievers not to lose faith in Sabbatai’s Messianic mission. 
However, the saner people, and especially the rabbis, had 
come to their senses, and the false prophet was excommuni- 
cated and expelled from the various cities he visited, until 
disheartened but still persevering he returned to Turkey. He 
is said to have died in Sofia (1680). | 

Despite the disillusionment, the communities in Asia, 
Africa, and Europe still harbored groups, now smaller, now 
larger, desperately refusing to be undeceived. Sabbatai 
Raphael, the other prophet of the movement, found a wel- 
come in many a city during his wanderings through Ger- 
many, Holland, and Poland. In Leghorn, Moses Pinheiro 
had initiated into the Cabala a Portuguese Marano who had 
returned to the Jewish fold, the physician Abraham Michael 
Cardoso (died 1706). This visionary became an enthusiastic 
propagandist of Sabbatai’s Messiahship; the conversion not- 
withstanding, he won many over to the lost cause, par- 
ticularly in North Africa, where the ninth of Ab was for a 
number of years kept as a day of rejoicing. 

Sabbatai himself, it seems, lived a dual life. Ostensibly a 
devoted Moslem, he would chant psalms and expound the 
Zohar before a small gathering of his Jewish friends, whom 
he was permitted to admit to his society on the plea that 
he would gradually bring over his former people to the 
Mohammedan religion. He was once surprised in the act of 
psalm singing and banished to Dulcigno, a small Albanian 


eae ee en en ee ees oe eh 


tA Ol Le eee 


| isDEe | 567 


L; as jit was reported sdiabsurntly, on 
ts sit. aa wie @ ears, but 


I ales a ikasten ho ina sR 
ps epthe aad roused al tases to 


ce a A, tar } ant 
TLOe Q(s2 tat WHO hact Se Ps & 


paalm singing and banished ‘to 


Stawunect SUuppOrlers, BS Boon as ‘thes 0 
fizet stupor, consoled 4! pst pe» di 


that took on his appear 
ascended to heaven or ‘oni tied oT a taal 
the ten nen sine he would come, bar 
yccompish he work of re dene 


Ae 
waza, clang ide ie Both’ 


t im 
legrireey 
~ ~ 2 
air 4 
were y's 
Figg 
Oi 4 
; ;. & 
¥ } 
! 4 


shearterted Gut stil pe 


rs said to have died a Sofia ( ‘ 1¢ 


Raphael, the other. 


orop het a ihe 
city nd 


ee any 4 
uf 9 Mat BSF ¥ ck 


+B 


urned to the Jewish on th ee 
_ariosa (tied. 1706}, This visi . | 
Doth enters at of Sabbatal’ oi. Me 
ing, he wot ma ny oF 
ticula: % in North Africa, where t 
number of swe ear s kept as a day. 
Sabbatai him self, it seenis, live 
devoted Maaaek he v would chant 
Zohar before a-siiall, gathering ¢ 
he wag permitted ta admit t his 
would geadually bring over! 
Moharnwine:! i? religion, He wad. 


wt 
ne 
oa 


1676| HIS DEATH 567 


town. There he died; as it was reported subsequently, on 
the Day of Atonement (1676). Sabbatai was a dreamer, but 
the dream was that of his people longing for redemption, and 
the cabalistic framework he found ready-made. He believed 
in himself and followed after a delusion; but the episode 
stirred the Jewish soul to its depths and roused the mass to 
penitence and religious fervor. 


CHAPTER LXXVI 
THE SABBATIANS. MOSES HAYIM LUZZATTO 
(1676-1747) 


HE ghost of the Sabbatian movement was long in 

being laid. The death of the would-be Redeemer 

was as little of an obstacle to his followers as his 
apostasy had been in his lifetime. Daniel Israel Bonafoux, 
an unschooled precentor at Smyrna, proclaimed that Sab- 
batai was not dead, but had been spirited away and within 
forty-five years would return to accomplish the redemption. 
The heads of the community denounced the self-appointed 
prophet to the local kadi and procured his banishment from 
the city. In a small neighboring town he rallied about him 
the believers; here Cardoso, driven from Tripoli, joined the 
group and by his intellectual attainments won the mastery 
over it. Cardoso gave himself out as the continuator of the 
dead Messiah. He taught that the true God of Israel was not 
the First Cause, a Being devoid of will and powerless to 
exert influence on the world, but rather the Holy Father, a 
second Person as it were, the Creator and Giver of the Law, 
whom alone it is meet to worship. Because the Jewish people 
had swerved from this truth, it must immerse itself in idol- 
atry. Only from within, so he asserted, can false belief be 
destroyed, exactly as Sabbatai had turned Mohammedan in 
order to undermine Islam. Cardoso wandered from one coun- 
try to another as a heretic, condemned by the rabbis; in 
Cairo he met his fate, the victim of his nephew’s greed (1706): 
So he died a Jew, while the precentor-prophet Bonafoux 
sought safety by embracing Islam. 

The taint which Sabbatai was to remove by his conversion 
ascended to the birth of Ishmael by which Abraham’s seed 
was corrupted. So taught an Alsatian Jew, who on returning 
from the Orient cast his spell,on the masses of Bohemia, 
Moravia, Hungary, and Poland. After the Hungarian town 
which he made his home, he was called Mordecai of Eisen- 


568 


a ee 


_ JAcoR QUERINO =) * S69 


Le seanity referred to him as Mordecai the 
| ithe bili of eloquence as well as a command- 
he fasted much, soiectimes. for a5 many as 
dm succession, and earnestly admonished, his 
repent. He pepeidered himself the veritable 
< ‘sing Sabbatai was sent to prepare; for 
wina dreainer was 4 ‘igth man and therefore 
Mor decai, was the poor man who, in the lan- 
ure, was tadeliver the cit«, rhatis, Jerusalem. 
un Je invited thia new Meseiah to visit them. At 
and Reggio he was received enthusiastically, but on 
tance @ recoil set in. | “ts dreamer developed 
he mast do with Eiken (Rome) what Sab-. 


dered a aa im’ Padecante in. order 
Mhissown persati its sinful tiness, by which the 
retarded. His opponents prepared to 

he Inquisition, soche thought the better of it. 


retender’s widew, bor cree wie ehions tot 
conversion, ms the daughter of a Saloniki 
stic > believer ‘She had a brother, by ibe . 
ida, a tad of fifteen: She made believe 
son of ber departed husband, born of @ 
c abs her. Smo devotees in Saloniki rallied 
ninabe Meassiab, but ies rabhis saw to tt the 
Uthorities were apprise! of their doings, To 
es, about four hundred of ¢ malt with their. 
s father, embraced Islam. jacoh proved: his 
iis New religion by making the pilgrimage te 
pee back he died in Alenatiria. His‘fottowers 
leader his xin Beréechiah, iy weom they believed - 
nation of Sabbatai ad ins pretended son 
st, for such it now was, kept up the Sabbatian 
- while on the surface condiucting themselves as 
sand from time to time visiting the mosques 
spicion, they atarried only among themselves 


f pap iaere mee haat 

x CHAI TER LX 
“THE SABBATIANS, MOSES am 

| | (1676- ie 

: ie | Pe Nar ghost of the Sz ‘bbatian 


sD. Was as Seale me 
apos cay fad been in his ii fetiniec de 
an a ee hoee get at Smyrn 


‘ ‘ be 


ot de ad, but thad bees e 


A 
= 


Se ee 


be 


bre 


dead Messlab: ‘He wae hat ——— 
che First Cause, a Being di eet 
exert milgence on = digece . 


airy. Only pie tt geloone: 
lestroyed, exactly as $ Sabbatel i 
Orege4;nr. ke acer iam. Cai 
try ty another a hh eretic, ¢ . 


. $ 
“© he died a Jew, while the 
sought 92 = Y by embracin g 1 
‘The taint which Sabbatail was 
siiiaak ad te pie birth ob ishmae 
was CO iy. TD taught an 
from toa Mient cast his pa 
Moravia, Hu ngary and Polane 


JACOB QUERIDO 569 


stadt; but people usually referred to him as Mordecai the 
Preacher. He had the gift of eloquence as well as a command- 
ing presence; he fasted much, sometimes for as many as 
eleven days in succession, and earnestly admonished his 
audiences to repent. He considered himself the veritable 
Messiah, whose way Sabbatai was sent to prepare; for 
whereas the Smyrna dreamer was a rich man and therefore 
imperfect, he, Mordecai, was the poor man who, in the lan- 
guage of Scripture, was to deliver the city, that is, Jerusalem. 
The Italian Jews invited this new Messiah to visit them. At 
Modena and Reggio he was received enthusiastically, but on 
nearer acquaintance a recoil set in. The dreamer developed 
the notion that he must do with Edom (Rome) what Sab- 
batai had done with Ishmael. The meaning was unmistak- 
able that he considered a plunge into Christianity in order 
to expiate in his own person its sinfulness, by which the 
perfect order was retarded. His opponents prepared to 
deliver him to the Inquisition, so he thought the better of it 
and fled the country. 

At the seat of Sabbatianism the movement gained a new 
impetus. The pretender’s widow, his last wife whom he 
married after his conversion, was the daughter of a Saloniki 
Jew, an enthusiastic believer. She had a brother, by the 
name of Jacob Querido, a lad of fifteen. She made believe 
that he was the son of her departed husband, born of a 
posthumous union with her. Soon devotees in Saloniki rallied 
about the reincarnate Messiah, but the rabbis saw to it that 
the Turkish authorities were apprised of their doings. To 
save themselves, about four hundred of them, with their 
leader and his father, embraced Islam. Jacob proved his 
devotion to his new religion by making the pilgrimage to 
Mecca. On the way back he died in Alexandria. His followers 
took for their leader his son Berechiah, in whom they believed 
to see a reincarnation of Sabbatai and his pretended son 
Jacob. The sect, for such it now was, kept up the Sabbatian 
cult in secret; while on the surface conducting themselves as 
Mohammedans and from time to time visiting the mosques 
to escape suspicion, they married only among themselves 


570 THE SABBATIANS : [1700 


and practised certain Jewish rites. To the present day this 
sect, which the Turks call Dénmeh (Dissidents), still lives 
on in Saloniki. 

Sabbatian missionaries carried the infection into European 
communities, and in nooks and corners the cult led an exist- 
ence under cover. Even where the movement had been known 
only from hearsay, the guardians of tradition became appre- 
hensive at the manifestation of any unwonted religious 
exaltation. In Poland, Judah the Saint (as he was called) 
of Dubno, a man of no high intellectuality but guileless, and 
his cleverer associate Hayim Malak were holding revival 
meetings in which cabalistic fancies were an adjunct to the 
preaching of repentance. Saul, the rabbi of Cracow, ad- 
dressed a letter of inquiry concerning Sabbatianism to Zebi 
Ashkenazi, then in a minor rabbinical position in Altona. 
This distinguished scholar (1658-1718), a Moravian by birth, 
had spent his early youth in Saloniki and Constantinople, 
where his learning made such an impression upon the Sephar- 
dic Jews that they referred to him as ‘haham.’ This title he 
retained for himself ever after. For a short time he had been 
rabbi at Serajevo, after the misfortune of losing his wife and 
daughter in the bombardment of Buda by the Austrians 
(1686). He was now married a second time to the daughter 
of the chief rabbi of the three communities at the mouth of 
the Elbe. The Haham Zebi, who knew the Sabbatians from 
personal observation, enlightened the Cracow rabbi and 
warned him specifically against the questionable doings of 
Malak. ; 

As a result of rabbinical persecution, Judah and a group of 
fifteen hundred persons left for the Holy Land in 1700. While 
the majority congregated in Moravia and Hungary, Judah 
with a smaller body passed through Germany, by way of 
Altona and Frankfort-on-the-Main, to Vienna. In the Aus- 
trian capital the wealthy banker and court Jew Samuel 
Oppenheim supplied them with means to continue their 
journey. The shrunken residue reached Jerusalem. The leader 
Judah died shortly after. The place in which he and his 
fellow-pilgrims had established themselves, together with 


ides, oe ee rn ee ee ee ee ee ee 


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ae a HAYUN 571 


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as the Ruin (Herta) of J Lida 
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exaltation. Ia Poland, Judah the § 
of Dubro, aman of no high i intel 
his cleverer associate Hayim D 
meeiinus inowhich eabalistic fan 
preaching (of reperitance. Saul, 
dressed a letter of inquiry cot 


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This distinguished scholar (63! 
bad spent-his early youth in 
where his learhing made such 
dic Tews that they referred to 
retained forhimself everafter: 
ney i at Be rajeva, after themi 
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1712] NEHEMIAH HAYUN 571 


the synagogue, was destroyed by the Arabs in 1720; the 
enclosure was long known as the Ruin (Hurbah) of Judah 
the Saint, and the chief synagogue of the Ashkenazim sub- 
sequently erected there still bears that name. 

The small body found itself stranded, and it scattered in 


‘all directions. Two of Judah’s nephews went over to Chris- 


tianity; one of them later on allied himself with a Sabbatian 
element in Mannheim in southern Germany. Malak, who 
had come in contact with the aged Primo, placed himself at 
the head of a Sabbatian society in Jerusalem. At length he 
was driven out; in Saloniki he associated with the Dénmeh 
sect and went on a tour of propaganda through Turkey. The 
rabbinate of Constantinople excommunicated him (1709), 
and so he made his way back, traversing the communities 
of Podolia and eastern Galicia and planting the seeds of the 
Sabbatian heresy. 

An arch-impostor was unquestionably Nehemiah Hiya 
Hayun (died some time after 1726). He was born apparently 
at Serajevo, though for reasons of his own he pretended to 
be a Palestinian by birth. His early training he received at 
Hebron, where he was inoculated with the Sabbatian virus. 
After a short ministry as rabbi in Uskup near Saloniki, he 
led an adventurous existence in Turkey and Italy, in Egypt 
and Palestine. At Smyrna (1708) he captivated certain 
wealthy people with extracts from a cabalistic work he had 


ready, in which he developed a doctrine bordering on trini- 


tarianism. The rabbi, Benjamin Levi, scented the heresy and 
advised the rabbinical college at Jerusalem, whither Hayun 
was bound. As soon as the cabalist had set foot in the Holy 
City, he was anathematized by the chief rabbi, Abraham 
Isaaki, and his work was condemned to be burned without 
examination. In Venice, however, he succeeded in printing a 
part of his book with the approbation of the spiritual author- 
ities. A still more cordial reception was accorded to him at 
Prague (1711 to 1712), where David Oppenheim was chief 
rabbi. 

David Oppenheim (1664-1736) was the nephew of the 
Vienna court agent Samuel. From his father and father-in- 


572 : THE SABBATIANS [1713 


law he had inherited a substantial fortune. He collected a 
large and marvelous library of Hebrew books and manu- 
scripts; many books were specially printed for him on vellum 
or blue paper. This library with its rare treasures was acquired 
by the Bodleian at Oxford in 1829, and there it rests as one 
of its chief glories to this day. David was a beneficent man, 
spending a tithe of his fortune in charity. He was somewhat 
of a cabalist himself, and though he had no time personally 
to enter into relations with Hayun, his son Joseph was 
charmed by the pretender. This patronage encouraged 
Hayun to unfold by deft implication the teachings he had 
imbibed from the Sabbatian sectaries of Saloniki, that sin 
must be conquered by an excess of sinfulness and the satis- 
faction of grossest desires. The people readily believed him 
when he told them that he was the recipient of communica- 
tions from heaven by.the hand of the prophet Elijah, that 
he could force the Deity to reveal Himself to him, and that 
he had the power to bring the dead back to life and create 
new worlds. 

In Berlin Hayun insinuated himself into the good graces 
of the family of the rich court jeweler Liebmann (p. 590). 
With their aid and with the approbation of the rabbinical 
member of the family, Aaron Benjamin Wolf, Hayun pub- 
lished in 1713 his book under the title of ‘The Faith of the 
All.’ The text, by some Sabbatian sectary, possibly by Sab- 
batai himself, was surrounded by a double commentary 
written by Hayun. While the text taught that the ‘Holy 
Father,’ that is, the Messiah, was God incarnate, the com- 
mentary inculcated the doctrine of the Trinity, in which 
God (the Primal Cause), the Holy Father or King, and the 
Divine Presence (Shekinah) were the three Persons. With this 
book the author appeared in Amsterdam, purporting to bea 
messenger from the Holy Land and petitioning the managers 
of the Portuguese community to allow him to offer his pub- 
lication for sale. 

The Portuguese rabbi, Solomon Ayllon (1664-1728), born 
in Safed and nurtured in the Cabala, was himself suspected 
of being a Sabbatian, having come under the influence of the 


eter! bay BOT senders Of tis-awn com- 
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1714] THE HAHAM ZEBI 573 
Saloniki sect together with Hayun in his younger years. 
Ayllon was not trusted by some members of his own com- 
munity, since the year before he had expressed a favorable 
opinion on some work of Cardoso. Hayun’s book was there- 
fore submitted to the Haham Zebi, who in 1710 had accepted 
the call as chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic community at Am- 
sterdam. It was an easy matter to lay one’s hand on the 
palpable heresy in Hayun’s books. Moreover, the warning 
issued by the Jerusalem rabbinate against the plausible 
cabalist had preceded his arrival in the Dutch metropolis, 
and Moses Hagiz (1670-1744), a born Jerusalemite, now 
settled in Amsterdam as preacher and teacher, added the 
weight of his testimony in disfavor of the questionable pub- 
lication. Zebi refused to sit on the same commission with 
Ayllon te pronounce judgment on the author and his work. 

Haham Zebi had had serious difficulties with the lay 
heads of his own community and on those occasions the Por- 
tuguese parnasim had strongly supported him. Now through 
the activity of Ayllon, who claimed that the prestige of the 
older community was involved, a feud developed between 
the Portuguese parnasim, among whom Aaron de Pinto took 
a leading part, and the proud Ashkenazic chief rabbi. While 
Ayllon and his party were preparing to exonerate Hayun, 
Zebi in conjunction with Hagiz pronounced the ban over the 
heretic. The Portuguese answered by publicly acquitting 
him. Moreover, when the Ashkenazic haham refused to 
appear before their body, they forbade members of their 
community to have intercourse with either of their two 
opponents. Hagiz left for Altona, while Zebi departed to 
London and then by way of Breslau to Poland (1714). But 
letters came to Amsterdam from Germany, Italy, Poland, 
and African communities with anathemas hurled against the 
heretic. Hayun was therefore prevailed upon to journey to 
the Orient in order to have his excommunication rescinded. 
He was well provided with letters of recommendation. In 
Constantinople he succeeded in enlisting the good offices of 
the vizir, and the rabbinical college absolved him on con- 


574 THE SABBATIANS [1726 


dition that he would not engage again in teaching, preach- 
ing, or publishing cabalistic matter (1724). However, he 
forgot his solemn promise quickly when he returned to 
the West; again he was excommunicated (1726). This time 
the aged adventurer could not maintain himself in Europe or 
in the Orient; he died an exile in North Africa. ; 

Hagiz, from his seat in Altona, took a hand in nipping in 
the bud another Messianic movement, though this time it 
had not the remotest connection with Sabbatianism. Moses 
Hayim Luzzatto (1707-1747) was the son of wealthy parents 
in Padua. He received a careful education and mastered 
early beside the Hebrew also the Latin tongue. The two 
strains united to develop his natural powers as a poet. From 
a drama on a biblical theme and a new Psalter on the model 
of the Scriptural he advanced to a dramatization of the vic- 
tory of virtue and love over vice and selfishness. This moral- 
ity play, ‘The Tower of Strength’ or ‘The Integrity of the 
Upright,’ was written in honor of the nuptials of his teach- 
er’s son. The teacher was Isaiah Bassan, by whom the 
impressionable disciple was introduced to the Cabala. Luz- 
zatto was so impregnated with the style and the thought 
of the Zohar that he produced a duplicate of his own which 
he called ‘The Second Zohar.’ 

Luria’s writings turned the poet into a full-fledged mystic. 
As he penetrated deeper and deeper. into the esoteric lore, 
he believed that his illumination was conveyed to him from 
above by the voice of a mentor-angel. In the Cabala he 
found the complete truth which no other philosophical sys- 
tem could open up. The lower world in which man finds him- 
self has in it spiritual waves, emanating from the higher 
worlds and ultimately from the Infinite Source whose modes 
these all are. As man is carried on these waves, he is able, by 
his acts and thoughts, to stir up motions, which communi- 
cate themselves to the loftier spheres for evil or for good. It 


is given therefore to man to take an active part in spiritual 


perfection; every ‘awakening’ below produces an ‘awaken- 
ing’ above and brings down to earth the sanctity of heaven. 
It was a fruitful thought which paved the way for a religious 


ee dea eT er Oe 


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- Moses WAVIM LUZZA Tt $75 


@ iui the east “of Earape. Eor Luzzatto 
Saeki meant the. wpiritarsat union of 
hoo from the bonwinge of the 
hew Zoltar was the final reswutlon mark- 
hor the appointed agent of svation. 
ly pened himself up toa embed) circle 
--Amng then was & yuncig teen from 
fdon, who was study nenticine at the 
. a, This elated Convert sprtad the mews in 
ty and to Vienrin. Ma mnie wie fo hear 
iets the rabbis of Youre to suppress 
pitteached the masse (175°) Lugzasre 
(the Venetian ratreineds: ort wrote to 
imoviated bimaell . wees’ y from, the. 
¢ was.nelther RIA cee * sophie’ B 
| tiracies; ty ies oricn he had 
at fevrtintions 6% okt a man 
Th d arud Meided tar an Sia tee Holy 
(eaten “ine ter ate 4 Hasie, Be 
to thrwe Other lial cactes snd prewaried 
rmeny ty jetitieensa ots. bar: ugon any 
ie: Inergize at he 2 mae a} sinned 
Res. Peat ant ates yeevcncien of the 
at: Vedios See isk ey. oe eerrendes 
OMRON Y ti: on: my news ag: Tk Ege, 


ct. £ jh Mes, (Mia Pete aah “eeped 
Pathe p> yrs Sea Tiey > wEtatto’s 

: eities PaaS oy the Zohar Sa 
oe 3 longs o22A mins"S wre, Yow extcom- 
Mis  OsuiIRe we the flames 
fits sa hon aot toght a refuge 
Be Beas sep tee cenepied by 


it tog 4h ey tee a heteserved 


Cae tere ie 


74 piri? THE SABI RATIANS 


| dition that he would not engage again it 
; hee ig, OF publishing Ca rbalistic matter ae 3 

forgot his solemn promise quickly: 
c the West: again he was excommun icated { 
ap a the aged aciventurer could not main’ 
“fy the Ovrienty he est an exile in North 

Haviz. from his seat in Altona, tao 

the: bucl another Messianic mover 
had not the remotest on INTDECHOR * 
Havirn Lugzatto (170717 bie 
in Padua. He received, ; 
carly beside the reget sini 
strains wnited to develop his en 
a drama on a biblical theme 


je Bia WE a _ 4 ‘dg eb eae im 
of the Berintural he advanced 


é 


tty plan ees Tor wer of F Stren 


‘ “FF * 


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1734] MOSES HAYIM LUZZATTO Sis 


movement soon to arise in the east of Europe. For Luzzatto 
the perfection of the world meant the spiritual union of 
Israel with God, the redemption from the bondage of the 
long exile. His own new Zohar was the final revelation mark- 
ing the end, and its author the appointed agent of salvation. 
Luzzatto cautiously opened himself up to a small circle 
of youthful friends. Among them was a young man from 
Vilna, Jekuthiel Gordon, who was studying medicine at the 
university of Padua. This elated convert spread the news in 
letters to his home city and to Vienna. Hagiz came to hear 
of it and forthwith wrote to the rabbis of Venice to suppress 
the movement before it reached the masses (1729). Luzzatto 
heeded the counsel of the Venetian rabbinate and wrote to 
Hagiz directly. He dissociated himself completely from the 
Sabbatian heresy—he was neither a prophet nor a prophet’s 
son, nor had he worked miracles; by divine grace he had 
merely been the recipient of revelations. How could a man 
who was unmarried and resided far away from the Holy 
Land come to be thus chosen? was the answer of Hagiz. He 
therefore turned to three other Italian rabbis and prevailed 
upon several in Germany to pronounce the ban upon any 
one who wrote in the language of the Zohar and claimed 
inspiration by angels. Bassan and other emissaries of the 
rabbinical college at Venice induced Luzzatto to surrender 
his cabalistic compositions to the custody of his teacher. 
Luzzatto now married and settled down to practical 
affairs. Soon his father met with business reverses, and the 
son returned to his cabalistic studies. Rumors came to the 
ears of the Venetian rabbis and they engaged a spy to report 
the doings of the suspect. Old and new charges were trumped 
up; the rabbis were irritated particularly with Luzzatto’s 
sharp criticism of Leon Modena’s attacks on the Zohar. So 


_ the mystic, now no longer a rich man’s son, was excom- 


municated and his writings were condemned to the flames 
(1734). Luzzatto left wife and children and sought a refuge 
beyond the Italian home. At Frankfort he was compelled by 
the rabbi to refrain from teaching the Zohar, but he reserved 
for himself the right to take up his favorite pursuits again in 


576 THE SABBATIANS 


the Holy Land when he should have passed the age of forty. 
Should he break his word, the ban against him was to remain 
in force. Many rabbis of Germany, Poland, Holland, and 
Denmark agreed to the terms; naturally Hagiz was one of 
them, so also the young Jacob Emden (p. 593), like his 
father, the Haham Zebi, a zealot to the core. 

At last Luzzatto found rest among the Portuguese of 


Amsterdam in the hospitable home of the wealthy Moses — 


de Chaves, whose son he tutored. Soon he was in a position 
to fetch his family and parents from Italy. He still corre- 
sponded with his intimate circle at home and admonished 
them to devote themselves steadfastly to the quest of mystic 
truth. The consequence was that the rabbis calied in all 
scraps of Luzzatto’s writings still in circulation. The author 
himself produced in the Amsterdam period two other works, 
each of which left a mark upon succeeding thought and let- 
ters, but with cabalistic matter well submerged. The brief 
essay on true saintliness (‘The Path of the Upright’) became 
a favorite pocket-companion with all men striving after the 
higher life. It starts with the premise that moral conduct is 
not something naturally given, but rather requires a stupen- 
dous effort to overcome all that thwarts it, in short, that it 
can be acquired only by training and education. While the 
ordinary methods of bodily mortification are deprecated, 
great store is set by solitary communion in retiring from the 
world. Another thought which was developed with far- 


reaching effect among the new Pietists (p. 585) stresses the 


point that with the saintly man even his physical perform- 
ances are invested with sacredness. 

The other work (‘Unto the Upright, Glory’) was an alle- 
gorical poem on the occasion of the nuptials of his pupil Jacob 


de Chaves. There is little of dramatic action in this composi- — 
tion, but deep thoughts are expressed in beautiful diction. — 


The Hebrew language took on a new lease of life, and to — 


Luzzatto must be accorded the distinction of being the 


father of modern Hebrew literature. The gifted poet was — 


approaching the fortieth year of his life, and he was seized — 


with longing to return to his mystic preoccupations on the 


eo, ae ey oe 


eatwortezatto =~ S77 


“But scarcely had he avd his family 
Land when they sucsymbed to the: 5 


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_de-¥erce. Many rabbis of € 
jaa agreed. to the sale 
thei, So also the young Jacob 
father, the Haham Zebi, a zealot 
At laat Luzzatto found: 60 
Asnsterdany in the houpitable 
de Chaves, whose sun he tutor 
to feteh ee family. and’ parents 
sponded with his intimate i 
them tg devote themselves § 
truth. The consequenow was. 
acraps of Lugzatto's writings & 
himself i in the oO 


a favorite ‘cakorncieaaalel 
higher life. It-starts with the 
not se Beet array — 


can be y aeeraieall sede nm tradviteed 
ordinary methods: of ‘bodily am r 

reat store is set by solitary ¢ 
¥ Ary Another thought which 
reaching effect among the new 
pe sint that with the saintly man 
are invested with sacredness. 3 
“Ph ne other work (‘Unto the Up 
rei: al | paern on the occasion of, 
de Chaves. There is little of nai 
ion, ban . deep thoughts are €x 
The Hehsee language took on a 
Luzzatto must be -aceorded the’ 
father of modern Hebrew litera 
approaching the fortieth years 
with longing te return to his my 


f 1) ¢ | 
ie of 
, Voge On 
Pa n= ie 


q 
1747] - DEATH OF LUZZATTO 577 


sacred soil of Palestine. But scarcely had he and his family 
set foot upon the Holy Land when they succumbed to the 
pestilence (1747). The remains of the poet-mystic were’ 
interred in Tiberias. 


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4 i 


CHAPTER LAXVII 
HASIDISM 


(1660-1797) 


P “HE death of Charles X. in 1660 enabled Poland to 
drive back the Muscovite invader; but rebellion at 
home forced her to conclude peace upon unfavorable 

terms. She recovered some of her provinces, but she lost a 

portion of White Russia and all of Little Russia on the east- 

ern bank of the Dnieper, along with the city of Kiev (1667). 

Podolia and Volhynia thus remained with Poland. The suf- 

ferings undergone by the Jews of these regions, however, 

had left them without recuperative powers, and the center of 

Jewish life moved northward. | | 

A number of Jewish communities, it is true, were relieved 
by John Casimir from taxation so as to rehabilitate them- 
selves. The kings who followed immediately, Michael Wis- 
niowecki (1669-1673) and John Sobieski (1674-1696), the 
heroic deliverer of Vienna, confirmed to the Jews of the 
kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania their 
ancient privileges. The Diets, however, were inimical; the 


administrators of the cities made royal protection nugatory; 


the students of Jesuit schools frequently made a pastime of 
attacking Jews in the streets. Many a Jewish community 
paid an annual tax to the principals of these schools to pre- 
vent excesses. In 1687 hundreds of scholars, joined by the 
street mob, set upon the Jewish quarter of Posen. The Jews, 
however, defended themselves bravely, and for three succes- 
sive days a veritable battle raged between the two camps. 
It was small gain that the Saxon kings, Augustus II. 
(1697-1733) and Augustus III. (1733-1763), upon their 
accession, ratified Jewish rights. The power of the Crown 
had completely waned; sovereignty was vested in the Diet, 
and any single deputy could by his veto abruptly terminate 
the assemblage long before its fixed term had run out. Poland 


578 


i Ete noose alacant Ther ening The Jew- 
i laation we ie constant perplexity how 
The: Srepsenti teers were exther brother Jews 
MGuIHE yemriakts= uw Polish courta, or 
hat mich we er: grat ax 1 The rewn, the 
a ae Fee spate ary ‘gifts’ te 
an Tea agin ve bene * wns A growiag drain 
an festktygats Kt Soc, Che enemerimnity 
ewer ies: : a colybuie, peal or 

was th ingore a wiAtent foe thewakeof = - 
Panes Hee Se Satlay an family 
Pie AS aedeings ia & eoM- 
religine FR i seers ent. Tn 1738, 
regia) ee ee Corot Syriagngue 
he Uhm oe tN Ve Seen 
rh he pea are: gach, Cee FCN te 


ie Gemiawit: 0408 oo wre Jewish bady 
vy evn raya bese mn. coo C585 fe cuebtienn Seek 

: #5 et ‘t%s eS Ate gutter. orate 

t rose. tas Opie hogs og dtioin. Cap grey 
Dave ikke A cece at ovetadied. Th 
= pb crete ay face owe dete, it 
8 bes iby teas hace wary ahaa of 
whose banal thaeye snes: ce cele, oo thar thelr 
tyes. Fhe petro veendee 
6S ee tare) joo were pecerretess. 
perpesce ete: mae he we Pek busechicveties. At 
Jews mp badd fay a +} wet: eatt al the 


| 5 were Keeigannt ode wiht, perry woe te pt 
mot poy + igeciga dower aid alivirerset hor 


a yea ee aS of sited: ee 
ig their Origin in the erect raty.at the’ Cheristiane 
being fostered by pak re 


a . ~—— ’ . ~~ a a, ‘a 
2 os = Be « F % t ds Tai Pa ek 8 force ee oo 


\ 

rs 

ir Para Mele ga \ ro $ ar. Pa dual a 
P ef rive Back the Nit scovi € invac 
en 5. pone fo are ad her to ee tude 

fs bene. 

ore pet 

is Podolia and Volhynia a chase 


LOFTS uneler 2 one by the paren 


had left them without rey uperative powers 
Jewisa life mx red ne Mbsomebana¢ : 


by john Casimir th om ‘Guan 
The kings me ibe 


‘ - 
£ Pater ar 
: i 


Anqen t vie 1 The Diets, howe 


the st chants of atk ete : aul 


4 at ce 


_ pate int bre sorcetse Many } A 


vent eunecses, ia 1087 boned 
street pNMa, Ser U Pow. the Jewish yu 
however, defended themselves 
ve daya a veritable battle rage 
t wae se gai i that the. 


a * 


k acl coy Mple telly wa aried: sovereignt 
Ing le mas ne yy bis 


1740] IMPOVERISHMENT OF POLISH JEWRY 579 


was heading for dissolution; Russia, courted by king and 
nobles, was tightening the noose about her neck. The Jew- 
ish communal organization was in constant perplexity how 
to meet its debts. The creditors were either brother Jews 
who sued the delinquent communities in Polish courts, or 
Polish nobles. What with the regular tax to the Crown, the 
imposts by local authorities, and the extraordinary ‘gifts’ to 
the clergy and Jesuit convents, there was a growing drain 
upon the communal exchequers. Moreover, the community 
was corporately answerable for debts of individuals, real or 
imaginary. Such was the impoverishment that for the sake of 
economy laws were passed restricting the outlay on family 
festivities or the annual number of weddings in a com- 
munity; salaries of religious functionaries were cut. In 1733, 
the Piarist monks threatened to seize the Great Synagogue 
in Vilna for arrears. The community was compelled to pawn 
the Perpetual Lamp of the synagogue, which was not re- 
deemed until 1746. 

The head-tax demanded of the corporate Jewish body 
_kept increasing by leaps and bounds. In 1717 it amounted 
to two hundred and eighty thousand Polish gulden; some 
fifty years later it rose to more than a million. The treasury 
could ill afford to have this source of revenue curtailed. In 
1740, the nobility proposed a change in their own favor. It 
was nothing short of making the Jews hereditary subjects of 
the lord upon whose land they were domiciled, so that their 
tax would flow into his own coffers. The monstrous resolu- 
tion failed of being carried. The rural Jews were nevertheless 
to all intents and purposes the serfs of their landlords. At 
their whim, the Jews might any day be turned out of the 
inns they kept, or their license for selling liquors might be 
revoked. The rents were frequently raised, and woe to the 
Jew who could not pay, for his children and women would be 
taken away from him and often enough reared in the Cath- 
olic religion. 

There was a veritable recrudescence of ritual murder 
libels, having their origin in the credulity of the Christian 
masses and being fostered by the clerics for their own pur- 


580 HASIDISM [1758 


poses. In Sandomir, a Christian woman threw the dead body 
of her illegitimate child into the courtyard of a Jewish elder. 
It was the time near Passover (1698). Despite the agitation 
of Father Szuchovski, the Jew was acquitted by the lower 
courts; but the cleric had the case brought up again before 
the tribunal of Lublin and the unfortunate elder was quar- 
tered (1710). Szuchovski, with the aid of a converted Jew, 
Serafinovicz, wrote a libelous book against the Jews (1716). 
The renegade was summoned by the Jews to a public dis- 
putation, but he failed to attend; nevertheless, the slander- 
ous book was republished twice (1738 and 1760). Upon the 
finding of the dead body of a Christian child in Posen, the 
rabbi, Loeb Calahora, together with the communal advocate 
and two elders, was immediately arrested. Steadfastly the 
victims asserted their innocence; the rabbi and the lay 


advocate succumbed to the tortures and died in prison (1736). 


For four years the trial dragged on, until, through the influ- 
ence of an outside community, it ended in the acquittal of 
the suspects. The Jews of Posen found themselves saddled 
with a debt of sixty thousand gulden, and the Council of 
Four Lands authorized the community to solicit funds in 
Great Poland, Germany, and Italy. _ 

A similar case at Zaslav in Volhynia (1747) resulted in the 
gruesome doing to death of religious functionaries and com- 
munal elders. For the next ten years there was an almost 
annual recurrence of ritual murder trials in one place or 
another. At last the terrorized Jews of Poland found it 


intolerable that, as soon as the dead body of a Christian was — 


found anywhere, the crime was at once laid at the door of 
the Jewish people. Theyaccordinglysent Jacob Zelig as their 
spokesman to Rome to obtain redress from the apostolic see. 
The Pope, Benedict XIV. (1740-1758), directed Cardinal 
Ganganelli to take up the matter most seriously. This just 
prince of the Church obtained a report from the papal nun- 
cio at Warsaw and then prepared an elaborate memorandum 
which was submitted to the new pope, Clement XIII. (1758- 
1769). The document deals exhaustively with the entire 
- question of the blood accusation, both in general and in 


| 23 x OF SPIRITUAL LIFE 581 


oe by inc eRe t or is ‘the yeai 
Mat Atepy should be taker to safe- 
plan exactly a8 those popes hod come 
xe ows “ah Germany, ‘that the pase of 
or te Hekt in dishonor anvang tie jews 
Ses  torverting them mikht wor be 
pial with an order from Roark, the 
ny Wareave initicmesd Britht, the nibpieter of 
be Y ‘phe Hedy See, baving latteriy examine! 
ke a whict thy epinion rests that the 
a bone Ja vee Ee poration of their umbeay- 
P thal wcear: 21. guilty of the slaughter of 
ererecees © thar rere ix ne evidence 
ect ui Pee orepucice (4763), 
, Hepevercament of Polish ag 
avy portal hidden, brought about bY the 
ne p, above tiny cen! apcorporate tax, fore pbs 
; a! Bix Wiad 2% a kira ebb. In the cer vars 
geark Masacres, whe acholastic institutions 
ned soTaS BRS Sires vigor, There Was 2 
ng scholarly fees. Abraham Gumbiner 
Gat 1648) wrote 4 commentary on the frst 
a eee KRartt and —— Jehiel Heilprin in 
3 t 1746) was the author of a useful chronicie 
t% Hons’). A few men took up the study of 
lar and ever of mathematics, Those that 
ne physiciatis sought ow foreign universities, 
Halle of Frankfort-on-the4 er. The mentai 


was ie that the writiag of commentaries 
ame: ‘onthe Codes left the yearning of the 
apl por praee communion with God unsatisfied. 
0 n arom by torn Podolia, where Jewish misery 
St, aria aH EON: we the form of Pictism (Hasidism ). 
be mrtahan movement, and the Hasi- 
Spentition of forming a seer. There 


learners into the nvysticism of ‘Luria’s 


creat ep Germany, and. ‘- 


rin gts doing toa ieath of reli 


ookesmean to-Rome to obtain redress ; 


3 imate cl ‘ld ‘uta the courtyar 


Heeitimate ch 


1 rear Pas SOVer (1698). Despite 


her Szuchovski, the Jew was acquittes 
but chi “ glen had the case brought - 
inalof Lublin afid- the unfortunate elde 

(17 10), Szuchovski, with the aid — on 


: eet 
% “FF 


. z, wrote a libelous book agains 
cegade was summoned. by #) 
a, but he ies ss % attends ne 


, " “! 
LRM aS 


Feet. abl Sy 
ie AT bh cette garde ats 
ns: ASSEre ted 


oca te succuinbed t 
four years the trial 
an outside cman ded 


As 


suspects. The ide ws 


ls eadeiat eae ‘commun 


‘er ; on oe 
ety fetta 


‘case at Zaslav in Volhy 


ale ier 


nad elders, deh the Mat eats 
recurrence ; pte mt 


ites st 
toierable Hoe t, 28 SOON as s the d 


swhere, the crime was a 


‘ a » om o 
ne ae ; 

ne PRY 

. 


shine ople. Theyaccording 


iy } 


mOKGL , Benedict XIV, G74 


i ey watur: 
& say x ee Nea a 


of the “hurch obtained at 


) 78 l & 4. A | ee. 


was submitted to the new p 


a, mw 
PY pth ae VY Chae 


. my 


1763] DECAY OF SPIRITUAL LIFE 581 


particular, and comes to the conclusion that the charge is 
unfounded and that it had been condemned by the popes of 
the Middle Ages, especially by Innocent IV. in the year 
1247. Ganganelli urged that steps should be taken to safe- 
guard the Jews of Poland, exactly as those popes had come 
to the rescue of the Jews of Germany, ‘that the name of 
Christ might no longer be held in dishonor among the Jews 
and that the difficulties in converting them might not be 
increased.’ In accordance with an order from Rome, the 
nuncio Visconti at Warsaw informed Briih!l, the minister of 
Augustus III., that ‘the Holy See, having latterly examined 
all the foundations upon which the opinion rests that the 
Jews use human blood in the preparation of their unleav- 
ened bread and for that reason are guilty of the slaughter of 
Christian children, has concluded that there is no evidence 
whatsoever to substantiate this prejudice’ (1763). 

With the progressive impoverishment of Polish Jewry 
under the heavy communal burden, brought about by the 
outlay of money, above the regular corporate tax, for defeat- 
ing calumny, spiritual life was at a low ebb. In the century 
following the Cossack massacres, the scholastic institutions 
but slowly regained some of their farmer vigor. There was a 
dearth of outstanding scholarly figures. Abraham Gumbiner 
in Kalisz (died about 1683) wrote a commentary on the first 
volume of the Code of Karo and Isserles; Jehiel Heilprin in 
Minsk (died. about 1746) was the author of a useful chronicle 
(‘Order of Generations’). A few men took up the study of 
Hebrew grammar and even of mathematics. Those that 
wanted to become physicians sought out foreign universities, 
in Padua or Halle or Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The mental 
depression drove learners into the mysticism of Luria’s 
school. There was a feeling that the writing of commentaries 
and supercommentaries on the Codes left the yearning of the 
soul for simple and direct communion with God unsatisfied. 
The reaction arose in forlorn Podolia, where Jewish misery 
was at its worst, and it took on the form of Pietism (Hasidism). 

Hasidism was not a sectarian movement, and the Hasi- 
dim had not the least intention of forming a sect. There 


582 HASIDISM 


was no attempt to modify cardinal doctrines or to do away 
with the smallest detail of accepted observance. Rather was 
the stress laid upon a new method of serving God, and this 
method addressed itself to the individual concerned with his 
own personal salvation. The founder of the movement was 
Israel Baal Shem Tob (or, by abbreviation, Besht; 1700- 
1760). The title of Baal Shem was given to a man who 
worked miraculous cures through the Name of God. But 
the Besht was more than a healer of bodily ailments; he was a 
physician of the soul. As such he was referred to as the 
Man of the Good Name, that is, of good and godly repute, 
and this title he accepted for himself. 

Already the child exhibited the traits which marked out 
the man. Often he would absent himself from school to seek 
solitude in the woods. As a lad of twelve he took service in 
the humble capacity of helper to a schoolmaster, his duties 
consisting in taking children from their homes to school and 
back. He loved to conduct them to the synagogue and train 
them to say their Amens dutifully. Later on he did chores 
for the synagogue sexton; he would be through with his work 
in a short time, sleep the rest of the day, and then remain 
awake the whole night studying and praying. Learning was 
not his métier, and he disdained to parade even his meager 
attainments. He would not undeceive the brother of his 
intended wife, who insisted that his sister should marry none 
but a scholar. However, the bride chose to take him as he 
was, and the couple set off for the Carpathian mountains. 
There they eked out a living, the man digging up lime and 
the woman taking the load on a cart to the city. Thus years ~ 
were passed in close touch with nature. 

But the Besht was not satisfied with complete solitude; he 
formed a circle of devoted disciples. For eleven years he was 
their guide in the Podolian town Miedzyboz. He wrote no 
books. He taught by word of mouth, in pithy sententious 
sayings, in homilies, and in parables. Nor was his activity 
confined to his immediate disciples, who stored up in their 
memory the casual remarks and teachings of the beloved 
master. He was of the people and mixed among them. It was 


ER PEST BRA 


Ww RE yarns {> rer commonest man to. find 
eae) ferough the entire creation. 
Mretttev shear wecyve Him in all manners, 
Tito witch so does vot cater, wo human 


' ig an eh ow wiwss”, one hwary movement, every 
maken 4) i ll Hitt mo the epiertaat world. 
Cee ake se fryree of Union with (ed as 
even k forts 2 ee Cod to the estent of 
HER ee Teesaetd co dievntion: a -weerth Rip 
; d by dieses i oweere _hercher net te be 
7e letter Of. Ge prais: iueck: one shewkl pray } 
| Tis @ saree fheri char cones te Sie ea 
, Sack. Gne e a <beonld geo yt wa othe 
Cad Ps i oe tucly Soe A Seer cary 
Ee, Se tay operas aera! 
vol See tee Be cane wit tin Tenet 
mm Tha et int: Merde? ts ‘wtig FA the peaegs? 
Otani ierrcds a2] wake 08 tere 
om i int, ive iad ee = sig, @ 8 torent ‘sax 
oe hat iver grat 
ya aeaibiade é thr ebeet is din all et te 
a Raven bet ated taper re es coe 
abe mat the nace ees R. Mae -cypeebeie een 
Ctised by baris. Sole prota sedate 40 Abate 
i @hen the shes i 24 din eee £ 19f ste Set 
eter, the fatetern wesr «loo te Witabee thie, 
tee alcwnd, fede ns 2 ee se 
+f oni that Chee es - oe Bets shy i 
BY was haiodagha: ays oe ise wpa frgehibay. 
ut yepark wRE. ft ing conan ee he 
g ember at The : ats ative .¢teghe ahi Seppaite 
dj Ra70l) wae 6 Drees Reel wee eee 
| Richie wheat tae es Charts ain Sorter ses 
in tie Save 1 13 Eunieunn?, or eutaaretaelhy Cee 
baer ersi theo. oe we len De aR ae 
ead ‘ores Fats. anananicen ve hi i ei? Harn, 
, Pe 
pa > 
2 : ¢ : ss 7 . 
yo? i ae mo aeiae, et ee *, 7 ‘ ‘ Hae : aie At ov: i | 


tee es " ASIDISM 


whe no atte mpt. to modify: carding ae € 
with vhe smallest detail of accepted | ¥ 
the stress laid upon a new method. of 
method addressed itself to the individ 
avn personal salvation. The founder. 
javael Baal Shem Tob.(or, by abbrey 
1160). The title of Baal Shem was gi 
worked miraculous cures through ie 
the 8 eshit Wy as more thana he -aler of . 


Nv as 9 the Good Name, tha 
1 this- title he accepted for h 
ae the child exhibited @ 

the man..Often he would absent hime 
soli tade in the woods, As a lad of ty 
the humble capacity of helper” 
consisting in taking children: fn 
back. He loved to conduct ther 
them to say. their Amens dua 
for Hin synagogue sexton; hew: 
ut « shorttime, sleep the rest of 
awake the whole night studying 
t his méder, and he disdained t 
attamments. bbe avouid nota 
ube ude ul wife, who insisted that u 
but a Scholar! However, the br 
ash, th nd the couple set off for : 
Pine “ they eked outia living, i! 
the wadnan taking the load on 
were paseed im clase touch wit 
ae the Reaht wes not satis t 
formed a civele of devoted di 
their suide an the Podolian: ; 
books. We taught by recs off 
bayings, 8, id desires and. meld pa 


ang 


memory aie Ca. saci wiser 4 teac 
(AASter, He oe) ef the people g 7” 


j 


1791] THE BESHT 583 


his belief that it was given to the commonest man to find 
God; for the Deity was diffused through the entire creation. 
God has willed it that man should serve Him in all manners. 
There is no place into which God does not enter, no human 
occupation but is an act of worship. Every movement, every 
walk, every talk makes an impression in the spiritual world. 
One may not arrive at the same degree of union with God as 
another, but then even a worm serves God to the extent of 
its powers. Sadness is a hindrance to devotion; all worship 
must be attended by cheerfulness. It were better not to be 
distracted by the letter of the prayer-book; one should pray 
with closed eyes. It is a miracle that man comes to life again 
after right devotion, since one’s soul should go out in the 
passionate absorption in God. Prayer and study are the very 
food which sustains the angels; devotion creates spiritual 
values. All service of God must be done with the burning 
glow of enthusiasm. Thus did the Besht bring to the mean- 
est life a consciousness of spiritual power and make of religion 
a joyous immersion in the all-pervading, ever-present God- 
head. It was a faith in which evil was but a lesser good, 
earthly beauty a similitude of the heavenly, and all self sub- 
merged when nothing but God mattered. 

There was about the Besht none of the lugubrious mor- 
tifications practised by Luria, nor of his pretensions to Mes- 
sianic dignity. But when the Besht did discourse on the per- 
son of the Messiah, the listeners were able to visualize the 
Redeemer as if he stood before them in the flesh. Of Sab- 
batai Zevi the Besht said that there was in him a ‘holy spark’ 
and that his downfall was brought about by his vainglory. 

A most unholy spark was now being thrown into the 
smoldering embers of the Sabbatian aberration. Jacob 
Leibovicz (died 1791) was a Podolian Jew of very slight 
education. In Turkey, where he was known as Frank (the 
name applied in the East to Europeans), he associated with 
the Dénmeh and conceived the notion that he was the rein- 
carnation of Sabbatai and his successors. With the trin1- 
tarian formula he returned to Poland. He announced him- 
self as the Second Person of the Trinity, the ‘Santo Senior’ 


584 HASIDISM [1759 


or Holy Lord, and gathered a circle of followers from both 
sexes, who under his guidance indulged in licentious orgies. 
At the instigation of the shocked Jews the police arrested 
the celebrants; but Frank, having become a Turkish sub- 
ject, was banished across the border. 

A conference of rabbis from the Four Lands met at Brody 
in 1756, and the Frankists, as the new sect was called, were 
solemnly excommunicated. At the same time it was decreed 
that none should study the Zohar or any other cabalistic 
writings before the age of thirty (and, even after forty, only 
those who had mastered talmudic studies). Representatives 
of the sect took their case to the Catholic bishop Dembovski 
of Kameniec-Podolsk. They presented a confession of faith 
which came close to Christianity and proclaimed themselves 
Zoharists who were at war with the Talmud. The bishop 
summoned the rabbis to answer the charges against the 
Talmud in a public disputation (summer of 1757). The 
rabbis lacked the address such as had distinguished the 
Spanish protagonists of the Talmud in similar tournaments, 
and thousands of copies of the Talmud were seized and pub- 
licly burned. , 

Dembovski died suddenly in November, 1757. The Frank- 
ists, persecuted by the Jews, recalled their leader. They 
entered into negotiations with the primate of the Polish 
Church and the papal nuncio with a view to being received 
into Christianity. A second disputation, presided over by 
canon Mikolski, was held at Lemberg (July, 1759). Among 
the Jewish representatives who participated in the religious 
debate was also the Besht. Energetically did they stand 
up against the calumny of their sectarian opponents that 
the Talmud enjoined upon the Jews the use of Christian 
blood. After the disputation the Frankists submitted to 
baptism; Frank’s conversion was celebrated with pomp at 
the capital, the king acting as godfather. 

But soon it came to the ears of the clergy that the trini- 
tarian conceptions of the converts were not those of genuine 
Christianity and that the leader was still regarded by the 
sect as the Messiah. Frank was arrested and imprisoned in 


58s 


Czenstochova (1760). There he remained for 
, kis followers looking upon hin KY pr monme nt 
¥ port ol his Messianic career, Of tine hand it had 
a nat ‘through. They navuent che place of 


wily "The Gates of Rome’ and regarded ‘the 
ra hein as the pon a} thedeigh which 
“Gah ah The Hoty Lord,’ who was hone wpon 


a tonal resets nts, Was redeamed ed the 
* : 8 ; As te ‘ 
ee: sith oye nel Lhe ‘Peet parts Pees of 


4S. 


ia Moravis geri Piansts at Baron von 
ba Achy. The irioiil. Wiest Ww ) epg By Sin 


y 


Poland had Sits sewkett by tee intriguds of 
ussia. At thee BRIS arg of tus 


b Bales electutl fs their king 


ral tes ? PORrers 


4 Stawtstas 


we former Rcctertis: + Cathavine ti, ater 
} Lael were Peers on: of meen tain tie camares 
¢ Chutess, Crane wes eevee oe tex mm! 
Sosa Seu-idedte (1747) 
in CL TOR), Bopesed by fre acdsles fs 
ee athieieten, : a) Spee ght ; 
f Orton i Grsinian pee 
the ghewitteied 1548 were eeeeateal fi 
a ee a aE, Che Cewrctl cd the Poe Lande 
xh: 5 Tix Qibertire jes bt thee Fest tire 
eae 36 oe ef tae: Sages ap eres eh Eta: Bat tad 
fil rye -_ ae are ie: pede oN 


% 


; Meo. pia 
re if leash: Pia Resin haat me 
ert: Vetere: (Hci ase! true. eet wf Seana? 

SSE bod strsent gah * wie? See eth Bae at by 


~ 


7 
ral a 


: eran 
~s at _< au 
Pe er i. a? _ ‘ey 
Pe eee ee -~ “ om Y 


} 
. 


WASTOISM “ 


Nee 
a rs: 


. gather ed a circle of fol 
who under t guidance are 
instigatl : 
orants ! Hut nrg 

as banished acros 


a oe 
ECR On Penybie 


rd 


rat 


pits hires ¢ the new. 
EC antes . tie! the se 
ritings before eh + age ot ay ple 


Le :; 
sybase PS bh ony 
Vivien Cane « 


Zoharista w ho 


r a 


in a public: editors 

lacked the address such’ 

i i pores tay zonists s of the Talim A 
sands ¢ xf copies bi the Talm 


burned, 


tn wilt liad suddenly ao 


pe hee ited hy - 


and t uae papal a pret 
Che ieee A second: 
canon ere wolskd, was held att 


— en rie u 


sa as the pee Franks 


1768] FRANK 585 


the citadel of Czenstochova (1760). There he remained for 
thirteen years, his followers looking upon his imprisonment 
as a necessary part of his Messianic career, of the kind it had 
fallen to Sabbatai to go through. They named the place of 
detention mystically ‘The Gates of Rome’ and regarded ‘the 
religion of Edom,’ Christianity, as the portal through which 
the Messiah must pass. The ‘Holy Lord,’ who was bent upon 
doing away with all moral restraints, was released by the 
Russian commander on the eve of the first partition of 
Poland. For nearly twenty years he carried on the cult of 
self-deification in Moravia and Germany, as Baron von 
Frank in Offenbach. The swindle was continued by his 
daughter Eve till 1817. 

The fate of Poland had been sealed by the intrigues of 
Russia and Prussia. At the dictation of these two powerful 
neighbors, the Poles elected for their king in 1764 Stanislav 
Poniatovski, the former favorite of Catharine II. (1762- 
1796). King and Diet were desirous of maintaining the power 
of the Catholic Church, but were compelled to acquiesce in 
repealing all laws against the dissidents (1767). The Con- 
federation of Bar (1768), formed by the nobles to restore the 
supremacy of Roman Catholicism, only served to unleash 
the fury of the Greek Orthodox Ukrainian peasants against 


- Poles and Jews, and the atrocities of 1648 were repeated in 


Podolia. By royal act (1764), the Council of the Four Lands 
had ceased to exist. The uprooting of the Jewish commu- 
nities, thus coming on top of the disruption of the internal 
organization, contributed to the hold which Hasidism ob- 
tained on the minds of the Jews and its spread beyond its 
original home. 

The mantle of the founder had fallen upon the ‘Preacher 
of Mezdyrzecz,’ Dob Baer (1710-1772), who by his talmudic 
learning won over adherents from among the scholarly ele- 
ments. The cult of the leader, the Zaddik (the Righteous 
One), was developed to its ultimate consequences by one of 
the pupils, Elimelech of Lizensk. The Zaddik was conceived 
as the intermediary between God and man, a sort of Super- 
man, possessed of miraculous gifts which were inherited by 


586 . HASIDISM [A772 


the son from the father. Thus came about the dynasties of 
Zaddikim, who were visited by pilgrims from the district 
where they held sway. A more rational spirit dominated the 
Hasidim in the northern provinces, in Lithuania, where the 
mcvement made but slow progress, and in the adjoining east- 
ern territory which since the first partition of Poland (1772) 
had been annexed by Russia. 

The leader of the intellectual Hasidim, or the votaries of 
Habad (abbreviation for Hokmah, Binah, Deah, ‘Wisdom, 
Understanding, Knowledge’), was another disciple of Baer’s 
school, the learned Shneor Zalman of Liady (1747-1812). 
It is told of him that when praying he would address God 
thus: ‘Lord of the world, I desire neither thy Garden of 
Eden (Heaven) nor Thy future world; I desire Thee, Thy- 
self.’ As the movement invaded the north, the antagonism 
of the opponents (protestants, Mithnaggedim) grew stronger. 
The Hasidim had adopted the Sephardic ritual of Luria, and 
their method of devotion contrasted with the sober conduct 
of prayer among the majority. Communities were frequently 
disrupted and violent quarrels followed. The citadel of opposi- 
tion was Vilna, a city renowned for its learned men, of whom 
it now harbored the greatest. 

Elijah son of Solomon of Vilna (1720-1797), the glory of 


eastern Jewry to whom he was simply the Gaon of Vilna, - 


held no official position in the community. His sole occupa- 
tion was to study by day and far into the night, and to teach 
a small body of mature students for an hour or two. He lived 
practically in this house of study, which was fitted up as a 
place of worship; there he performed his devotions most 
punctiliously, but with the least loss of timein transition to his 
appointed task for the long day. At intervals only he would 
repair to his home and children, both in the care of an under- 
standing wife. Into her handsthe community droppedasmall 
allowance; the master himself was ascetically abstemious. 

Nor would he suffer his time to be frittered away by com- 


ee ee eee eS ee 


munal activity. There were other learned men to attend to — 


judicial functions, but he could not be lured away from his 
vocation, which was to go over and over again the whole 


THE GAON OF VILNA ) 587 


2 ff Jewish iiterature and ts jot clones hternisia sig 

oO ns or to dictate longer expost tions. By bie mastery 

nitire body @ fewish jore he was able t© produce 

i remote eoriers and set atight mary @ fault in 

t nts. He Was averse to the display of acumen; 
so; by no means always on the sutfant, engaged 

' For days, for weeks he wouk} labor to 

fe world partake af no food and brieg him- 
tat Biness, Suddenly, thro ugh comberee with 

‘ewe are better than one’-—the eiation 

| vibe mind and master and student would be 

Often an Wuminating thought would come. 

g his devotions and just as quickly pase out of 

te was thiding himself tor the twiseemiy 

Nn? ane 6 heart would overtiow with gratitude te 
he find come back again. 

er Mases eretotts he learned early to 

i — Of Lis studies the much neglected 7 

mud; Diligently he read and reread the Senp- . 

wrote commentaries on difficult books and even a 

ey of the Hebrew language. He knew mathe: _ 

as ti ONO: ty and turned these sciences te good en 3 re 
. tditheult sections of the Mishnah, Me sa : 

this wide domain, taking frequently am tedy- 

rthe ultimote soures was paramount, brace 

the eprrected misusages of jong standing. 

with a fare extending beyond his oem «xr 

revered, but at the same tiroe men hoger’ 

giant the man of saintty conduct, Tit than 

himself the ideal of the Tewish salt... 

could not but look with misgivings wom she 

Sind which often exhansted itself my water- ty FM 

to disparage learning. It was aganiet his x 

ie with: gublic concerns; but it waad time &: 

I oloigeee void’ and he gave his apyrmwval to 3 
0 : of the rabbinical council, against the 

| an). He jssued a manifesto against the 

i by the head of the Vilna rabbinate, 


4 
* + a 
PY, 4 rn 


7 oF ie . 
cee ON re Te it, na 


ee he ae ad ie pei a a Soa 


ie oa tal . ef ; ot 
ihe san from the father. Thus came aba 


a) fosiclikim, who were visited by pi iigrims : 
a . where they held sway. A more rational spk 
ts Hasidim in the northern provinces, iy Ty 


el | husvernent made but ead ¢ _— and 


rad been annexed Ai Rete 
ae The leader . the iste llectual 
_ Habad (abbreviation: for Hel agi Bin 
4 Understanding, esa ledge’), wae a 
: gel 


f ¥ 
school, the 


earned Shneor, Zalman, 
of hima ul Ai at whe a a 


movement ade 
of Hag Fi (protestants, Mit 
he Hasiditn had adopt ted ye 
their method of devotion cont rae 
of £ saab among the major ibys 
“ : 


disrupt ved and violent quarrels fol : 
ce s Vilna, a city renowned for : 


ee it now cn arbored the greatest. 
hes Elijah sen of Solomon of 
in « She 


ane of a iure np : 
prac a 4 ally. in ein house of stu 


Nor W ould he 2 euther his tin 
tinal activ ity. Ti here were G 


judicial darby. but he could . 


THE GAON OF VILNA eee 


ground of Jewish literature and to jot down illuminating 
annotations or to dictate longer expositions. By his mastery 
of the entire body of Jewish lore he was able to produce 
parallels from remote corners and set aright many a fault in 
the ordinary prints. He was averse to the display of acumen; 
the simple sense, by no means always on the surface, engaged 
his full attention. For days, for weeks he would labor to 
solve a puzzle; he would partake of no food and bring him- 
self to the verge of illness. Suddenly, through converse with 
a visiting pupil—for ‘two are better than one’—the solution 
would flash upon his mind and master and student would be 
happy together. Often an illuminating thought would come 
to him during his devotions and just as quickly pass out of 
his mind while he was chiding himself for the unseemly 
interruption; and his heart would overflow with gratitude to 
God when the find came back again. 

From his teacher Moses Margalioth he learned early to 
draw within the range of his studies the much neglected 
Palestinian Talmud. Diligently he read and reread the Scrip- 
tures; he wrote commentaries on difficult books and even a 
concise grammar of the Hebrew language. He knew mathe- 
matics and astronomy and turned these sciences to good use 
in elucidating difficult sections of the Mishnah. He was 
sovereign in his wide domain, taking frequently an inde- 
pendent view; the ultimate source was paramount, in accord- 
ance with which he corrected misusages of long standing. He 
was a student, with a fame extending beyond his own city; 
as such he was revered, but at the same time men honored in 
this intellectual giant the man of saintly conduct, the man 
who realized in himself the ideal of the Jewish saint. 

Such a man could not but look with misgivings upon the 
Hasidic type of piety which often exhausted itself in exter- 
nals and seemed to disparage learning. It was against his 
wont to meddle with public concerns; but it was a time 
‘when the Torah was made void’ and he gave his approval to 
the forcible procedure of the rabbinical council against the 
local Hasidim (1772). He issued a manifesto against the 
Hasidim, signed also by the head of the Vilna rabbinate, 


588 HASIDISM [1797 


in 1781, when Jacob Joseph Cohen published the first man- 
ual embodying the Besht’s teachings, with its overt attacks 
on mere learning. The writ was sent to an assembly of rabbis 
meeting at Zelva and steps were taken to sever all connec- 
tions with the Hasidim, who were to be expelled from the 
communities and treated to allintents and purposes as beyond 
the pale of Judaism. 

By the second and third partition of Poland (1793, 1795) 
the whole of Lithuania with Volhynia and Podolia went to 
Russia. It was therefore to the Russian government that the 
Lithuanian Jews, exasperated by the insulting behavior of 
the Hasidim upon the death of the Gaon (1797), turned with 
denunciation of the teachers of heresy. Shneor Zalman was 
twice haled to St. Petersburg (1798, 1800), but each time 
released since the examination convinced the authorities 
that his religious teachings were harmless so far as the gov- 
ernment was concerned. Each of the two protagonists, the 
Gaon and the Hasidic leader, left his mark upon the life of 
Russian Jewry, at a time when in the West the old order was 
being completely transformed. 


‘CHAF XVIII 
S THB b JEWS OF PRUSSLA 
| ioe 1786) 


cE sia Westphalia (1648) the German em- 
pire ha i haedan a@ loose Siadetiasecin of some three 
hun dred invlependent principalities and free cities. 
ta Segoe territories the Jews bad long been 
ser #3 ther number was exceedingly small, and 

e ie y more than tolerated. During the igh- 
(their residence in any part or place was 

et of right, but of privilege, for which an anual 
Wi hneer If they traveied from one prin- 
‘Or from city to city within the same 
er subjected at every border and at the 
Y to a noniong In the cities they were 
ited area, the ghetto or the jms’ 
ting ot ome narrow ‘street, rn which, as 
ir cities, gometiines as many as ve bie 
+ crowded together. From the tegradting 
prtain highly privileged) Jews were execum, 
e, 50 s00n as hich ont their foot beyind the 


a poly one ofthe qiny was “permitted to 
hplace; if there were daughters, it was fore 
id be married into faroihes possessing the 
price “A permit, heavily vane, eas required for 
po the matrimonial state, aad (rwas granted only 
ember in a fartily. For each rixid Sura a special tax 
ed. The principal care of the powernment was that 
“population should be kept vo a restricted num- 
not be exresde it made no difference that 
j and children had to be sent away 
0 . 


Ge OP NS ae he At ae 
ae Se ee se Bay 8 
‘ ") Shiva te A ta 
ae 4 ae « 
4 ie 
‘ 
\ Vege 


er | MASIDISM 


eats, 8 erheen Jacob: Joseph Cohen f 
cid ae, a atying the Besht's teachings, © 
Fa 6 inarning. The writ was sent ta, 
“ 3 sang at Zelva and steps were) 
“oxwirh the Hasidim, whe were 
arn ities and treated toalli intent 


tia sith: evf 


Pee why fo ye bthuasdiie with von 
owes. 't was therefore to the Re 
Lotysanien Jews, exasperated by? 
gl jlien upon the death of th 

ae Wee cation of the teachers of | 
wee haled to St. Petersburg 


ea Ae aime} 4 FRE oe the examination 


ww his religious teachings: were 
eiiment was concerned. Racha 
seo anal the Hs asidic leader, 
Tmsion Jewry, at a time whe 1% 
td completely transformed yi 


r= 


CHAPTER LXXVIII 
THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA 
(1671-1786) 


INCE the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the German em- 

pire had become a loose confederation of some three 

hundred independent principalities and free cities. 
From certain of these territories the Jews had long been 
expelled; in others their number was exceedingly small, and 
in none were they more than tolerated. During the eigh- 
teenth century their residence in any part or place was 
not a matter of right, but of privilege, for which an annual 
protection-tax was paid. If they traveled from one prin- 
cipality to another or from city to city within the same 
dominion, they were subjected at every border and at the 
gate of every town to a body-tax. In the cities they were 
confined to a circumscribed area, the ghetto or the Jews’ 
quarter, often consisting of one narrow street, in which, as 
in a few of the larger cities, sometimes as many as five hun- 
dred families were crowded together. From the degrading 
body-tax only certain highly privileged Jews were exempt, 
but even these, so soon as they set their foot beyond the 
principality in which the privilege had been acquired, were 
compelled to pay the obligatory toll even for transient 
residence. 

In each family only one of the sons was permitted to 
abide in his birthplace; if there were daughters, it was for- 
tunate if they could be married into families possessing the 
right of residence. A permit, heavily taxed, was required for 
entrance upon the matrimonial state, and it was granted only 
to one member in a family. For each child born a special tax 
was exacted. The principal care of the government was that 
the Jewish population should be kept to a restricted num- 
ber which should not be exceeded. It made no difference that 
families were disrupted and children had to be sent away 


589 


590 THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA [1714 


from the parental roof to such localities as might tolerate 
their presence or to other countries. But even the reduced 
families had great hardship in sustaining themselves. The 
Jew was kept from husbandry; he could not own land; he 
was excluded from the guilds. Nothing remained for him but 
petty trade, and what little money he made was lent out on 
interest, since it could not be invested by the owner in pro- 
ductive industry. Socially the Jews were thrown upon their 
own; they spoke a corrupt dialect; they were the butt of 
their Christian neighbors. When a Christian walking in the 
street met a Jew, no matter how cultured, he would cry out: 
‘Jew, where are your manners?’ (Mach Mores, Jud!), and 
off went the Jew’s hat in humble salutation. 

Conditions were much the same in Frankfort or in Ham- 
burg, in Vienna or in Prague, or in the young community of 
Berlin. The first residents admitted to his capital by the 
Great Elector, Frederick William (1640-1688), were the Veit 
and Ries families with their relatives, Austrian Jews from 
among those that had been exiled from Vienna by the em- 
peror Leopold I. in 1670. It is true that there had been living 
in Berlin just one Jew, Israel Aaron, purveyor to the elector’s 
army. This specially favored contractor stipulated that the 
incoming Jews should be well-situated financially and in no 
wise compete with him in his business. The decree of admis- 
sion was signed May 21, 1671, fifty families being permitted 
to. settle in the Mark for twenty years. They were granted 
freedom of commerce and the right to buy or rent houses. 
Other Jews filtered in, though they had no residence per- 
mits. Stringent measures were taken against the new-comers, 
but the influx continued. By the beginning of the eighteenth 
century the number of Jewish families in Berlin had risen to 
seventy. Jost Liebmann, master of the mint to the Great 
Elector and court jeweler, and his wife, Israel Aaron’s widow, 
were in high favor with Frederick III. (or Frederick the 
First, as he was called after his coronation as king of Prussia 
in 1701). Up to 1712, when the foundation was laid for the 
first public synagogue (it was dedicatedin 1714), only private 
houses of worship had been permitted. 


 RISENMENGER 591 


£ coreligionists v with blasp hem ning the 
Gaaity in the concluding prayer of their 
‘G@he Adoration, Alew:). He solicited the 
ttheologian, [chanr Heinrich Michaelis, 
faniete the Jews he cleared themed the 
aol new, was uofounded. On the other 
anstrumental in the seprinting of a book 
eiawtiOns against the Jews, an the pica 
ee Ff d appeared lately and in no wise hart 
ver asthe toyal mind the book was towkwwe 
ity ifttended to prevent aposeasi 
ities eerved in che hands of clerics} 
t ncteenth Ceritury as a convenient 
Meenas af Jews ani |udaism,. The 
diene Tisenmenger (died 1704), and 
the. —— Uneoversd’ (Entdecktes 
puilivhed in Pranddort.ca-the-Main 
pet: aol the. Jews, specially of the 
nin Vienna, the entire issue was 
y eta The author offered to destroy 
ewe pant fim thirty ihwusand thalers. 
death, the Prussian kin, supported his 
8 print the book; the imperial ban 
ative in Prussian Peniguinig where 
a 1h, Y 
ip Hab tent of a Great Power and, in 
ends @eminanit position in Germany 
erick William I. (17\4~1740) and stilt: 
wick H1., or the (rent (1740-8780), 
ba fata, Prussian Protestantism hada 
y favored by the king: the son, ‘the 
he ron, the friend of Voitaire, was not 
were strict. autocrat, and dor’ religio 
a ics or Jews, there was no question . 
fof the Established pe of the 


= hy ®, 
. 

‘ 
” ¥ % ~ ye eae . 
Aa tistiy presence of to other co 
ar , 
, s a oes ¥. 7 u pa t ae. me 
: rulies had great hardin 
; ‘hha a! Fin Ma rt Arci7ye 


was excluded from the guilds. gern : 
petty trade, and what little money, he made ia 
miteresi, sincte it could not be invested by he 
ductive industry. Socially the Jews wens 
own: they spoke a cormapt dialects the 
Bil eet Christian Res igel t OTR. wy 


nditi dns were much the nani re 


burg, ia Vienna orin Prague; ori he | 
i ba) “The free resic exits alanittes 


_] 


Great Elector, Fredericis Wi liam (2 » 
Ries families with their v 


eopold I.in 1670014 is. 


n Berlin just one Jew, Israeli * 
army, This s sire tally favored. can, ctor ¢ 
incoming jews ship vid be: well-sit me 
Wise compete with him in his busine 


f “) 


sicu: was signed Maye Qt)" gui : 
to. setiie at the — coer 


mits, Ste ee mianadiel es were ta en 
but the influx continued, By the 
century the # macnn af Jewish: ui 


RE VENT 
ter, © 


Pie | Ve 
Es hapa ce =: f 
Mector od om b jew cw and is v 


~ 


epbiles . nagogue cS wask ed 


“—— 


1711] EISENMENGER 591 


The king acted justly enough when two baptized Jews 
charged their former coreligionists with blaspheming the 
founder of Christianity in the concluding prayer of their 
daily devotions (the Adoration, Alenu). He solicited the 
opinion of the Halle theologian, Johann Heinrich Michaelis, 
and since it was favorable to the Jews he cleared them of the 
charge which, though not new, was unfounded. On the other 
hand, the king was instrumental in the reprinting of a book 
which teemed with accusations against the Jews, on the plea 
that similar works had appeared lately and in no wise hurt 
the Jews. Moreover, to the royal mind the book was no more 
than a defense of Christianity intended to prevent apostasy 
to Judaism. The publication served in the hands of clerical 
Anti-Semites in the nineteenth century as a convenient 
source for their vituperations of Jews and Judaism. The 
author was Johann Andreas Eisenmenger (died 1704), and 
the work bore ‘the title ‘Judaism Uncovered’ (Entdecktes 
Judentum). It was first published in Frankfort-on-the-Main 
(1700); through the influence of the Jews, especially of the 
banker Samuel Oppenheim in Vienna, the entire issue was 
confiscated by imperial order. The author offered to destroy 
the edition if the Jews paid him thirty thousand thalers. 
After Eisenmenger’s death, the Prussian king supported his 
heirs in their attempt to print the book; the imperial ban 
was, of course, inoperative in Prussian K6nigsberg where 
the book appeared in 1711. 

The rise of Prussia to the level of a Great Power and, in 
rivalry with Austria, to a dominant position in Germany 
was the work of Frederick William I. (1713-1740) and still 
more so of his son, Frederick II., or the Great (1740-1786). 
During the reign of the father, Prussian Protestantism had a 
strong pietistic tendency favored by the king; the son, ‘the 
philosopher on the throne,’ the friend of Voltaire, was not 
exactly pious. Both were strict autocrats, and for religious 
minorities, such as Catholics or Jews, there was no question 
of equality with members of the Established Church of the 
kingdom. Jewish affairs were under the control of the home 
ministry which was also the department of the treasury, and 


592 THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA [1763 


officials of this body were charged with carrying out the 
draconic legislation of 1750. The Jews of the kingdom were 
either of the protected class (Schutzjuden) or merely tolerated 
(geduldete Juden). There were three kinds of protected — 
Jews: those who had a general privilege covering all the © 
members of a family and entitling them to unrestricted 
residence and trade; ordinary protected Jews with limited 
rights of residence and occupation, inheritable only by one 
or at the most two children; extraordinary protected Jews, — 
like physicians, artists,and other professionals, whose limited 
rights of residence did not pass on to their children. Religious 
functionaries, the younger children of ordinary and all chil- — 
dren of extraordinary protected Jews, domestics and so on, | 
belonged to the merely tolerated class and for one thing could 
not contract marriages outside their own class, lest by so doing 
they might raise themselves into the order of the privileged. 
By special royal patent, in 1763, there was advanced to © 
the status of a protected Jew one who in the short space of ~ 
twenty years had made for himself a name in the literary — 
circles at home and abroad. Moses son of Menahem (Men- — 
del) Mendelssohn (1729-1786) was born in Dessau, where — 
his father was a humble writer of Torah scrolls. Like his 
contemporary, the Gaon of Vilna, Mendelssohn had the — 
good fortune of being trained early by a scholar who also ~ 
took up the study of the Palestinian Talmud. David Frankel — 
(1704-1762) was rabbi in Dessau until 1742, when he was © 
called to the rabbinate of his native Berlin. A year later the — 
master was rejoined by his pupil, who gained admission to 
the city after paying at the gate the obligatory toll. Again, 
like his Vilna contemporary, Mendelssohn was drawn to the 
study of mathematics, into which he was initiated by a — 
learned Polish Jew, Israel Zamosz (died 1772). But from this — 
point on Mendelssohn proceeded to a career which» was — 
impossible at that time in the Lithuanian bulwark of tradi- — 
tionalism and, had it at all been possible, was farthest from — 
the mentality of the Vilna saint. i 
Traditionalism was clearly on the wane in the capital of — 
Frederick II. Elsewhere in Germany Judaism was still mov- — 


ie 
% 
y 
3 


. | a aynwsciice ONTROVEREY $98 


w tvhicks. Cultural conditiowe were much the 
ter 1 Europe, whence at least fur out of the 
a iets Mm the second half af the century 
t, Worms. and then aerae int Frankfort, 
fein Berlin and Metz, ofteluted Jacob 
11756). famous for his emntiertaries on 
‘felebrity was the rable of Prague, 
# (4713-1793), whose. responsa, eit enjoy 
ia singer position in the Ee meet dun capital 
pechiies (1690-1764) arivanved to te rab- 
rand | iy 1750 was instalied as chief tatth of 
pusutive Altona, Hamburg, and W aondnnceske - 
WY the same position was hekl by Raphael | 
wie jamb Emden (1697-1776), wher acted 
tana asa private man, W: eth in’ heat acholar 
ivity. We have seen (p. 576) bow be displayed 
y the wealot disposition wid: be inherited 
coming of Eybeschitia «i 8 comunu-~ 
eG d te by the Haham Letivens che canse of 
feud in whith the so ts%nts for 


ne that amnumber of women hed: ded Ge child- 
tt e new ‘sabi was requested pe Jwaiets 
ff the danger . He had done so pre’ aj ther 
es. These amulets weye written in ¢ pike et wt wes 


es sanfriendiy t the rabbi that the reading 
e in which Sebbatai Zevi figured as the 
of the aimulcta wax shown to Emden, who had 
sa the position obtained by ie vnexchiitx, and 
a ie writer, @hotmer he saight be, a Sabbatian. 
‘OF TMs | dup the -ekters « Of the commun sys who sided 
ith nei bbi, quve érdere te Clowe Emden’s private eyna- 
4) peasant int Gorreepundence ott & muenber of - 
Who were, all wartepuken gece wn of Ly be- 
from them statements devoustory to the 
of the Alona congregation bexaene exceed- 
and Eiuden was compelled to fiee to 


r 


3 


i. 
4 
ae | 
ts in 
, 3 ? 
7 + . wen 
os THE 
io © < * 
SE Aen ey, SORT oe ae d , 
Cres «Os Ns WOT ¥ 


draconic legisiation of 17 150. 


; oe ; ‘ 
(Peace te J Uden), 
pews: those who mad 
& cr ] a qj 
members of fa umily ind aml Sng hem 


t Fae 


¢ ae wee aki ordin 
iren of extraordimary protected: Jews, ¢ 
belonged to the merely tolerated « 

LooMttract marr iages outside baer ee 


they tight rai Se then qe 


By s Spec al royal ” ager in : 1065, 


fF 
\otiowaries, th 


eee 6 here had made los "hima a 


- 


father was.a eae eae of 7 
cont scapes ry, the. Gaon of Vilna, 

| fortune of ar trained. 2 r 
Look 1p ihe sth ely af sore Palestinian 


called to the rabbinate of his nated 
master was rejoined by his pupiy® 
the chcy after paying at the gate 


like hig Vilna con eserves Me 
Sti Ay f 


pomt on Me 0 ddan oa 
mposdtle at that time.in thed 
— i — mah it. at all bee 


* 


salismt was 2 clearly yon 


vee 


1751] THE EYBESCHUTZ CONTROVERSY 593 


; ing in its beaten tracks. Cultural conditions were much the 
same as in eastern Europe, whence at least four out of the 
five leading talmudists in the second half of the century 
hailed. In Frankfort, Worms and then again in Frankfort, 
after holding positions in Berlin and Metz, officiated Jacob 
Joshua Falk (1680-1756), famous for his commentaries on 
the Talmud. A great celebrity was the rabbi of Prague, 
Ezekiel Landau (1713-1793), whose responsa still enjoy 
authority. From a minor position in the Bohemian capital 
Jonathan Eybeschiitz (1690-1764) advanced to the rab- 
binate of Metz and in 1750 was installed as chief rabbi of 
the three communities Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck; 
from 1776 to 1799 the same position was held by Raphael 
Cohen (died 1803). Jacob Emden (1697-1776), who resided 
in his birthplace Altona asa private man, was the only scholar 
of German nativity. We have seen (p. 576) how he displayed 
against Luzzatto, the zealot disposition which he inherited 
from his father. The coming of Eybeschiitz to the commu- 
nities once ministered to by the Haham Zebi was the cause of 
opening up another feud in which the son’s talents for 
heresy-hunting found ample scope. 

It happened that a number of women had died in child- 
birth, and the new rabbi was requested to supply amulets 
to ward off the danger. He had done so previously in other 
communities. These amulets were written in cipher; it was 
claimed in circles unfriendly to the rabbi that the reading 
yielded formulae in which Sabbatai Zevi figured as the 
.Messiah. One of the amulets was shown to Emden, who had 
himself aspired to the position obtained by Eybeschiitz, and 
he pronounced the writer, whoever he might be, a Sabbatian. 
For this temerity the elders of the community, who sided 
with their rabbi, gave orders to close Emden’s private syna- 
gogue. Emden entered into correspondence with a number of 
German rabbis, who were all outspoken enemies of Eybe- 
schiitz, and secured from them statements derogatory to the 
rabbi. The elders of the Altona congregation became exceed- 
ingly threatening, and Emden was compelled to flee to 
Amsterdam (1751). | 


594 THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA [1755 


From there he brought charges against his enemies before 
the Danish courts, for Altona was then under the control of 
Denmark. The courts ordered all hostile action against 
Emden to be stopped. The Hamburg senate likewise inter- 
posed to make an end of the disturban¢e, and suspended the 
suspected rabbi. The feud divided the community, Emden 
having in the meantime returned. On both sides pamphlets 
were published, incriminations by Emden and his party and 
defenses by Eybeschiitz and his friends. A former pupil of 
the rabbi, who had since been converted to Christianity, 
Carl Anton, professor of Hebrew at Helmstedt, wrote an 
apology (1752). Eybeschiitz himself published letters from 
his admirers denouncing the charges as slanderous (1755). 
The rabbi was restored to his position and permitted to end 
his years in peace. It was not certain that the amulets had 
been correctly deciphered or who really wrote them. At all 
events, this was the last echo of the Sabbatian heresy. 

In Berlin there was a moving away from orthodoxy. In 
well-to-do Jewish families there began to manifest itself a 
hankering after the manners of Christian society, but alsoa 
desire for culture. It was from the son of one of these fam- 
ilies, Aaron Solomon Gumperz, that young Mendelssohn 
received lessons in French and English; another friend taught 
him Latin. The student’s years of privation were ended when 
in 1750 a rich silk-manufacturer, Isaac Bernhard, engaged 
him as tutor to his children and four years later as his book- 
keeper, then subsequently as manager of the business. While 


conscientiously fulfilling his duties, Mendelssohn continued 


his studies unceasingly, perfecting himself in letters and 
philosophy. His first literary effort was produced under the 
stimulus of Lessing. A warm friendship united the dramatist 
and critic, who appreciated classicism in poetry and art and 
humanism in religion, to the Jewish thinker who expressed 
himself so lucidly in German on esthetics and metaphysics. 
Thus Mendelssohn was brought together with the circle 
which included the rationalist Nicolai and the leaders in the 
movement known as ‘Aufklarung’ with its revolt against all 
beliefs and institutions untried by human reason. 


PY 
2 


ae Oe eae 


Ee ee Pe eee ae ee se ee Pe Pee ee ee 


and er who appreciated ela 
himself so tactely in’ German om eth 
which included! the cadonstiog ie 


behels and institutions untried by 


ae 
Imws OF PRUSSIA EEE 
Z ¥ it 
ss oe a ¥ Hig 
, ij r) ! h i i 


. 
> 
J 

a 


; ys Poul ish COoUiI ts, TOT si itona Wes then oF 52% 
Rrnden to be stopped. Phe 2 ee sen ate 
sed tO THAKE an wey af i distur bese 


eee Be eS 
, eter tis 5 
javing in the meantime wee: bree side 
vere published) incrinfinat tiotis br Emden and hi 
r i 
; re 


iS AfLIMiWeTS Genowuire 


"he y » Pr? uh wah res Lore me to hie pdsitio 


4 


his vears.m peace, if war net certain 


orreetly deciphered or who real 
¥ ng 7 tis Was the ras fast ge Sh “ho. of 0 : 


In Perlin there wae a ‘moving | 


‘to-do Tewish families _ there bege 
ankering atter the manners of f Cheap iM 

, g q 4 . 
7 ih 
aa 2 nee ‘ i 
ie Tatu Teena 

. o£ a Cate nen oh ' j 

3 CIC Steer at 


phdosophy. Hig aeud hi iterary ne 


soe ies 


‘ t it a i aie he: ear} bor itd ~ A Wa TTT frien 
“Sena faa mn religion, ta) the Jewish: 


~ 


, a ; 
Thus Mendelssohn® was 


aovement known as ‘Aufklaning’ 


ns 
ay 


1783] THE TRANSLATION OF THE PENTATEUCH 595 


When in 1761 Mendelssohn visited Hamburg, he found 
many admirers both among Jews and Christians; Eybe- 
schiitz wrote him a very flattering letter. In Hamburg 
Mendelssohn met the lady who consented to become his 
wife. On his return to Berlin he handed in an essay upon 
a metaphysical theme proposed by the Berlin Academy of 
Sciences, and the paper was awarded the first prize, above 
the compositions of two other writers, one of whom was none 
other than the K6nigsberg philosopher Immanuel Kant. It 
was this distinction that won for him the privileged status 
which rendered his residence in the capital free from police 
interference. The Jewish community honored him by exempt- 
ing him from the payment of taxes. After the victory at 
Leuthen (1757), Mendelssohn prepared the German sermon 
which the rabbi, his teacher David Frankel, read in the 
synagogue; so also after the conclusion of the Seven Years’ 
War by the Peace of Hubertusburg (1763). When Jewish 
communities in Switzerland and in Saxony were threatened 
with expulsion, they appealed to the sage of Berlin to 
use his influence in Christian circles on their behalf. 

In Mendelssohn’s house, as in the homes of many other 
Jews of the upper classes, the children spoke the German 
language instead of the corrupt dialect with its mixture of 
old German and Hebrew used by the ordinary denizen of the 
ghetto. The improvement of the speech was the first step 
in preparing the Jews of German lands for entry into the 
life about them. By his translation of the Pentateuch into 
German, printed in Hebrew characters, begun in 1778 and 
completed in 1783, Mendelssohn pursued a twofold pur- 
pose. On the one hand, by habituating Jewish students to 
the use of German in rendering the Scriptures, it was easy- 
to foresee that they would be led further to the reading of 
German literature; as a matter of fact, Mendelssohn’s trans- 
lation served as a First German Reader. On the other hand, 
the new translation and the accompanying Hebrew com- 
mentary were conceived in a rational spirit, with stress on 
the Bible as literature to be esthetically enjoyed. Thus in 
both respects a far-reaching change in the education of the 


596 . THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA [1782 


Jewish child, so utterly at variance with the methods in 
vogue, was being promoted. It is not to be wondered at that 
the guardians of traditionalism, in Prague, Altona, Frank- 
fort, and Fiirth, put the translation under the ban. The 
spiritual authorities of Berlin were more lenient. When, at 
Mendelssohn’s suggestion, the Jewish Free School was 
opened in the Prussian capital (1781), the curriculum com- 
prised in addition to the Jewish subjects (Bible and Talmud) 
also the study of German and French. 

These internal adjustments to the new age were to pave 
the way for an improvement in the political and’ civic con- 
ditions of the Jewish people. Lessing had just given to the 
world in his play ‘Nathan the Wise’ (1779) the Gospel of 
Tolerance, and its central figure, as everybody knew, was 
modeled after his Jewish philosopher-friend. The Jews of 
Alsace were preparing to lay a petition before the French 
council of state (p. 608); they asked Mendelssohn to write 
it for them. At Mendelssohn’s request, Christian Wilhelm 
Dohm, a Prussian councilor of state, published a direct plea 
for Jewish emancipation (1781). He dealt at length with the 
miserable conditions of Jewry and argued that if the Jews 
had faults these were the result of Christian oppression. It 
was in the interest of every state—and happy the first state 
that undertook it!—to turn their Jewish subjects into useful 
and contented citizens. 

A beginning in this direction, but only a beginning, was 
made by Emperor Joseph II. with his Patent of Tolerance 
(January 2, 1782). There was no thought of placing the 
Jews of Austria on a civic parity with Christians. The old 
restrictions of residence still remained in force, and the Jews 
of Vienna constituted so many tolerated families, but in no 
wise a community. However, some measure of relief did come 
to the Jews. For one thing, the offensive body-tax was abol- 
ished. In the same way the old rules, which held the Jews to 
a distinctive dress or forbade their appearance in the streets 
on the forenoons of Christian festivals, were done away with. 
Permission was granted to the Jews to engage in commerce 
on a large scale and to open factories. Jews were free to learn 


.E | TOLERANCE OF )OSEPH It. 597. 


| Christian masters, but without the 

d: maste themselves. Jews might send 

hb to pu Bic schools or open similar estab- 

Sir owt; dav wish studencs were to he admitted 

mad wi veraities. The puerpose of the whole 

to break dowry from above Jewish 
we “ pease te Mave use Of the Ger-— 

ping and busiiess correspond- 

ne i sasignnd ce itycaratt Conmigol of 

merce to whic the rabbis must in 


evolutian in the csscaliee nf the fostiah 
. on emperor was w.aimed by Men- 
; f Bers (Hartwig) © Vesely i$725- 
acd with Mendelssotn in the Hebrew 
w the German trenslation of the 
seed. that curriculum and method of 
fr children must confcrm to the prac 
ew g ion. It waa not possible for all 
tin ‘Talmud; the greater number must 
aver, if was necessary that Tewvetats 
yuri lowe a nowledge of the elementary 
a and geography, and above all learn to 
the German language correctly. He himself 
paataions with Christians in, his 
+ arnt hive dint of ot naar 


es for paucity im weet age md fora 

anding of the Seriponves aloag the lines of 

eS Wessely enthusiastically welcomed the 

forms to which Joseph ii. gave the force of 

j pd their aeceptance in a series of epistles to his 

iext, where the majority of Jews were of Italian 

Ug Ue ‘dias, there was immediate readiness to - 
. che t according to the new plan. At the’ other end of 

ian dominions, in Galicia, which slace 1772 had 

ned to them. phar papa ‘on. tn hid ceseript 

© had made it plain that the Jews rust 


4 


r 
, 
i“ 


hes ay 


C eee MaMa 
vy ee 
5 ane 
EAS aS oy THER JEWS OF PRU 931A 


Tews child, so utterly at variance with 
vie, was being promoted. It is not to be wonder 
the guardians of traditionalism, in Prague Alton 
fort, and Furth, put the trans lation, under the 
spiritual authorities of Be etl were more lenient 


Mendelssohn’s suggestion, the Jewish Pa 
opened im the Prussian capital (178i); the cu: 


in addition to the lewish subjects (Bible 
. ends German and Frenchks © > 
i hese internal adjoint to the new age 
ie Way for AT impre VEMENL in the political’ 
litions of the jewish people. Lessing had 

world in his play ‘Nathan’ the Wise 
Tolerance, and its central fieure, as. everybod 
wodeled after: his J lewish bhileaeeeae pr Be 
e were pre paring: to md a pacher brie: ; 


uC st 
Rae eo fs ee 
Hcl of Stare iP 60 OF 


- 


- s 
- n 
¥ 
® eel 
- 
af x 
x s 


at ENA RES citizens. ci . 3 


A904 ¥ 
- Pini the, 
a? 
TaN Be as 4 
Battle ey a L 


LN 
lanuary 2, #9 $2), 
iews af Austria of a civic parity 
trimticns of residence spot remained 
Vienna constity ited many ¢ 
wise 4 coMMmnUnity Hise wever, pela 
to the ow a nae pea thing; ) “ offer: 


adist in wit re dress or for bade their a a 


on a large va tien bo open fore. ew 


1788] THE PATENT OF TOLERANCE OF JOSEPH II. 597 


any kind of a trade from Christian masters, but without the 
right of being called masters themselves. Jews might send 
their children to the public schools or open similar estab- 
lishments of their own; Jewish students were to be admitted 
freely to colleges and universities. The purpose of the whole 
legislation was avowedly to break down from above Jewish 
separatism. The Jews were ordered to make use of the Ger- 
man language in their bookkeeping and business correspond- 
ence. The state furthermore insisted on its own control of 
the laws of marriage and divorce to which the rabbis must in 
the last instance submit. 

The complete revolution in the education of the Jewish 
child contemplated by the emperor was acclaimed by Men- 
delssohn’s circle. Naphthali Herz (Hartwig) Wessely (1725- 
1805), who collaborated with Mendelssohn in the Hebrew 
commentary accompanying the German translation of the 
Pentateuch, was convinced that curriculum and method of 
instruction for Jewish children must conform to the prac- 
tical needs of the new generation. It was not possible for all 
to become proficient in Talmud; the greater number must 
be taught a trade. Moreover, it was necessary that Jewish 
school children should have a knowledge of the elementary 
sciences, history, and geography, and above all learn to 
speak and write the German language correctly. He himself 
had through business associations with Christians in his 
native city Copenhagen and by dint of private industry 
acquired a store of secular learning. Hebrew poet that he 

was, he was a stickler for purity of language and for a 
rational understanding of the Scriptures along the lines of 
grammatical rules. Wessely enthusiastically welcomed the 
educational reforms to which Joseph II. gave the force of 
law and urged their acceptance in a series of epistles to his 
_ people. In Triest, where the majority of Jews were of Italian 
or Portuguese descent, there was immediate readiness to 
open a school according to the new plan. At the other end of 
the Austrian dominions, in Galicia, which since 1772 had 
been joined to them, there was consternation. In his rescript 
of 1788, the emperor had made it plain that the Jews must 


598 | THE JEWS OF PRUSSIA 


divest themselves of such of their laws and customs as ran — 
counter to the imperial legislation. While the Italian rabbis — 
sided with Wessely, others, among them Ezekiel Landau of — 
Prague, were decidedly hostile to all innovations which, they ~ 
instinctively felt, would break down traditional Jewish life. — 

The symptoms of such a breakdown were beginning to — 
manifest themselves in Berlin, and it was only through the © 
efforts of representative laymen that Hirschel, the rabbi of — 
the community, was dissuaded from joining in the protest — 
against Wessely. Mendelssohn was concerned with the prin- 
ciple of abstract freedom: ‘in these days’ one should be free — 
to publish one’s honest opinions without let or hindrance. He — 
as well as Wessely conformed in their religious practices; — 
but about them men and women were casting off the ‘yoke 
of the Law.’ As in Alexandria in the times of Philo, so in — 
Berlin during Mendelssohn’s period, the question was — 
mooted whether the old laws were still binding. Dohm had 
advocated that the Jewish ‘colony’ in the Prussian state — 
should have complete autonomy within, with powers to ~ 
expel recalcitrant, non-conforming members. Mendelssohn — 
energetically opposed the right-of excommunication. Eccle- 
siastical law, he claimed, was contradictory to the nature of — 
religion. 4 

Religion with him was concentrated in eternal truths, — 
which one cannot be commanded to believe since one must — 
necessarily believe them from proof by reason. Judaism, he — 
maintained, is really no religion at all; it has no dogmas. 
Judaism is a revealed legislation. At a given time God made ~ 
His voice to be heard and gave Israel specific command- — 
ments. These commandments must be obeyed. Of course, — 
some of these, being merely national, ceased to be operative — 
at the destruction of the Temple. Religious infractions were — 
no longer state offenses; no punishment, no penance could — 


come to the sinner except what he voluntarily takes upon 


himself. The Jews should comply with the customs and the 
civil constitution of the countries in which they dwell, and 
at the same time be constant to the religion of their fore- q 
fathers. ‘Indeed, I do not see how those who were born in the — 


Woes “PERUSALEM’ $99 


Bea seid texitious. manner, NG 


feds Personal commandments, 


we A aenowt Ferael, without any 
Res 208 or ve eayrike property. int 


ust © observe! seer it shai please the Most 
eo bene dae We fouily and openly pro- 
. ag progarion, * a mnencepetion tannet be ob: 

by breaking thee tees which are stil binding, 
HN ren f erapovse: Hut if, as ie evident, 
si aged gad oi favored by Providence, 
I state whe oa en tent oo civil gos eh Pnernt 
p pray te taad adie: i A AVR taahwori i al ter 


anni ar bts. ‘ferusateis’ (1785). The 

s clear: Cv Geemsputioc and Adely wu: 

f the to Panes cri be made to go 

. a of the die wel ot ee wore, thie 
ned the harvest 1 ito: Cf Jorwhiehs Fawley 

haat with the Breach Revuloness ane, 

| moo of fenkependenee 


frvpst thornsebves, of suc : onl their laws an ’ 


Q : kite atone then 
Mracue, were decidec ih v oat tile to all inne 


stinctix ely Seuss would break MPR 8 
erga : a er 


. 
Ne 2 rahe nite TS OE 


- 

é 
re 7) 

~ 

uw 

: 
“ 
o 
eae 
ae) 


manifest dee eS i 

viforts of representati ie ‘agen that 
ihe munity, w 
wzainet Wessely. Mend jeluil was 


ciple aw bestract freedom" int these da: ; OF 

| oct to publish one’s honest oy inions without eto 
: as welloas Wessely "conformed in, ties 
? but about chem men A 


% 


RA, wy 
wen W & P48 2} #, 
eam the e old aws 


Re - 
1) HaVv® COMPS 


Cie } Peta rit cppesed the righ 


Religion with sige was. ‘concent 


pe 1% 


Judaism is a — file \ 
His voice to be heard and: gave 
ments. — cor derma 


tore to the sinner /eicdgite 
lf.. The i shoiild Hila 
ell con: stitut 1 of the countries fay 
; | gt the same ete 6 
b 


bers. ‘In led, ido not see. on 


1783] MENDELSSOHN’S ‘JERUSALEM’ 599 


house of Jacob can, in any conscientious manner, disencum- 
ber themselves of the law. . . Personal commandments, 
duties which were imposed on a son of Israel, without any 
consideration of the Temple service or landed property in 
Palestine, must be observed until it shall please the Most 
High to make our conscience easy by loudly and openly pro- 
claiming their abrogation.’ If emancipation cannot be ob- 
tained except by breaking those laws which are still binding, 
the Jews will renounce emancipation. But if, as is evident, 
manifoldness is the design and end favored by Providence, 
every one in the state who is obedient to civil government 
ought to be free to pray to God after his own fashion or after 
that of his forefathers. 

Thus wrote Mendelssohn in his ‘Jerusalem’ (1783). The 
programme was clear: civic emancipation and fidelity to 
Judaism. How far the two things could be made to go to- 
gether, in the opinion of the Jews and of the world, is the 
question that determined the latest phase of Jewish history 
which, for Europe, began with the French Revolution and, 
for America, with the Declaration of Independence. 


ta 
. 9 a Niet 
Fae raee ee ht AOR Shae 
Fits a eg tepeeeay ds, x 
Bp oh ae ee 
' met S Pepa Bt # 
if Coe er 
. 
F * 
(its ; SEAT Peg 
a tye) ris 
; Vp RP EM ERP 
Sit s25e5 1: ¢ 
, ¥ ' 
, i [35 hae Be 
4 . 7 x ri ™ 
wet Oh ae ee oe Sa bin 
yetaphig) FEY CE Sat 
e i 
\ 
: Z : 
- bed 14 
toa er ae ae 
s * mae bis ie 4) POL, 
: 3 , 
~ a hat Vide 5 MARS monet 
Tf 
4 a7 
° 


OF EMANCIPATION 


I NS AMERICS iy COLONIAL AND 
REVOLUTION ARY TIMES 


C1884 ae: 


ak cof the Rew: il ¢ Shaw a4ry a Fo 1t75, Jew- 
r ities ~— ts oe Siiatiie rk} the pei? Mf 


: wtih ok ea sai eucee of the ee 
f the piejotity were Portuguime tows, 
dand Prick ane ip thee csp 


ce Oat ary cabes wert cin by jews 
5 ag a Poland. a Siena TRO ~ 5 loft thes 


O1 ae Néchartands ‘ AER peo Ax tie’ 
ef twenty-three, ‘peer aad healtiw.” weet 
8 = then New Aria stertain. deve: * had Lapis 


bits reconqpes! by the Portiewene ie 
ptured by Spanish parates. A Frenchosmina: 
les, rescued che passengers and Prone 
Hand, Peter Stuywesont, governor sige 
nd infler ible; was net at all pleased with the 
the ¢ culos of ‘hateful enemies and blasphemers 
‘Christ.’ But the Dutch West India Company 
among, its shareholders x number of Jews, 
to ex luce the Jews who had sustained en- 
t ne taking of Brazil. Se they were allowed 
‘peeved that, ‘the poor emong thesk asalt 
burden to the company or te thee Ona 
| by their own nation.‘ iwi Ge mwas 


“¢ 
‘ ; 
e ' 

fy 


’ 
Cp Raha 


he 
nF eS aca Ue eee ay Cetey by ieee 


ire PER UXXTX 


JEWS IN AMERICA IN COLONIAL AND 
REVOLUTIONARY TIMES 


(1654-1790) 


: T the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in 1775, Jew- 


ish communities were to be found in the colonies of 

Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, South Car- 
olina, and Georgia, with smaller units in some of the other 
colonies. By extraction the majority were Portuguese Jews, 
who came from Holland and Dutch Brazil in the seventeenth 
century, or from England in the eighteenth; as early as the 
beginning of the latter century they were joined by Jews 


_ from Germany and Poland. The Portuguese Jews left their 


impress upon the communal organization; the Sephardic 
rite obtained in the congregations, though Ashkenazic Jews 
had a place in the administration. 

The first Jew to settle on Manhattan Island was Jacob 
Barsimson from the Netherlands (August, 1654). A month 
later a group of twenty-three, ‘poor and healthy,’ were 
landed in what was then New Amsterdam. They had sailed 
along with their brethren and other Dutch subjects from 
Pernambuco after its reconquest by the Portuguese; but 
their vessel was captured by Spanish pirates. A French man- 


_ of-war, the St. Charles, rescued the passengers and brought 


them to New Netherland. Peter Stuyvesant, governor since 
1647, austere and inflexible, was not at all pleased with the 
accession to the colony of ‘hateful enemies and blasphemers 
of the name of Christ.’ But the Dutch West India Company, 
which counted among its shareholders a number of Jews, 
thought it unfair to exclude the Jews who had sustained con- 


_ siderable loss in the taking of Brazil. So they were allowed to 
_ remain, with the proviso that, ‘the poor among them should 


not become a burden to the company or to the community, 


_ but be supported by their own nation.’ 


603 


604 JEWS IN AMERICA [1733 


At every step the small group, slightly enlarged by fresh 
arrivals from Amsterdam, encountered difficulties at the 
hands of unfriendly magistrates. But they persevered stur- 
dily. A more cordial reception was accorded the fifteen Jew- 
ish families from Holland that are said to have settled in 
Newport in 1658, augmented later by arrivals from Curacao. 
In the Colony of Rhode Island, founded by Roger Williams, 


religious liberty was complete, and no other test was de- 
manded than obedience to His Majesty’s laws. Liberty of — 
conscience was also granted by the English when they suc- — 


ceeded to the Dutch possessions in 1664, and it was incor- — 


porated as a principle in the constitution drawn up by Wil- 
liam Penn for the colony named after him (Pennsylvania, 
1682). Nevertheless, in New York, as New Netherland had 
been renamed, it was not possible for a Jew to become 
naturalized up to 1727, when it was no longer obligatory to 
take the oath ‘upon the true faith of a Christian.’ By a 
decree of the Assembly of New York, in 1737, Jews were 
debarred from voting for members of that body. They were 
also restricted in retail trading, while those who engaged in 
wholesale commerce were required to obtain the governor’s 
consent. 


Professing Jews do not seem to have gained a foothold at 


an early date in Puritan Massachusetts. Judah Monis (died 
1764), who drifted to Boston in 1715, accepted Christianity 
in 1722 and was appointed instructor in Hebrew at Harvard 


College. This post he held for forty years; the first Hebrew — 
Grammar published in America (1735) was his work. Nor — 
were conditions favorable in Maryland; Jacob (John) Lum- ~ 


brozo, who as early as 1656 practised medicine there, was — 
tried and convicted for denial of the divinity of Jesus and — 


restored to liberty only upon Richard Cromwell’s accession 


to the English protectorate. No difficulties were experienced — 
by some forty well-to-do Jews who were sent from London to — 
Georgia in the very year of the colony’s foundation (1733), — 
because James Edward Oglethorpe, director of the colony, — 


befriended them. In 1741 all but three families removed to 


Charleston in South Carolina and formed the nucleus of a ; 


settlement. 


REMGIOUS LIVE 605 


Jews were domicier, plots were 
5. Religious services were con- 
Hi private dwellings o¢ in small 
were read by laymen. Bat soon 
“etpanined and permanent synagogue 
The eomgregation Steacith (Sbeerith) 
he Ke: on israel,’ in Mew York, dates its 
sti ee ve fr rom. 3 5 pits first public eyvnaaorne was conse- 
ae 6, 1930. The minister was Mews Lopex de 


peupplyof ritually prepa - sasher’) meat 
nts. The Jews of Savanriwity “ne cia, imme- 
eigewived the cong: ai? won Milkeveh 
ae & similarly mute? <engregation 
ein t Wkslelphia abour 1P8A: Hee iohimt, 
my ‘grnin hiemed at Charie# bags P50; the 
rue Jeshuat farwe , "The Salvation wa few a New- 
eit : — few meongregation vam hat existed 


: cceivhies wf the Jews durets Liss oe 
ed and eftan on a large scale ecg pein 
i wheat and imported tobact) ari snes; 
ess in their eounting-hotises ae, Orraers. 


was womimended by the spe J fetinnont 
or pion hii i matters of calves’ HeHtre. 


s the king’ « fecal agent fos “she aeeettiern 
is oowt David, who resided iv ho hi - ee he 
e army with prov sions during tie Peed and 
which ended i in the acquisition tol ate Beritich 
a and the French possexsiinn wiksr at the 


tz . thee. York, but Trinity (Soe: was also 
whim for his substantial liberaidy % oman Levy 
yas the owner of a privateer we ow aged in the 
Of Fooee Lopez.at Newport, fora Sules, subse- 
re of Vale College, saud th ‘for honor and 
“cominerce, he was probably earpaseed by no mer- 
o. uae oy i pales was also om intimate terms with 


¢ his supervision seis! fuactionaries: 


. Franks tock a warm inty oe ol hes OWNS 


JEW 


wp the sma 
Tvinste rd nog 4.3 .counte 
os T mens INE meets nigel : Bat 


eae Holland that aa 
: 1658, angmented later by 
In t wot Rhode Island, founded b; 
religious, Eberty was complete, and 0 
manded than obedience to His: Ma 
noe was also are be ch 


au nce in ri ca | 
“i for the ‘COROT named af 
vevertheless; in New Yor ; 

renamed, it was not pd 
lized ap tod} Zi, when 
the Piva: ‘upan the truec 

f the Ass embly of N 

fro mn vc visio) Regs mien 


<le commerce were} f 


» - 
‘ “ty Be 


enc ie x Jews do not seem t 


P and wr pee ins 
This post he held fi 


Rag! ik eptectorate, No 


\ 


wore $7 
seorgia in pa very year ‘eb 
because fas mes Jawad athe 
befriended 

Char wit» 

settlement, 


cura’ putilished in’ America. ; 35) 


Bd 


‘tions favorable t in’ 


1763] RELIGIOUS LIFE 605 


From the first, wherever Jews were domiciled, plots were 
secured for burial purposes. Religious services were con- 
ducted at the inception in private dwellings or in small 
rented quarters; the prayers were read by laymen. But soon 
congregations were organized and permanent synagogue 
structures erected. The congregation Shearith (Sheerith) 
Israel, “The Remnant of Israel,’ in New York, dates its 
existence from 1655; its first public synagogue was conse- 
crated April 6, 1730. The minister was Moses Lopez de 
Fonseca, and under his supervision special functionaries 
watched over the supply of ritually prepared (‘kasher’) meat 
for the congregants. The Jews of Savannah, Georgia, imme- 
diately upon settling, organized the congregation Mikveh 
Israel, “The Hope of Israel’; a similarly named congregation 
had its beginnings in Philadelphia about 1740; Beth Elohim, 
‘The House of God,’ was formed at Charleston in 1750; the 
synagogue Jeshuath Israel, ‘The Salvation of Israel,’ at New- 
port, was erected in 1763 for a congregation which had existed 
since 1658. 

The commercial activities of the Jews during the colonial 
period were varied and often on a large scale. These mer- 
chants exported wheat and imported tobacco and slaves; 
others did business in their counting-houses as_ brokers. 
Jacob Bueno was commended by the Earl of Bellomont 
(died 1701) for helping him in matters of colonial finance. 
Jacob Franks was the king’s fiscal agent for the northern 
colonies; with his son David, who resided in Philadelphia, he 
supplied the army with provisions during the French and 
Indian War which ended in the acquisition by the British 
Crown of Canada and the French possessions east of the 
Mississippi (1763). Franks took a warm interest in his own 
congregation at New York, but Trinity Church was also 
indebted to him for his substantial liberality. Hayman Levy 
(died 1789) was the owner of a privateer and engaged in the 
fur trade. Of Aaron Lopez at Newport, Ezra Stiles, subse- 
quently president of Yale College, said that ‘for honor and 
extent of commerce, he was probably surpassed by no mer- 
chant of America.’ Stiles was also on intimate terms with 


606 JEWS IN AMERICA [1791 


Hayim Isaac Carregal, of Hebron, who visited Newport in — 
1773 and preached to the congregation in Spanish. Isaac ~ 
Miranda (died 1733), ‘apostate Jew or fashionable Christian 
proselyte,’ of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, rose to the posi- 7 
tion of a judge in the Court of Vice-Admiralty. At Phila- 
delphia, David Franks (1720-1793) enjoyed high standing ~ 
in commercial and social circles; in 1748 he was a member of — 
the provincial assembly. The two brothers, Bernard (died . 
1801) and Michael (died 1806) Gratz, traded with the — 
Indians and supplied the government with Indian goods, ~ 
thus opening the western lands to settlers from the Atlantic — 
seaboard. Benjamin Sheftall and his son Mordecai (died © 
1797), prominent merchants in Savannah, were members of — 
the Union Society for the education of orphan children — 
founded by five different religious denominations. ; 
In the preliminary actions which led to rupture with Eng- © 
land as well as in the war itself, Jews took part along with © 
other Americans, whether as merchants joining in the boy- — 
cott against English goods or as soldiers in the ranks, com- © 
missioned officers, and diplomaticagents. Some Jews,assome — 
of the people in general, were on the side of the loyalists; — 
but the majority were true to the patriot cause. The Declara- — 
tion of Independence (July 4, 1776), written by Thomas — 
Jefferson, put it down as a truth self-evident that all men © 
are. created equal and endowed with certain inalienable — 
rights. The Constitution of the United States of America, 4 
which was accepted definitively by the thirteenth of the — 
original states in 1790, ordained that no religious test should — 
be required as a qualification to any office or public trust — 
under the United States. The First Amendment of 1791 pre- 
scribed that Congress should make no law respecting an — 
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise — 
thereof. i 
During the prosecution of the war, when there was great — 
difficulty in raising money, and many of the public men were © 
without funds, the game was pretty nearly up, to use the — 
language of Washington, unless money and men were at once ~ 
made available. Robert Morris, the Superintendent of a 


oo fioancies oe Kevelution,” Among the 


von, Putin hi in tite hweking business in 
tis af New sake fos tO an exodus of 
Pitlade@iohis, Similic’s -ib=re asgertbied 
Jews wha h ad fed in mE * SCAT LeSstoOn, Rich- 
seg analier licalities. AS ogee temporary 
dw Mikvch lena, = eration nipten 
Bie Y o:lc crises! in, actnachs 
wide made it advie« bie te walked a gaere 
] rut worships, rhe new et She mun Aedicated 
178 id tie Close of the week oes reriened 
bitwrtenimed his wilehass «© hearth 
ee xi bis people with digtiee os } 189 Tete 
Columbia. College and > it appeared 
read hat PABA CUTE Oe iar tet, 

eeRgrag Eth e took ‘tha ‘ani cern her 
Re Prencdest Wael rritne® Hh: Ga own 
(the nasne 3f the sister apotsy goed SOS of 
fen, ad Richmond, ah ofooe. of com 
Preply, Crorge Washingt fee on the 


= 


i of nations’ 
as ing ang € thastes tine eo phat 


aoe 
=” 
Your 
Ke 
ae 
i 
vo 
a 
& 
a 
we 


JEWS danoRsrvLare WASHINGTO - 607: 


ent af axes sean tpt in Rie 


a ec: 
ute 
. = sh y on d 
to: Aa we Te ae 
Havin is i APT ERE 
; i f ) ; ached t 
% MAY TY it reuy 1743), tapostinte jes 
| OK of Lanes ster, Pénns Ivar 
4 
judee in the Cont of Vie 
, 3 3 § ¢ - 4 ie { 79: 
J . 7 €3 ret FAT) Ns mA 
Sv, ¢ . 2 3 meh Y 1 ty oo -} af ' a ‘roles p 
5 Lak ey Mew | PLagcs ‘ ocial id a4 
an i n e + y 
at st Siar hg the ri Peel assembiys 
; “ < 5 a i 
: ind Michael 
’ | a4 


. bac ich es id canolied Pe scones 
. ‘how ooening the western landeite 

momageh, Benje amin : Sheftall: and ty 
. P OT pee minent meres anes m ibs 


. -~ > - a p 


‘ ;@ ihe prelin forte ary acti fons ‘which < 
dd on well as in they war itself, ew 
. whether Ss ase 


“ ae ts olin ers, and ddiploas 


hee Wa bis ry Ww ere  grtle ta tt 

of tadepes nee 4 oy 
cn, put it _ | 
| ed equal < : 
< T he Conasie ion of 
kK : ae which wer ace epted definitive 


Mies ‘ 6a th ; rales in’ vise: Pesiicss 


* ¢ » 
Witnout Fun 


? ‘ 4 ay Re 
S, the game. 


~ 1790] THE JEWS CONGRATULATE WASHINGTON 607 


Finance, was ‘the financier of the Revolution.’ Among the 
men on whom Morris relied for the supply of large amounts 
was Haym Salomon, a Polish Jew in the banking business in 


Philadelphia. 


The British occupation of New York led to an exodus of 


patriot Jews to Philadelphia. Similarly, there assembled 


in Philadelphia Jews who had fled from Charleston, Rich- 
mond, Savannah, and smaller localities. All these temporary 
residents worshiped in Mikveh Israel, Gershom Mendes 
Seixas (1745-1816), of the New York congregation, acting as 
minister. The crowding made it advisable to build a more 
commodious place of worship; the new edifice was dedicated 
September 13, 1782. At the close of the war, Seixas returned 
to New York, where he resumed his ministry at Shearith 
Israel. He represented his people with dignity; in 1787 he be-. 
came a trustee of Columbia College and his name appeared 
among the incorporators of that institution of learning. 
The Philadelphia congregation took the lead (December 
13, 1790) in tendering to President Washington, on its own 
behalf as well as in the name of the sister congregations of 


_ New York, Savannah, and Richmond, an address of con- 


gratulation. In his reply, George Washington dwelt on the 


liberality of sentiment of religious denominations in the 


country ‘standing unparalleled in the history of nations.’ 
The congregations at Newport and Charleston also tendered 
addresses to the first chief magistrate. 


CHAPTER LXXX 


JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE AND 
FRENCH DEPENDENCIES 


(1787-1811) 


EWISH emancipation in Europe was achieved first in 
France, but by no means with that ease with which it 


fell into the lap of the Jews on the other side of the 2 


ocean. For one thing, the Jewish population of France was 


more numerous, counting some fifty thousand souls. The : 
great majority—four-fifths—were living in the eastern and — 


northern provinces, Alsace and Lorraine, under economic 
and legal restrictions similar to those prevailing in Germany, 


from which that territory had been wrested (1648-1678). In — 


en EIS 


Strassburg, no Jew had been permitted to live since 1388. In — 


1767, Cerf (Herz) Berr (1730-1793) was allowed to stay in — 


the city during the winter and, from 1771 on, permanently. ‘ 
In France proper, there were colonies of Portuguese Jews in — 
Bordeaux, Bayonne, Marseilles; these had come as Maranos & 


and then gradually reverted to Judaism, but being wealthy 
they were not molested. In 1723, they received royal letters 


patent, legalizing their residence. A small number had found 


hte 4 


their way to Paris, the well-to-do Portuguese being tolerated — 
by the police, while the poorer Alsatians or Germans were 


subjected to periodic expulsions. 


Before the Revolution had set in, efforts were made by 


the Jews to secure an amelioration in their condition in view — 


of the edict of 1787 which conferred a small measure of - 


toleration on the Protestants. It was on this occasion that 
Cerf Berr procured, through the agency of Mendelssohn, 
Dohm’s treatise (p. 596). With Cerf Berr were associated 


other representatives from Alsace and, on the side of the 


Sephardim, Abraham Furtado (1756-1816) and David Gra- 


dis. But the royal commission, presided over by Males- 


608 


fer aa ana REVOLUTHS 609 
¥ for so one al a refiees as Jewish 


Biwi were citmtoked in 178%, a few of 
ews Were among the electors af bordeaux; 
m1 ta wmatt number of waren to be Cheer as a 

ties Gf Paris in Pariediar were igerructed 
thet Fewich rigdleas ose, Onther ether 
Mm the clergy dat ability, ft also 
% re Strassburg, thes Kas prineicioced 
B Jews dad «@ clamor fa Byer her resorbetions. 
the — population | tak tos he cypebest: 8 

the. b people wes ie i ered apie 

ens, fed ty Cerf Berry, we 1 meray of 
i fereertatives, ei wiah exteeety 
shige poeiered. At the ~ “went whew 
ud Faller: Tihs t4) and #4 ; hes of Pes 
were eplisiiie is the Nateis! (.uard, opr 

atin Alegre. The ere paseetroved tle 
. ‘ot ti Gobles and pi tha “wt jewish Gwei- 
‘thensand Jews abarmioned their bores 
yi Bases, | 

pat the Rights of Man and of Citisens 

i Ament tAggest 26 November 3%, with 
ing On the Amercur Declaration of Tndepend- 
1 Cosrejeart ion df 1787, established the prin- 
S freechons ‘Rett. the jogzical coneesuences in 
(SMWe nce engetaahaid drawn, Camplete 
me mnicaes By such able friends of the 
ed Misaicav, phy ists fg His travels in Prussia 
P Giltuted Gpcles of Berlin lewrv; the abbé 
Prowstart festor Rehaud-Sajnt-Evenne: 
are; am Robeepierre, But aattnise them 
d the Alsatian tepyt? Rewhell, La Fare (the 
mevi. ana 44 off Maury So after many 
re Wes Pett pematget te yore Reon id. 

i i wax cir pees ys iorwand their 
' Myvitst as niet Fk aed and fifteen 
E cades iy Wee Faeeriate yegorted Gn by 


on Tay eek Pee wai se 
beat (WISH EMANC PATO als. 


as  FRENCE'D) 
Mg ™” ; ; 
wine aM 
ye ewisn emancipation in ‘Europe 
& Stance, but by no means wit 
a? tll into the lap of the Je 
For one thing, 
more pAMeroUs, Cor unting sore 
great majority——four- iia 
PEROT: Proy inces, Aisac 
ik eat restrictions suuiler etl 
noun ahidh that territory: had t 
Si rasshueg, no Jew had been Derr 
¥ "7 Cerf (Herz) Berr- (173 }- 
the cliy during sect winter and, 
iy Pranee proper, | 
4ardeaux, B IA VORNE, o; Meccan 
ui then a ered ally reverted to 
ihov were not molested. In: 172) 
rated, ke local zing theimresidenc 
‘heir way to Paris, the well-te 
by Fae police «while Pe basis 
of tbe pees of a 787 whi 
toleration on the Protestants. 
: Cert Beer procur ed, through th 
‘Dohm's trea ise Cp. $96). V 
other rei rewen LAtiVves: fro 
Sephardim, ‘Abraham Furtado 
dis. Bat the royal commissia 


1789} THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 609 


herbes, was not ready for so radical a reform as Jewish 
emancipation. 

When the States General were convoked in 1789, a few of 
the Sephardic Jews were among the electors of Bordeaux; 
Gradis lacked but a small number of votes to be chosen as a 
deputy. The deputies of Paris in particular were instructed 
to bring up the question of Jewish rightlessness. On the other 
hand, in Alsace, among the clergy and nobility, but also 
among the burghers of Strassburg, there was pronounced 
hostility to the Jews and a clamor for further restrictions. 
The growth of the Jewish population was to be curbed; the 
very existence of the Jewish people was considered a public 
calamity. The Jews, led by Cerf Berr, held a meeting of 
their own communal representatives, at which extremely 
modest demands were prepared. At the very moment when 
the Bastille had fallen (July 14) and the Jews of Paris 
and Bordeaux were enlisting in the National Guard, agra- 
rian riots broke out in Alsace. The peasants destroyed the 
castles and estates of the nobles and pillaged Jewish dwel- 
lings. More than a thousand Jews abandoned their homes 
and fled for safety to Basel. 

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens in 
the Constituent Assembly (August 26—-November 3), with 
conscious leaning on the American Declaration of Independ- 
ence (1776) and Constitution of 1787, established the prin- 
ciple of religious freedom. But the logical consequences in 
favor of the Jews were not immediately drawn. Complete 
emancipation was advocated by such able friends of the 
Jews as Count Mirabeau, who during his travels in Prussia 
had met the cultured circles of Berlin Jewry; the abbé 
Gregoire; the Protestant pastor Rabaud-Saint-Etienne; 
Clermont-Tonnerre; and Robespierre. But against them 
were arrayed the Alsatian deputy Rewbell, La Fare (the 
bishop of Nancy), and the abbé Maury. So after many 
debates decision was postponed (December 22). 

The Jews of southern France determined to forward their 
own interests. A petition signed by two hundred and fifteen 
heads of families in Bordeaux was favorably reported on by 


610 JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE [1794 


Bishop Talleyrand, and the Jews of Portuguese extraction 
and those of Avignon, previously under the Holy See but 
now preparing to be united to France, were declared full 
citizens (January 28, 1790). Young Parisian Jews, members 
of the National Guard, among them a learned Jew from 
Poland, Zalkind Hourwitz (died 1812), of the Oriental divi- 
sion of the Royal Library and an ardent supporter of the 
Revolution, appealed to the Paris Commune. The advocate 
Godard sponsored their earnest pleas; fifty-three out of sixty 
districts voted in favor of the enfranchisement of all French 
Jews. Abbé Merlot presented the address of the Commune 
before the National Assembly (February 25), but the enemies 
of the Jews brought about another delay. At last, the opposi- 
tion was overcome. On September 28, 1791, on the motion of 
Duport, a decree was promulgated granting the Jews of all 
France complete civic rights on a par with other citizens. 

The Jews were exuberant in their gratitude. Enthusiastic- 
ally they threw themselves into the progress of the Revolu- 
tion; they volunteered for service and gave freely of their 
means for the defense of the young republic battling for its 
existence against the armies of the allied monarchs of Europe 
(1792-1793). The intoxication turned the heads of the Jews. 
Jewish teachers led their pupils to the "Temples of Reason’; 
Jewish deputations effusively compared the new laws of the 
Mountain, as the advanced Jacobins were called, with the 
ancient law given on Mount Sinai; Jewish ‘priests’ vied with 
the ecclesiastics who abjured. Christianity, acknowledging 
the God of freedom and the religion of equality. The Repub- 
lican Calendar, with its system of every tenth day as a feast, 
made the observance of the sabbath a misdemeanor; diffi- 
culty was experienced in procuring unleavened bread for 
Passover; extremists agitated to have the Abrahamic rite 
prohibited by law. | 

Religious compulsion abated with the introduction by 
Robespierre of the deistic cult of the Supreme Being (1794). 
But the reign of Terror continued its bloody work. On the 
least suspicion of falling short of red radicalism, Jews shared 
the fate of other Frenchmen who languished in dungeons or 


C4 
Hi : 
: . 
at gained, 
\ 
aha 
haa 
4 . . 
iv oar i ad ies ork 
te AJ aa ‘ rie ‘ a 
caning an A Tebew 
a Pa. ie ke ey i, 
NaN oe ‘~ tty SPT, 
‘ 7 72 ‘ o ‘ j 4 > ¢ 
eee foe 
; a ee ¢ 
Ke, Tei sow sn Se 
a 
art: . ; ix a; 4% 
4 | i . , i i 


ur 


ath aay 


ty ‘ ; : > 43 f ie Wi oy S| ES ‘E ATE iPATION IN is 


citizens tjJanuary 28, 0 700}. vung r 
Potandd Kl 
| . a. iDr ary and an 
; Reval cindichppesien to the Paris: | 
. (Sogard sponsored t heir earnest plea fifty fs 
distcices voted in favor of the enfranchi m 
bews. Abbé 2 vierlot. presented the: 
bet the National Assembly (FP ebrua 
x of the hews sith gg hpbigia ancien y 


cA tee nay a decreé wa 


zy 1 sa he civic igh ts i rage: "apa wih 
= Fe , 


Sit Ne ie é against't 


f 

.2 ( t » Se a 7 

a (LS 2-qs Vaid net itt 1LOx : 
Ost 3 ewieh teachers lex Senin pupils 4 
ere ; i eee z 
oe. eee nea We ns iran com 


Pavers | etree agita tated 
wrobibited bydaw. | 3 
Religie ¢ vampulsion_abated 
Robespierre of the deistic cult of 
he reiga of Terror continue 
east Purt nchon off falling short-of 
tie fate of other ® ¥ aaa bmen who ls 


mre 


1798] THE JEWS OF ROME FREED 611 


fell under the guillotine. The moderate forces at last gained 
ground under the Directory (1795-1799). Meanwhile France, 
no longer content with safeguarding its own territory, was 
waging an aggressive war beyond its borders. In quick suc- 
cession vassal republics were formed: the Batavian (Hol- 
land, 1795; Belgium was incorporated downright into the 
French Republic), the Cisalpine (1797) and Roman (1798) 
in Italy, the Helvetian (Switzerland, 1798). In Switzerland 
the number of Jews was small; the new régime brought them 
some alleviation, but the legislative chambers refused to 
grant them civic rights. 

In Holland, Jewish emancipation was stubbornly con- 
tested by unfriendly deputies in the National Assembly, but 
also by the large conservative majority in the Jewish com- 
munity which was jealous of its internal autonomy and 
apprehensive of the dangers to the Jewish mode of life when 
once the barriers were removed. Nevertheless, thanks to the 
effective pressure of the French ambassador Noel, the 
Assembly conferred upon the Jews on September 2, 1796, full 
citizenship and the right to vote and be voted for in state and 
communal elections. Two Jews of Amsterdam, Bromet and 
de Lemon, entered the second National Assembly as deputies 
(1797), in the subsequent year Isaac da Costa Atias. The 
liberal members of the Jewish community had now (since 
1796) a separate congregation, Adath Jeshurun, with moder- 
ate reforms in the ritual strongly resented by the orthodox. 

Nowhere was the entry of the French acclaimed with 
greater jubilation than in the ghetto of Rome. The pope, 
Pius VI., author of the most inhuman edict (1775) by which 
the community of seven thousand souls was reduced to 
abject misery and degradation, was carried off as a prisoner 
of war. The gates of the ghetto were broken down and the 
Jews walked out to freedom, as full citizens, divested of the 
yellow badge of servitude. It was a great satisfaction that 
the Jew Baraffael entered the republican militia as a major, 
and another Jew, Ezekiel Morpurgo, sat in the Roman sen- 
ate. The Jews were made to pay for the part they took in the 
revolution when the Neapolitan army drove out the French 


612 JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE [1801 


(1799), so much so that they welcomed the restoration under 
Pius VII. (1800-1808), who at least did not revert to the 
harsh régime of his predecessor. In dristocratic Venice the 
Jews also had a period of freedom, but it was all too short 
(July-October, 1797); by the peace of Campo Formio, Venice 
was ceded to Austria and the older order restored. 

This compact was signed for France by the commander of 
the army in Italy, the young Napoleon Bonaparte. His 
expedition to Egypt and Syria, which was directed against 
England, brought him for the first time face to face with 
the Jews. It was a political manoeuver, but nevertheless hon- 
estly meant, when after the capture of Gaza and Jaffa 
(February-March, 1799), he summoned the Jews of Asia 
and Africa to rally under the French flag and wrest the Holy 
Land from the Turk for the restored nation to dwell therein. 
The Jews of Jerusalem ignored the call; resolutely they 
labored to strengthen the defenses of the city. 

At the zenith of his career, Napoleon occupied himself 
again with the affairs of Jewry and Judaism, still somewhat 
spectacularly, but now with a well-defined and firm purpose. 
What of religion there was in him was of the thin, deistic 
kind. He was willing to accord to religion its place in the 
scheme of things; but he would have it subordinated to the 
interests of the state and submissive to Caesar’s will. In the 
Concordat with the Papacy (1801) he had left no room for 
the domination of Catholicism, the religion of the majority 
of the French people. Similarly he framed the constitution of 
French Protestantism so as to prevent the infiltration of 
foreign influences into France. In the same manner he dealt 
with the Jews. It were weakness—so he emphatically de- 
clared—to expel them when by the imperial word he might 
convert them into Frenchmen. The Jews must cease to be a 
nation and become a religious sect. Everything should be 
done to further their fusion with the French people, if neces- 
sary by forcing every third Jew to marry a French woman 
and every third Jewess to have a French husband. 

Napoleon was little edified by the spectacle of small Jew- 
ish traders following his armies to buy up the soldiers’ loot. 


P NOTABLES AND GRANT SAKHEDRIN 613 


a Visit to Strasetyurg, shortly after the 
PADS), he gave ear to the somplaints of 
Sws, tireconciled os they Were to Jew- 
fea extortionate aractices of Jewish 
Alsace: Prem anotixe sairce it Carne to the 
ue: the Jews wert erating conseription. 
geratcd. Howersg int? hie ic it dated 
“suspended foe" tur’ phe payment 
OWS against agreulimiwr rain the eastern 
e sac time he give uoters for calling 
tint iGreneral,” ti Se i Aawed- by a 
Meticitated ancient Seotin, fer the 
iduetiatly prepares? eee articles 
Away wih usury and rim & fe Jews 

t during the long centuries  < fegrading 


{ Fowish Notables met & Perth in July, 
iy alter the conclusion of iv« seseions in 
Grand Sanhedrin was crtehohes?, The 


fom of fay and was presided over by 
woot faxt, the meetings were conducted 
issaree. (2 whom Molé was not exactly a 
| “Percive gestions were laid before the 
gh ie grr time there were conveyed, 
4 ft, ekivetts the clear-cut wishes of the 
v be eth should be answered. The 
es , Pere. sobteeg uently taken up by the 
d Sanh Yin a0 ibined after the model of the 
at Jeromuteos, 1: consisted of seventy-one 
8 pe 4abbie and twenty-five laymen, with 
ear 745-1812), the rabbi .of PE: 
m0 ae tintin rabbis as seven 
Q@uneilors bed antucpelet 5% S dilteadeien 
, ‘pier to © different cadancn, OF course, 
| we aga e will was nut ov be thoughe of; 


ehien doputies freas hrance and the, 


Bes Mtiaggh tbe given doctrinal force. ; 


i EMANCIPA TION IN F 


yg), sc muchseo that tt ey Wwe loomed the es 
ie VI. (1 $00-1808), who at least did’ met, 
kaa régime of his predeces: sor. ln aristecs 
ews also had ae eriod rs POCO, but it was 
Muly-October, 1797); by the peace of Campo Fan 
was ceced tO Austria ancl the older ordes | 

is oe Tipact Was signed for France 


ied ‘5 , mm os wie 
tite ATT. im. .3 ress y cHe You 
. Sigg. Pores ned S | 
} 
Beracitise : rough hii r for 


= ge 


4s 4 » berre § t Was a ft pe OnE 3 Onl manaeall Betis 
as tt neat, when alter the ‘capture ae 
(Pebrua rete i? sins ane suiamnenee eee 


Ae eo Go eee ee " 
Adzvica fo wrk 


Land from the Turk aes the vesbaealld 

jews of jerusalem ignored the: 
sored BO strengthen the dla 
Ar the zenith of his career, ane 


he affairs of Jewry ‘kee Jud 


i 
ertacularhy; ; bu ti new ip mips 


oy 


* kind He x as. wi ving | to pee . 
scheme of dace but he would, have it 
interacts of the state and submissive to 
OORT: with the Papacy (801) 
the doming stion of Catholiet Sm, 
of the French people: Similarly. : 
French Protestantiem 30 as td. | 
forvipn influences inte France. In 
the Jews. It were weakness 


convert them inte 7: ‘renchinen: 
nation and become a religious a 
tlone fo further their pe sipn with te 


and every thiea jewess to hee 
Napoleon was little edified by th 


ers followin his armies fo 


1806-7] ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES AND GRAND SANHEDRIN 613 


On the occasion of his visit to Strassburg, shortly after the 
battle of Austerlitz (1805), he gave ear to the complaints of 
the enemies of the Jews, unreconciled as they were to Jew- 
ish equality, about the extortionate practices of Jewish 
money-lenders in Alsace. From another source it came to the 
emperor's notice that the Jews were evading conscription. 
Both charges were exaggerated. However, in a rescript dated 
May 30, 1806, Napoleon suspended for fa year the payment 
of all debts held by Jews against agriculturists in the eastern 
departments. At the same time he gave orders for calling 
together a ‘Jewish States-General,’ to be followed by a 
second assembly, the resuscitated ancient Sanhedrin, for the 
purpose of accepting carefully prepared organic articles 
which should do away with usury and revive in the Jews 
‘civic morality, lost during the long centuries of a degrading 
existence.’ 

The Assembly of Jewish Notables met in Paris in July, 
1806, and immediately after the conclusion of its sessions in 
February, 1807, the Grand Sanhedrin was convoked. The 
first body was preponderatingly made up of laymen; it num- 
bered one hundred and eleven deputies from France and the 
newly formed Kingdom of Italy and was presided over by 
Furtado. As a matter of fact, the meetings were conducted 
by imperial commissaries, of whom Molé was not exactly a 
friend of the Jews. Twelve questions were laid before the 
Assembly in the open; at the same time there were conveyed, 
through the president, secretly the clear-cut wishes of the 
emperor as to how the questions should be answered. The 
decrees of the Notables were subsequently taken up by the 
Sanhedrin in order that they might be given doctrinal force. 
The Grand Sanhedrin was formed after the model of the 
ancient tribunal at Jerusalem. It consisted of seventy-one 
members, forty-six rabbis and twenty-five laymen, with 
David Sinzheim (1745-1812), the rabbi of Strassburg, as 
president and two Italian rabbis as assessors. 

If the imperial councilors had anticipated any difficulties 
at all, they soon came to a different conclusion. Of course, 
resistance to the emperor’s will was not to be thought of; 


614 JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE 


the adulation which marked all public utterances certainly 
pleased the great arbiter of nations and was no more and no 
less than what came to him universally. The Jews, finding 
themselves in a situation so unwonted, rose fully to the occa- 
sion. The question whether the Jews considered France as 
their fatherland and recognized the duty of defending it, was 
answered by a rising vote and the spontaneous cry: ‘Aye, 
even unto death.’ The very first question concerning poly- 
gamy was easiest to answer, since the European Jews had 
long been given to monogamy. It was decreed that no rabbi 
should solemnize a marriage or grant a divorce unless an 
act by a civil officer in accordance with the law of the land 
had preceded. It was further decreed that the Jews recog- 
nized their fellow-citizens of other faiths as their brethren to 
whom they owed moral obligations; that the Jews must dis- 
card all discreditable occupations; usury was condemned as 
contrary to Jewish law. 

The Preamble made declaration that of the Jewish laws 
only the religious ones were immutable, while the political 
regulations, bound up with the life of the nation during the 
time of its autonomous government in Palestine, had ceased 
to be operative from the time that the corporate nation 
became defunct. Accordingly, the rabbis surrendered their 
internal jurisdiction in civil matters. Moreover, they ruled 
that the civil and political law of the land was obligatory on 
the Jew, and, in deference to that law, Jewish soldiers were 
freed of religious obligations for the time of their service. 

One question, that concerning intermarriage, presented a 
difficulty; yet it was overcome in a manly spirit. The law 
prohibiting intermarriage, so it was declared, applied only 
to the ancient peoples inhabiting Palestine who were idol- 
aters. The Christians were not idolaters. Hence intermar- 
riage with Christians was not to be proscribed by the ban. 
However, no rabbi could solemnize such unions, exactly as 
no Catholic priest would perform such a ceremony (except 
under certain conditions). Nor is the final act with which 
the Notables concluded their sessions to be pronounced one 
of servility. The vote of thanks to the Holy See for protec- 


eee ee re 


ee ee ee ee ee ee 


raat \ pawerstoRIAL ORGANIZATION 615 


rdect ie the Jews i im past centuries was meant in all 
Ty ‘gd Chose to forgive and ferget the 
autres Sf some popes, like Innocent 11}., Paul IV., 
ago Pius Vi. Jt was a gesture of re icomcilily 
hy ih fHiendliness in pexisial forbearance. 
e Bie peace 
ime of Jewish submission 4: ce commands of 
ashe detret of Match 1°. {26%, which was 


nough so fas ax it reguiates, hits. worshin, but 

e appellation Mihamous’ whieh o> ews applied 
uss of the ipsuiiing diacdaalt ‘ieee measures 
my Ptovielon wes made for die Greece of con- 
hing bodies ousisting of saix: so! laymen, 
fOr group of departmsyi: ~:.0e there 


and Jews, armel of a central « me: we Paris, 


were accorded i the rabbis tye A= atate. 


E conscription. That t itsell sae. sreutiag. 
peti mare so was the legisiat wed eo hee in 
1 ye: ‘Ss, testrichtig loans and denying ch =r! of 
| | a new department to all but nao wt ey Six, 
jengage in trade. without pcrniiasits fim the 
Wish Coaseript might offer « sswiwieny 
such @ procedure was allowed tera exes 
6 panel hy forcible ! legis: ation G1 Fe Fo ope 
on of Jews was t6 be effected. Ry Foe beg ee 
ats hae} heen exempted fron ‘te one 
st—+pres mmably the method of cos <a bash accom. 
its purpose, Naturally ‘hos haceish ipa tuined the 
fe of thoussniis of Jews; but the injury to Jewish 
gaurably grewicr 
© iaadislentioas of fewish worship was estab: 
inthe Healer: kingdom % which was qaiet alepety 
the a. fe the kingdom 4 Hicharnd +kteeg 
Low Ci oo ae 4806-1510), the Gemegl con- 
Amsterdan: woe meisly a go uaa ica 
Low aden pet powerless 1a Utite the divided 
\ with: ts ther «Semesie. the Seplaedic anc the 


oe 


5 ‘ * 


dda 4 Pad tat ion. which. mar ked all publia 
{ the great. arbiter of nations and wast 
. an what came. to hain universally 
gherneelves in a sit Kee fm BO baie a 


¥ r 7 
4 .O rT ey 
me ‘ ese | 
‘ 
4 
t i re if 
itv x. 
4 
‘ = , 
F evi In fC 
+ + 7 
A ta224 
4" 


i va should solemnize.a mari rage or- ae a dive 
rots oe act hy w civil officer in accordance with the ki 
hal 1 eceded. It was ane decreed atit 

nizect thelt fellow-~crtizens of other ae) 

whew hey. owed moral of Nigations; \ 
| | i disereditable cee ‘uipations}.4 \s 
ee : contrary to Jewish law. | 


£ 


se | Tae Pivamble made dec 
BE: ule Phe religious ‘ones ) were irom 


“Se ra ee ei “ jurisdiction in pets mest 
p 7 Hie ott and political law of ¢ 
‘ow, and, in deference to that 

4 teHgious obligations for 

a question, thar concerning 

ally) vet it was overcome i 

Wee prohibnnag raeahabsieri so it 


(Sas TP the abewy peop! es inhabiti 
a tic. aeers. The £ a were not 
Be oy cette cen: Mae with Christians was not: 
i 3 haweve ts ho rabbi coult solemn 
2 test wou iid ee 


1808] CONSISTORIAL ORGANIZATION 615 


tion afforded to the Jews in past centuries was meant in all 
sincerity. The Assembly chose to forgive and forget the 
harsh measures of some popes, like Innocent III., Paul IV., 
and not so long ago Pius VI. It was a gesture of reconcilia- 
tion, a hope for future friendliness in mutual forbearance. 
Israel offered the hand for peace. 

The outcome of Jewish submission to the commands of 
Napoleon was the decree of March 17, 1808, which was 
benevolent enough so far as it regulated Jewish worship, but 
deserved the appellation ‘infamous’ which the Jews applied 
to it because of the insulting discriminatory measures 
against them. Provision was made for the creation of con- 
sistories, governing bodies consisting of rabbis and laymen, 
in every department or group of departments where there 
were two thousand Jews, and of a central consistory in Paris. 
No salaries were accorded to the rabbis from the state, 
though the chief function of the consistories was for the pur- 
pose of facilitating conscription. That itself was a humiliat- 
ing condition. Still more so was the legislation, to remain in 
force for ten years, restricting loans and denying the right of 
residence in a new department to all but agriculturists. No 
Jew was to engage in trade without permission from the 
prefects; no Jewish conscript might offer a substitute for 
himself, though such a procedure was allowed to Christians. 
Thus from above and by forcible legislation an improvement 
in the occupation of Jews was to be effected. By 1811 twenty- 
two departments had been exempted from the operations of 
the edict—presumably the method of coercion had accom- 
plished its purpose. Naturally these hardships ruined the 
economic life of thousands of Jews; but the injury to Jewish 
feeling was immeasurably greater. 

The consistorial organization of Jewish worship was estab- 
lished also in the Italian kingdom which was most closely 
united to the empire. In the kingdom of Holland, during 
the reign of Louis Bonaparte (1806-1810), the central con- 
sistory of Amsterdam was mainly a governmental depart- 
ment for Jewish affairs, but powerless to unite the divided 
community with its two elements, the Sephardic and the 


616 JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE [1810 


Ashkenazic. As in France, the consistory was charged with 
encouraging Jewish conscription. However, as Jews were not 
received into the civic militia, a separate Jewish corps was 
formed, until its units were absorbed into the regular French 
army when the kingdom was annexed (1810). 

During the six years of Napoleon’s sway in Germany 
(1806-1812), the Jews enjoyed temporary equality in several 
of those states which entered directly into the sphere of 
French influence. First of all the Jews obtained full eman- 
cipation in the kingdom of Westphalia, formed in 1807 with 
Jerome Bonaparte as ruler. A royal decree, issued January, 
1808, placed the Jews, even those who migrated into the 
kingdom from other lands, on a footing of absolute equality 
with other subjects. 

In accordance with a further decree, of March 31, 1808, a 
consistory was organized in thecapital, Cassel. The govern- 
ment appointed to the presidency of this body Israel Jacob- 
sohn, financial agent to Jerome Bonaparte, who previously 
had served the duke of Brunswick in a similar capacity. This 
well-meaning, but somewhat shallow and ‘vain man (1768- 
1828) was the typical representative of the higher class lay- 
man of his age. He was imbued with the ideas of Mendels- 
sohn’s circle and hailed with delight the advent of freedom 
in the wake of the French Revolution and Napoleon’s 
régime. He realized that an inner improvement in culture 
must go hand in hand with external emancipation. In 1801, 
he had founded in Seesen a boarding school for boys, which 
accepted Christian and Jewish scholars alike; his example 
was followed by his brother-in-law, Isaac Herz Samson, who 
in 1807 opened a similar school in Wolfenbiittel. With the 
aid of David Frankel, head master of the Francis school 
at Dessau (organized in 1799), Jacobsohn established new 
schools throughout the Westphalian kingdom. In these 
schools the general subjects were taught by Christian teach- 
ers, while a Jewish instructor gave lessons in Jewish religion 
and Hebrew language. The consistory also introduced exter- 
nal reforms in the mode of worship, such as choral singing of 
German hymns, addresses in the vernacular, German prayers 


“ Rplawereati08 iN FRANKFORT | 617 


r of 7 Hebrew. Boys aad girls were confirmed 
Pro t manner, with public examimation in the 
iE aesecches. The innovations, displeasing to the 
P Carried Ont by consistorial rescripts, and all 
up was abolished, to che end that the official 
Showid remain im force, The complnints of the 
ie vee silences! by a royal dec are Unity 5, 2811). 


1 were aaaibeed 2 to; ictal peer and ro the 
epee teat inthe army aid a number rose to 
f caprains and quartervissters | 
interested himself also im she condition of jis 

ts of Frankfort, which since 1996 had beecme (he 
e| deranion of the Rhine wider the presicencs 
on Karl von in New life was stir- 


t a rage behin ‘ol ithe Phitanthrapin). 
) of the conmpanity ia ured at one of me 


accept rhe heii of that “i wy aS Sex on as they 
n . ; equal eivit rights. Jaco! SOHN S Avley 2 10 
se ate pee a ee ré ejoinder 4 wits % vis 


| ae in a uy pun on oe pi byes heat at 
n his people appearad ‘as they shea) be vr. 
future. baat or ag they now ware ied peowld 

time.’ However, with the constiteeiu: of the 
 Prantfort (TiO), Dalberg as bewtoct the 
* the disabilities cf the Jews al Ferg xkfort 


Hides Places 28, 1811). The eek oes oom- 
basis ofthe annual tax for protecting which the 


n the balsit wf paying, rrudis pret ee Ce 
‘ p= ea the Cot peme ration ig the 


alti Shee er, less in pe ‘ea anal 
e on i ohne were governed by 3 


to the wenate of four hundset ey forty 


ow ’ 7d ar 4 s 
ie . a Lore 7 
u¥ q ; Ti x ‘ oes ri * i aes 


7 a ee  JEWIS8 EMA NCIP ArH 7 sé gs | 


7 Pikes. As in France, the ¢ CO 
REAPER IN g jewish conscription. c 
oS ieived into the civie militias a sepa 
 fehaed, until its-units were alieut : hes 
wavy when the kingdom was ced 
vay bea SX years of 5 Na 
11806-1512), the Jews enjoyed t 
vif iad states which entered: din 
French influence: Pirat of bee hay 
pation in the kingdom of Wet 
ferome Bonaparte aa ruler, A 
1808, placed the Jews, even 
ii wg dom from other lands, on 
ri th seis sbemionte: 


consistory was prion ey in apr: 
ment appar ted to the preside V 


man of “his - ‘He § was mb | 


mist, ga ndnd in hand Wi ‘ih exter 
he hac founded in Seesen a boa 
accepted Christian and Jewish 
wae fntowed by his brovher-in 
in 1807 opened a similar school 
aid of David Frankel, head m 
at Dessau Lerganized in. 1799), | 
schools thresghout the West 
igi ls the general ails 
we. while a jewenh instructor g 
rsa Hebrew huaguage. Hepixs: 
sat peforria in che pede of mw 
Comerman hy rare, sddrimniitehe b 


: 


1811] EMANCIPATION IN FRANKFORT 617 


by the side of the Hebrew. Boys and girls were confirmed 
after the Protestant manner, with public examination in the 
catechism and speeches. The innovations, displeasing to the 
orthodox, were carried out by consistorial rescripts, and all 
private worship was abolished, to the end that the official 
type alone should remain in force. The complaints of the 
communities were silenced by a royal decree (July 5, 1811). 
Until the fall of Napoleon (1813), the Jews of the West- 
phalian kingdom were admitted to public offices and to the 
professions; many enlisted in the army and a number rose to 
the positions of captains and quartermasters. 

Jacobsohn interested himself also in the condition of his 
coreligionists of Frankfort, which since 1806 had become the 
seat of the Confederation of the Rhine under the presidency 
of the prince primate Karl von Dalberg. New life was stir- 
ring in the Frankfort ghetto; in 1804 a group of cultured 
Jews had founded a modern school (the Philanthropin). 
Representatives of the community appeared at one of the 
last sessions of the Grand Sanhedrin and expressed their 
readiness. to accept the decrees of that body as soon as they 
were able to enjoy equal civic rights. Jacobsohn’s address to 
the prince primate evoked a hostile rejoinder which was 
printed anonymously, and Goethe, whose birthplace Frank- 
fort was, indulged in a cheap pun on the ‘Jacobin son of 
Israel’ to whom his people appeared ‘as they should be or 
become in the future, but not as they now were and would 
remain for some time.’ However, with the constitution of the 
grand duchy of Frankfort (1810), Dalberg as head of the 
state removed all the disabilities of the Jews of Frankfort 
for the payment to the senate of four hundred and forty 
thousand gulden (December 28, 1811). The sum was com- 
puted on the basis of the annual tax for protection which the 
Jews were in the habit of paying, multiplied by twenty. 

Of the other states constituting the Confederation of the 
Rhine, Baden admitted the Jews to hereditary citizenship 
upon the condition of their following a useful occupation, 
thus excluding money-lenders, traders in cattle, and small 
shopkeepers. The religious affairs were governed by a 


618 JEWISH EMANCIPATION IN FRANCE [1813 


supreme council of eight persons, consisting of rabbis and 
communal elders. In Mecklenburg, thanks to the warm 
recommendation of Tychsen, professor at the university of 
Rostock, equal rights were conferred upon the Jews short of 
admission to public offices (1813). Elsewhere the progress of 
emancipation was retarded or hedged about by unfriendly 
measures. In Bavaria, where the Jewish population num- 
bered thirty thousand souls, the Jews were made to assume 
all the obligations of citizenship, but had none of its rights. 
Agriculturists, artisans, manufacturers, and professional men 
were accorded special privileges; but the freedom of domicile 
and marriage was restricted, and it was openly stated that 
the number of Jewish residents in any locality should rather 
be diminished than enlarged. Only in the Hanseatic towns, 
which were directly annexed to France, were the Jews auto- 
matically enfranchised’ (1811); so in Hamburg, but par- 
ticularly in Liibeck and Bremen, where, after centuries of 
expulsion, Jews were now permitted to dwell. Thus did 
French penetration sweep away the cobwebs of the medieval 
treatment of the Jews on German soil, 


ee hs he ae eT ad 


ee | a he cle ir , - ay . gists ue ‘ 
ee ee ee ee ee ee ae Se Ee a ee ee ee ee ee ee 


ee ee 


e 


; 


, 


BAR tae aged! % hs with 
ar Ue ant Aasetria, 
ved gonke bier: ey in 
1a etree ee irc ‘ 
ar on te Ps, 2934 @ Ti 
]), eae gems tes 


: . = ¥ 
eS OF wena nats 


sees ‘ae her edt tear A 


oe) appuiated jars bien tes alter hie: acne. 
t the FExpiest Qe ie poi feeder Bey ay 
ihe body-tae (E07. fix omcort Ff the -cean- ; 
roneeded Certs gore vaye at the pie of | 
pore. aid. sige cit fig wh the Laon Tele i 
sis ted! upoat Hu: tC eee Wem 
a time. It wise 4 ae ae re ee ae veel min thas 
» goneralin aaa me Tish Fea See t iyarere 
religious PCR ges chek separadand thew 
fan populations Bye a val! weiter of 
diditieneett eae" we Tied, a0 ee Fenpherd 


en St ees, tat 
pay feet Seipehatisist i 


eS. a we PA ieee 
ee eps . Hinata tea ates 
inks arora “thst clei. « 7 
fe eet ed Pal <a 
a ae Dip: tite 


Pe wWISn EMA NC [Pe 4'T 


Ae a Rta 

Hae OSE fe 
ee 
a ee +494 mic x 
Ram euncedl H tes 


emancipation: was retarded or hedged ‘abe 
. +") Ves re yy rh} ler ? the eae: 
rect City spats’ e buses the i 


pee ea eh y 
a na Kee, 


; Tee. By Was TeS{rictec ‘ Wis: 
Pe A fern, a 
ae OF ay sued asidents in a any, i 


Fecha f 
! wey rectly rae anexed 
s entra “ast! 90 
i Libeck-asd Bre 
awa, Jews were now in 
enetration sweety awa . 
owt af the Jews on G 
, oes 
1< ‘ae \ Sa 
4 i eae hs Wide oe 


CHAPTER LXXXI 
EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA 
(1786-1812) 


N thetwolargest Germanic states which waged war with 
| revolutionary and imperial France, Prussia and Austria, 
the entrenched absolutism either moved quite warily in 
ameliorating the condition of the Jews or was entirely retro- 
_ grade. The successor of Frederick the Great on the Prussian 
throne, Frederick William II. (1786-1797), was given to 
Rosicrucian mysticism and was a champion of orthodoxy. 
Nevertheless, through his very opposition to his predeces- 
sor’s policies and because of his general kind-heartedness, he 
was imbued with the necessity of mitigating the hard lot of 
the oppressed Jewish people. Without awaiting the opinion 
of a royal commission appointed immediately after his acces- 
sion, he granted the request of the Jewish leaders for an 
abrogation of the body-tax (1787). The report of the com- 
mission (1789) conceded certain privileges at the price of 
tutelage from above and meddling with the internal life of 
the Jews, but insisted upon the present restrictions remain- 
ing in force for a time. It was the commission’s opinion that 
it would take three generations for the Jews to divest them- 
selves of those religious peculiarities which separated them 
from the Christian population, leaving a small residue of 
an innocuous or indifferent nature. Then, it was hoped, 
they might become useful citizens and the restrictions be 
removed. 

The proposed reforms were rejected by the Jewish deputies 
of the various Prussian communities, in answer to whose 
petition they had been framed (1790). David Friedlander | 
(1750-1834), son-in-law of the rich banker Daniel Itzig and 
‘faithful friend and pupil’ of Mendelssohn, demanded, on 
behalf of his fellow-Jews, complete civil and political equal- 
ity. His representations were brushed aside as so much 


619 


620 EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA [1801 


rhetorical sophistry. The king repeatedly urged his ministers 
to prepare a law on the basis of the commission’s report. 
At last the draft of the new legislation was presented to him 


for his signature (April, 1792). It offered civil, but not 3 


political equality, and even that at the cost of the destruc- 
tion of the internal Jewish organization. But the king’s 
signature was never appended, since it was represented to 
him that any effort to improve the status of the Jew would 
cause general dissatisfaction among the people. This was 
particularly undesirable in view of the impending war against 
the Revolution (the First Coalition, 1793-1797). 

The Jews in the eastern provinces, including the city of 
Warsaw, which fell to Prussia after the second and third 
partition of Poland (1793, 1795), presented a special prob- 
lem which was met on the whole in a humane and liberal 
spirit. The Regulation.of April 17, 1797, removed a number 
of disabilities as regards domicile and choice of occupation. 
Still the Jews remained subject to all sorts of restrictions. 
Thus no Jew was permitted to marry under the age of twenty- 
five years, and then only when he had a fixed income. In the 
place of the poll-tax, divers contributions were levied on the 
Jews, for protection or in lieu of personal military service or 
for permission to marry, and so forth. The communal organ- — 
ization was confined to the strictly religious interests; the 
rabbinical courts were abrogated. In the Jewish schools the 
study of the German and Polish languages were made 
obligatory. 

A petition presented to the new king, Frederick William 
III., who ascended the throne in 1797, led to the meager 
result of abolishing corporate responsibility for petty offenses 
committed by Jews. The elaborate regulations, published in — 
1801, created a censorial commission, consisting of a police- 


officer, a legally trained member of the magistracy, and a 4 7 


number of Jewish communal leaders, with discretionary 
_ powers to punish. offenders. The king’s ministers admitted a _ 
certain harshness in the new legislation. They insisted, how- 
ever, that. this increased police supervision was to be used 
only to prevent the entry of undesirable foreigners ‘and to 


— OF RATIONALISTS, | 621 
Oving of suspicidus elements af the popula- 
fs the tas of the fews, they considered a 
> BO jong as the fews stodd: apart from 
ors state. Tt was acre ne rely & thivstion of 
Take principally of diverges rites, and 
‘Scholastica! constitveha: whiek made of 
o e ashate within the yeu.’ It stan regret- 
Hott f internal reforns. jad" - jJewe worthy 
3 g with the ‘unimprvwod mass there must 
cn > di iso the ‘innercat ommbers af the 
tireless, the reguiations wer wv actically ahan- 
fit igh the continued posee/ien of the jews. 
iinements,” that is, of wows. uals mire or 
| | seit, had grown 
Wak Prussian capital Macy the decade 
sal Tepeneration. Tre eescunce of the 
1 Burapean civilizatizn: we at! too sud- 


Y Mendeisachn’s sar on toted between 


ed te the phantom ve hey alism and to 
$8 Wartare with all that war pep larly Jewish, 
dof reverence or ofhistormic viprehenseton. 
ra t ore belonged Isaac. Satistast (29 a2-1 804) 
Benzeels (1764-1811), ” au versatibe buibrew 
ter wrote a Hebrew grains and dietiomary 
Which enjoyed great popalin.y. | 

s students were attracted ~ Kant'_ crtaval 
these, Sothmon Maines (1754508) was 


of Lithuanian Hasidism iato the sibister of 


che. from knocking twice at tit smeuste of 
@ endavid (1762-1552) regaeied fuda- 
ast. nable aggiomerate of ritual ft muper- 

1 to the cultured, who were fee foam the 
maty frorn modern infidelta:, foe restor- 
' of Moses divested of aif bistorica! 


1 i eS f 


Hebrew Periocical, * Puscherer’ (Hla- 


original miu. Transiave! from ihe pote, Rey th - 


oY ment . be broke with afl religsars, tai that 


s Here (1747-1803), philosspher and 


. ay ules os) ets 


wh Was aici on me wa ole i in — n 


jews ren va 1 eee ie ate sorts: 
low wa s permit gi Shiki ‘under # 


The ab Tax, oi rhs | 
Ravine on or i Welds ‘of ee 
iesion to. marry, ant 1 so forth, Th mn 
was Confined to the strictly religious: 


Oo Fe wah comn ul te a 


h org anization. Bu ; 
pu a never aysarsne | since: it idee: : 


hie nay Fist 


ne” BAL 


a 
eae 
+5 
oe 
ee. 
ao 
net 4a 
Bias 
oe 
bee 
- B 
ae 


Polar id a 793 Pog 3 1795), presented a : 


5 Uh 


ry 


courts were abrog ogated. Y 


Soa ‘dbl wat h a 
THe LseeMan Aan. 


pie Jews, Th * elc jaborate n 


a 


1784-97] THE CIRCLES OF RATIONALISTS 621 


facilitate the removing of suspicious elements of the popula- 
tion. As regards the status of the Jews, they considered a 
change impracticable so long as the Jews stood apart from 
other subjects of the state. It was not merely a question of 
dogmatic differences, but principally of divergent rites and 
customs and an ecclesiastical constitution which made of 
the Jews ‘as it were a state within the state.’ It was regret- 
able that, until solid internal reforms made the Jews worthy 
of citizenship, along with the ‘unimproved’ mass there must 
suffer, if at all they did, also the ‘innocent members of the 
nation.’ Nevertheless, the regulations were practically aban- 
doned in 1805, owing to the continued opposition of the Jews. 

The group of ‘innocents,’ that is, of intellectuals more or 
less at dissonance with the Jewish life of the past, had grown 
apace in the frivolous Prussian capital during the decades 
preceding the national regeneration. The entrance of the 
Jews into the general European civilization was all too sud- 
den. The circle of Mendelssohn’s admirers edited between 
1784 and 1797 a Hebrew periodical, “The Gatherer’ (Ha- 
Measseph), devoted to the phantom of rationalism and to 
bold and ruthless warfare with all that was peculiarly Jewish, 
in a spirit devoid of reverence or of historical comprehension. 
To the collaborators belonged Isaac Satanov (1732-1804) 
and Judah Loeb Benzeeb (1764-1811), both versatile Hebrew 
stylists; the latter wrote a Hebrew grammar and dictionary 
of much merit which enjoyed great popularity. 

More serious students were attracted to Kant’s critical 
philosophy; of these, Solomon Maimon (1753-1800) was 
by far the most original mind. Translated from the uncouth 
surroundings of Lithuanian Hasidism into the center of 
Prussian enlightenment, he broke with all religion, but that 
did not prevent him from knocking twice at the portals of 
Christianity. Lazarus Bendavid (1762-1832) regarded Juda- 
ism as an unreasonable agglomerate of ritual and super- 
stition and looked to the cultured, who were free from the 
old credulity and equally from modern infidelism, for restor- 
ing the ‘pure religion’ of Moses divested of all historical 
‘overgrowth.’ Marcus Herz (1747-1803), philosopher and 


622 EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA [1799 


physician, delivered private lectures on philosophy which 
were attended by generals, ambassadors, ministers, and 
princes of the blood. His house was frequented by poets and 
sculptors, theologians and statesmen. Foreigners of eminence 
deemed it an honor to be invited to the evening entertain- 
ments. The attraction, however, was the lady of the house, 
Henrietta Herz, beautiful, accomplished, scintillating in con- 
versation. By twenty years her husband’s junior, sheengaged _ 
in amatory pastimes with her men friends; long estranged _ 
from Judaism, she only awaited her mother’s death to em- 
brace Protestantism (1817). 


Another circle of intellectuals grouped itself about the — 


unprepossessing, but vivacious Rachel Levin (1771-1833), 
the daughter of a rich jeweler, who forsook the religion of her 
fathers on marrying the Prussian diplomat and man of let- 
ters, Varnhagen von Ense (1814). There were numerous 
baptisms in high Jewish society. Mendelssohn’s daughter, 
Dorothea, married to the banker Veit, secured a divorce 
from her husband in order to marry her lover, Friedrich 
Schlegel, the leader of the new romantic school and the 
author of novels in which free love was advocated; subse- 
quently both embraced Catholicism. The sons by her former 
husband were likewise baptized. Her younger sister, Hen- 
rietta Mendelssohn, also became a Catholic. Of the philo- 
sopher’s sons only the eldest, Joseph, died as a Jew. The 
second son, Abraham, the father of the composer Felix — 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, and all but one of Mendelssohn’s _ 
grandsons went over to Christianity. s q 

The leap into Christianity was contemplated by the ~ 
anonymous writer of the Epistle to Pastor Teller (1799). 
The author was none other than David Friedlander, who, on ~ 
behalf of ‘several heads of families of the Jewish denomina- 


tion,’ petitioned to be received into the fold of the Protestant 
Church on conditions of their own. So far as the religious 
ceremonies went, like baptism, they were ready to accept 
them only as symbols. But they could not conscientiously 
subscribe to Christian dogmas contrary to reason, as, for 


example, the belief that Jesuswas the Son of God. Of course, a 


ke man OF MARCH, 181? ‘623 


ey Mig hv conatit themee!ves as.a sect, midway between 
c font My; Out they were honest enough to 
Uke eitienbinber: of the Christian Church could 
no € to obtain for themselves and their children full 
ghts Naturally the good pastor replied that a 
Minnie which left Christ out was meaningless. 
5 Judeiving Phiistianity’ acceptable te Schleier- 
naw His bteeriiees on Religion had begun to 
mystic theirs fe religion, the very Udag Fried- 
86 Mrinedeeribie in Judaism. The world of 
yiee:: Chin a deeper understanding of ihe 
Cie Witter Sel: those of ‘the gc haw od Rati 
babel 643 § thei a easoned Veriton,’ 
Sad of Fite LR) Prussia was shorn of geneh 
ry. rene pea mest. of the Elbe were incotimetaiedt 
By Of Westphutia, where the Jews bas ren 
lvthicleuiéee; The Patish pene firawer® cate 
‘Warsaw, wong te einiimistered by the e Pubes tinder 
bay. A iiiersl constitution was mtroduend 
‘ Ak Maphieok hecame the law of the land; bat 
citizens. demeed be the progressive fows anc 
t uy Oppel fy the Hasidic element, way 
ithe Jewish paaulation. In Prussia itself, the die 
O% moral Seyeweration under the liberal ngings 
F r denberg, wih Wilhelm von Humbotel b im he 
dication. The retorn of municipal gavermmeni: 
Jews tothe extent that they were admitted te 
is. David Pitediisder, cured of his desire ta 
off frori the Jewish community, was eleptied ¢ 
hig) Berlin (4898), Ac jast, on March 14,9812, 
hae athe of peeention, bess bilge o t Prassie 


avowed ap ‘che government was to deve: the 
© 7 nization of the Jews, eo preenr their 
Parr eewtlens! font for che sake of egeaping tivit 
Noudom the sare to Ww elcome. eacieuhe oOn- 


eG 
cae 
= 


mivaician, delivered private lectures oh 
Were attended e [ generals, ambass sadors, r 


: fringes of the blood, H sigue was ft -equented 
svulotors, theologians and statesmen. Foreigners 0: 
; i mt an honor to be aie to the evening € 


(he attraction, however, was the lady Of 
ilerz, beautiful, ac ‘complished, seintill 
+ Sy: CTWweney years her husband's juniors 
xy pastime: Ve with her men friends; long 
; asi nly awaited h her Blige | 
E: oteeta ei 


ae rye <3.8) y ter.of a: me af digs ler, who ofors 


; Pn “e . 


. im high 
| thea, Marnie a4 ie "pariee Vert, 
i eon in order to : her: 


11. ee Hi he Tove was ads 
iz | braced Catholicieny,” re 8 
hushand were likewise baptized. ‘Her ¥ 
riotia Mierdelssohn, alsa o became xe Cathe 

Shey’ sons only the eldest, Joseph, "di 
sound son, Abraham) the fatter: , 
Menlelas sea hedheiae and all by 
grandeons went over to Christiani 
ieap into Christianity” wa 
anotyraote en of the Epistle | 


Tent, 


* po The aurher wae tone otf her than Davi 


tien, 4 atlonesess: tot € re ceived into the 


cahetionies 4 Wy nines tie ke “Vesa 
them only as Sanbols. But cha 
scribe (6 Ch hi ‘Tatie ff cate rae 


THE GRANT OF MARCH, 1812 623 


they might constitute themselves as a sect, midway between 
Judaism and Christianity; but they were honest enough to 
confess that only as members of the Christian Church could 
they hope to obtain for themselves and their children full 
citizens’ rights. Naturally the good pastor replied that a 
form of Christianity which left Christ out was meaningless. 
Nor was this ‘Judaizing Christianity’ acceptable to Schleier- 
macher, who in his Discourses on Religion had begun to 
stress the mystic element in religion, the very thing Fried- 
lander found so unreasonable in Judaism. The world of 
thought was moving on to a deeper understanding of the 
religious consciousness, while those of the school of Men- 
delssohn lagged behind with their ‘reasoned verities.’ 

By the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) Prussia was shorn of much 
of its territory. The parts west of the Elbe were incorporated 
into the kingdom of Westphalia, where the Jews had been 
granted full emancipation. The Polish provinces, turned into 
the duchy of Warsaw, were administered by the Poles under 
the king of Saxony. A liberal constitution was introduced 
and the civil Code Napoleon became the law of the land; but 
the status of citizens, desired by the progressive Jews and 
just as stubbornly opposed by the Hasidic element, was 
denied to the Jewish population. In Prussia itself, the dis- 
aster led to a moral regeneration under the liberal régime of 
Stein and Hardenberg, with Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 
ministry of education. The reform of municipal government 
benefited the Jews to the extent that they were admitted to 
the city councils. David Friedlander, cured of his desire to 
cut himself off from the Jewish community, was elected a 
city councilor in Berlin (1808). At last, on March 11, 1812, 
on the eve of the War of Liberation, the Jews of Prussia 
received the grant of emancipation. It was still a partial one, 
government positions being closed to the Jews; but all other 
disabilities disappeared. 

The avowed aim of the government was to destroy the 
internal communal organization of the Jews, to prevent their 
flocking to the baptismal font for the sake of escaping civil 
disabilities, but just the same to welcome voluntary con- 


624 EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA 


versions and to prepare the way for their merging with the 
bulk of the population through the acceptance of the domi- 
nant faith. Friedlander and like-minded Jewish leaders came 
to the conclusion that the gift of emancipation, if it was to be 
enjoyed by the new generation to the full, must be accom- 
panied by a process of assimilation with a reform of the 
Jewish synagogue and school. As Prussian citizens the Jews 
had but one fatherland, Prussia, to pray for, and one native 
tongue, the German, to pray in. The ancient hope of Pales- 
tinian restoration must be cast overboard and the old sacred 
tongue, the Hebrew, discarded as dead. 

In the War of Liberation several hundreds of Jews fought 
as volunteers, not to count the great number of conscripted 
youth. Jewish soldiers took part in the various battles; many 
were killed or wounded in the battle of Leipzig (1813) and at 
Waterloo (1815). A goodly number distinguished them- 
selves by heroism and were recipients of the iron cross, while 
some were made officers. The sacrifices of life and fortune — 
availed the Jews but little in the time of restoration sub- — 
sequent to the fall of Napoleon, when reaction set in. 

At any rate, Prussia had gone far in advance of Austria in 
the treatment of the Jews. The tolerant measures of Joseph 
II. became a dead letter under his successors. During the 
long reign of Francis II. (1792-1835; since 1806, after the 
collapse of the Germanic empire, he went by the name of 
Francis I., emperor of Austria), the ‘tolerated’ Jewish fam- 
ilies of the capital were required to pay a special toleration 
tax, though several members of the wealthiest class were 
ennobled. Other Jews continued to live as dependents, real 
or feigned, of their privileged coreligionists, or often enough 
without legal right and subject to expulsion at a moment's 
notice. A special police department, swept away only by the 
tide of the 1848 revolution, dealt out permits of residence as 
it suited the whim of the officer in charge, or for a considera- 


tion. No Jew in Vienna was permitted to own a home in his 
own name. The trade in raw products, salt, grain, furs, was 
forbidden, nor was a Jew allowed to open an apothecary's — 


shop. It was a special act of grace that the Viennese Jews 4 


RHE (UWS OF AUSTRIA 625 


Tali Pkabae of jews ia tbend to 
r sae Pourfeen thousand Jew- 
two crown lands, an organiged com- 
mnily in Prague. In tialinia, the former 
eWish population «os quite dense, 


ae ne ier 


the Jews were cosGuerd in special 


Migrets or artisans. Mowever, they 
@ howd except on comition that the 
Was tes be done by thets «cwcson and 
. orn we the measure wi > e=famount 
re ihe sittages. Jews imu rtiae so marry 
a. an Mbisetextion in these of the Ger 
swell as it Jewish religious ag, eoinal Taw. 
maid pitsn. the majority comierted them 
nas marriage, which was ser secogniant 


em st Ke 98 COVESTHAERT.. ae 


Oe om he had | bein eine “end with 
burated in the new Hebrew ixalitsentary 

fur, Exposition’). Ak dx vornmental 
ye tsisted on 2 prelin: minty train- 
<a te ew schools bedi hey were 
Gtrapiete to the study of the Talamd. 
| insert in sadding the Jews of 


at vals. When relieved of his duties as 
ersnics himeell with preparing school- 
gins which the _uicaaranagt forced upon all 


arte: ro é9 aon souls, Paerieg Lemberg and 


‘Beetriction on frmestown of domicile. 
re eHow were allowed tm vettie in the 


Aniok bos go means kivaly to fee Rew - 


al tax on the candles used in the homes 


es Ta 


ee tes 


- os er 4 
echine & dead 


en 


“a7 


a. 


4 caren and ikem ded } ye 
clusion that the git of <a ; 


tones erie land, ee rulnsia., £0 pray fo 
the German, to pray in. The ancient 
Sideien must be'cast 6 overboard and | 
e, the Hebrew, dist arG led as dead. . 
the Ware of Liberation several hundreds y 
ee rot 1 count the great nul : 
Jewish soldiers wor paft in the v 
led or wounded jn the battle of 
y ( S15). A pene: number dist 
heroism and were e recipients of € 1 
remade officers. The: orifices 
the Jews but litt de in the: tim 


— 


ite; Ficente ee gone fat in : 
it of the atta £ ——_ uae bs 


e 
ad 


ale “wal a 


ten of Francis Th: 


+, EMMPeLror ef pipes 


nee aah at ae pay = 
SPEC sa? police s depts ty 3M 
the whim ee the aioe pei 

‘fenza was atinhes 


r * Be 
sans im 


Peas a wectad act a gra 


1811] THE JEWS OF AUSTRIA 625 


were given leave in 1811 to construct a synagogue and a 
school. , 

In Bohemia and Moravia the number of Jews admitted to 
residence was definitely prescribed. Fourteen thousand Jew- 
ish families lived in the two crown lands; an organized com- 
munity existed really only in Prague. In Galicia, the former 
Polish province, the Jewish population was quite dense, 
numbering a quarter of a million souls. Barring Lemberg and 
a few other towns, where the Jews were confined in special 
suburbs, there was no restriction on freedom of domicile. 
But after 1793 only those Jews were allowed to settle in the 
villages who were agriculturists or artisans. However, they 
were forbidden to lease land except on condition that the 
cultivation of the soil was to be done by them in person and 
not through hired labor, and so the measure was tantamount 
to excluding them from the villages. Jews intending to marry 
were required to pass an examination in the use of the Ger- 
man language as well as in Jewish religious and moral law. 


_ As but the fewest could pass, the majority contented them- 


selves with a religious marriage, which was not recognized 
in law. 

The Galician Jews took by no means kindly to the new 
type of schools forced upon them by the government. Nor 
was the general inspector possessed of tact or considerate- 
ness for the religious scruples of the parents who clung to the 
old and tried ideas of Jewish education. Herz Homberg 
(1749-1841) was imbued with the rationalistic spirit of 
Mendelssohn, in whose house he had been tutor and with 
whom he had collaborated in the new Hebrew commentary 
on the Pentateuch (Biur, ‘Exposition’). As governmental 
superintendent of schools, he insisted on a preliminary train- 
ing of the children in the new schools before they were 
allowed to apply themselves to the study of the Talmud. 
Moreover, he was instrumental in saddling the Jews of 
Galicia with a special tax on the candles used in the homes 
on sabbaths and festivals. When relieved of his duties as 
superintendent, he occupied: himself with preparing school- 
books and catechisms which the government forced upon all 


626 EMANCIPATION IN PRUSSIA [1814 
t . 


Jewish elementary schools. In his capacity as censor of 
Hebrew books, he was also unduly harsh in not admitting” 
to print new works of a cabalistic or strictly rabbinical type. 
Altogether Homberg was oppressive to his coreligionists and - 
submissive to the government; he was rewarded by an ap- 
pointment as inspector of the Jewish schools in Bohemia 
(1814) which he held to his death. . 

The Jews of Hungary, seventy-five thousand in number, 
were tolerated only in certain parts of the country; in many 
of the free cities they were not permitted to stay longer than © 
was necessary for the transaction of business. The most 
ordinary civil rights were withheld from them. Both in 
Galicia and Hungary, the Jews were made to serve in the 
army. Naturally there were difficulties in the matter of food 
and because of the desecration of the sabbath which military — 
duties involved. Still the soldier’s life reacted favorably upon 
physical well-being and discipline. 


TLC AT) os oes 
PAUL AND ALEXANDER I. 


bests had, by the ion partd- 
me heir th the largest anck most 
‘From the outset, the policy 
it wae to keep the Jewish mass 
ven weduired western provinces 
eodere isto the other parts af the 
re Richie the ‘Pale of Settlement’ 
é Matra down the sphere of Jewish 

stian merchants } arid small — 


he aes, sai ing a 5 ie twice xe 
fof S Nertiniis in the same condius: 
Pan Mateate Jews, in a few citien of 
3] Baie: Het Princioaliy int the Crimea, Were 
Ihe aigh0k taN and in general were (Aare 
iepadigy with the C h istian spheres, 
Aah Be. Megligibte Minority; it war @ ithe 

ds ty, wh strane to the Ruseidin mney 


thes Seve wt in motion under Paget £. 
: mierstials af the nebitiy throughoet tire 
provinces threw the blanv fu: the evil maee of 
Ipon the: Fewish tavern-heepers. As a npiter 
60 Aristocrats were eaeer to keep to chap 
onep oe ak thin manufacture and sale of apitrs 
a é they eared the Jewio) Internal orgetiwes- 
ken dewa 46 as to bring siout an anutignma 
swith the rest of the pyulation. Friesel; the 
was himself convinced that the rede of the 
(ipdahiiess of Jewish religious quMttans. in 
1, pee? gad Senator, laid before the ezar an 


627 


ie nt eae Seed 
¥ DOOKR, he was a 
pint new works of ac 
parent sina 
issive to the government; 
. rent 28 inspector of the Sewelk 
rid) which he held to his dea ce veh 
The Jews af fens ity, aev —— bay 
is me wre oe aps 
itinapy civil: rights were "withheld & 
, and I ny Vy the jews we 


re were. ta 


x 


vt “a i dicing s 


4 
’ 


7 


CHAPTER LXXXII 
RUSSIAN JEWS UNDER PAUL AND ALEXANDER I. 
(1796-1825) 


ARTHER to the east, Russia had, by the three parti- 

tions of Poland, become heir to the largest and most 

compact body of Jews. From the outset, the policy 
of the czarist government was to keep the Jewish mass 
strictly confined to the newly acquired western provinces 
and to prevent its spreading into the other parts of the 
Russian empire. But even within the ‘Pale of Settlement’ 
there was a striving to narrow down the sphere of Jewish 
economic life. The Christian merchants and small burghers 
were none too friendly to their Jewish competitors, who were 
placed in a category by themselves, paying a tax twice as 
large as that required of Christians in the same condition. 
Only the small number of Karaite Jews, in a few cities of 
Lithuania and Volhynia, but principally in the Crimea, were 
exempted from the double tax and in general were placed 
almost on a footing of equality with the Christian subjects. 
One could be generous to a negligible minority; it was differ- 
ent with the large majority, so strange to the Russian mind 
at the first encounter. 

Official investigations were set in motion under Paul I. 
(1796-1801). The marshals of the nobility throughout the 
southeastern provinces threw the blame for the evil state of 
the peasantry upon the Jewish tavern-keepers. As a matter 
of fact, the landed aristocrats were eager to keep to them- 
selves the monopoly of the manufacture and sale of spirits. 
At the same time they desired the Jewish internal organiza- 
tion to be broken down so as to bring about an amalgama- 
tion of the Jews with the rest of the population. Friesel, the 
governor of Vilna, was himself convinced that the root of the 
evil lay in the outlandishness of Jewish religious customs. In 
1800, Derzhavin, poet and senator, laid before the czar an 


627 


628 RUSSIAN JEWS UNDER PAUL AND ALEXANDER I. [1802 


elaborate memorandum looking to the ‘curbing of the avari- 
cious pursuits of the Jews’ and their transformation into an 
element ‘useful to the government.’ Two projects had been 
submitted to him by representative Jews. Nathan Shklover, — 
a wealthy merchant at St. Petersburg, advised that the Jews — 
should be drawn to manufacturing enterprises and to agri- — 
culture in colonies near the Black Sea ports. A physician by 


the name of Frank proposed, on Mendelssohnian lines, the — 


opening up of the Russian public schools to Jewish children. 

Derzhavin was satisfied that he had hit upon a plan where- 
by ‘the stubborn and cunning tribe might be set to rights.’ 
The Jews should be made to accept family names and regis- 
ter under the four categories of merchants, urban burghers, 
rural burghers, and agricultural settlers. A special Christian 


official should be charged with supervising the affairs of the F 


Jews and their gradual transformation. The ordering of the 
religious life should be in the hands of the separate syna- — 
gogues, with their rabbis and schoolmen, under a supreme : 
ecclesiastical tribunal in the capital of the empire. The Jew- — 
ish population should be evenly distributed over the various — 
parts of White Russia and the surplus transferred to other 4 
provinces (‘governments’). Jews were to be forbidden to ; 
keep Christian domestics, nor be allowed to participate in 
city government. They must abandon their distinct dress — ; 
and peculiar speech. Jewish children might go to their own — 
religious schools up to the age of twelve; thereafter they 
must attend the public schools of the state. A government ~ 
printing-office should publish Jewish religious books ‘with © 
philosophic annotations.’ It was to be an enlightenment ; 
bestowed from above, and the emperor was urged to follow a 
the Gospel commandment, ‘Love your enemies, do good to 4 
them that hate you.’ 4 

Paul died before the report could be acted upon. His suc- — 
cessor, Alexander I. (1801-1825), appointed in 1802 a com- — 
mission for the improvement of Jewish conditions in White — 
Russia and the other provinces acquired from Poland. Jew- is 
ish deputies were summoned to receive the plan of reforms. , 
Unable to accept certain ‘correctional measures,’ they were | 


G29 


sae beds te orcad ‘iid alt ‘avenues 
co were thrown open to thet, they 
h their owh improvement. However, the 
n prevailed. According!:, the statute taid 
fam approved in 1804 piace itself squarely 
1e Jews out of Russia aypeser and confmine 
| ‘goveriments’: ive of {) amid and White 
the ucaise ir Litde Reama, and three of 
dition, fim the future rere should deveion 
ste a aR Hi TWO eastern govern- 
and the Cancasus. On tie economic side, 
tth be farbidden to tease lands or keep 

» On the other hand, they might buy 

Peetile of crown lands in order to engage 


ail aurober of agriculturists would be 
of thousands of Jews were meanwhile 
Pet support. Manufacturers and attisans 
m the dorble fax; smerchants and burghers 
A Jews belonging to these categories 
| rity i in ~ intenor ir ara on 


: Hevcinianl i were to be elected for 
: ect i6 ratification hy the. governors. The 
re | sia after sb end matters ‘anda exercise cis 


eof ~ three languages, Russian, Pol- 
sigatory. It was made incumbent upon 
Peder t te aguas proficiency. in any one 


. 


higher: the pias meer also oped agri | 


: : , Wray ct 
/Lovate memorandum looking to the "ed 


a Gime pursuits of the Jews’ and their tre 
erent isel ut to. the ZOVer nrment,’ T “A 


mmitted to him by represe ntative Jews. 
n wealthy merchant at. St. Petersburg, 
should be drawn to manufacturing em 
ri CO ator nies near the Black Sea port 
¢ k propose ed, on Me 
opening ip ol the Kuss ay public. CVE 
a Derghavin was satished that he fi hit Jj 
i a | ty ‘the Soe hye cunning: Bi. 


he. should 
Ceres i? 
Jews Ne vent radual ‘cola 


shee # A 


relive se should be in the. 
crogies; with their rabbis and 
ecclentastical tribunal in the capital 
ish paxpalation should be evenly: i 
i White Russia and. the $ 
ES ceovatees Cpover rnments ). Jews Wwe! 
wa, . keep Christian domestics, , nor be 
overnment, They must 

id peouhar speech. Jewish hi 

eligi ye hools has to gies age 


3% 
3 


reppin 


printings office 4 ‘phouid publish Je 
bios hie Psst HONS, at ta 


thein f the at eke you.’ meng tcc 
Pau! died before Ati eee A 

cessor, ATCRMC der f. (1801-1825 
‘ gpission for the improvement 0 
oe eae ussia and the other provinces: 
Wea ish deputies were op rai 8” to: 


Sina bi ie to aober 
' 


THE STATUTE OF 1804 629 


dismissed and ordered to send in their suggestions as to the 
best means of carrying the reforms into effect. In the com- 
mission itself, Speranski was the only statesman who pleaded 
for a maximum of liberties and a minimum of restrictions, 
emphasizing the futility of reforms from above. He believed 
that, if the Jews were left to themselves and all avenues 
leading to their happiness were thrown open to them, they 
would accomplish their own improvement. However, the 
contrary opinion prevailed. Accordingly, the statute laid 
before the czar and approved in 1804 placed itself squarely 
upon keeping the Jews out of Russia proper and confining 
them to thirteen ‘governments’: five of Lithuania and White 
Russia, five of the Ukraine or Little Russia, and three of 
New Russia. In addition, if in the future there should develop 
Jewish agriculturists, they might settle in two eastern govern- 
ments, Astrakhan and the Caucasus. On the economic side, 
Jews should henceforth be forbidden to lease lands or keep 
taverns in the villages. On the other hand, they might buy 
unoccupied lands or settle on crown lands in order to engage 


in tilling the soil. 


Thus, while a small number of agriculturists would be 
created, hundreds of thousands of Jews were meanwhile 
deprived of means of support. Manufacturers and artisans 
were exempted from the double tax; merchants and burghers 
were just tolerated. All Jews belonging to these categories 
might sojourn temporarily in the interior governments on 
special passports issued by the governors of their own dis- 
tricts. Rabbis and communal elders were to be elected for 
three years, subject to ratification by the governors. The 
rabbis were to look after religious matters and exercise juris- 
diction only in matters of religion, but-without the right of 
pronouncing the ban. The communal bodies (‘kahals’) were 
charged with responsibility for the regular payment’ of the 
state taxes. Free access was granted to the public schools, 
both elementary and higher; the Jews might also open-schools 
of their own, with one of the three languages, Russian, Pol- 
ish, or German, as obligatory. It was made incumbent upon 


_ the rabbis and lay leaders to acquire proficiency in any one 


630 RUSSIAN JEWS UNDER PAUL AND ALEXANDER I. [1812 — 


of these languages to the extent of being able to write and 
speak it. 


The projected expulsion from the villages as well as other _ 


‘reforms’ difficult of realization in the face of centuries old 


customs filled the Jews with dismay, and the government P 


was flooded with petitions. The czar was fearful of Jewish ~ 
susceptibility to the Napoleonic spirit. He interpreted the x 
convocation of the Jewish Notables and the Grand San- 
hedrin (p. 613) as a manoeuver to win ascendancy over the 
Jews of Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Accordingly, the gov- 
ernors were ordered in 1807 to convoke provincial assemblies — 
of Jewish representatives. But after the Peace of Tilsit, when " 
Alexander and Napoleon had come to an understanding, the ~ 
expulsion of the Jews from the villages was begun in all 4 
ruthlessness. It was to be carried out in three instalments 
and finished by 1810. But in 1809 a new commission was set 
to work on the problem, and after three years of labor it ~ 
came to the realization that the expulsions had not benefited — 
the peasants and were only aggravating the economic ruin of — 
the Jews. 

The French legions were now pouring into Russia (1812); — 


it was not advisable to exasperate the Jews. Jewish senti- — 


ment, as voiced by Shneor Zalman, the leader of the White 
Russian Hasidim (p. 586), was unfavorable to Napoleon, — 
whose gift of civil rights, he thought, might lead to a disin- — 
tegration of the religious life. Civic rightlessness under Alex- — 
ander, so long as it preserved inviolability of Judaism, was 
preferable. Jewish fidelity to the Russian cause was attested — 
by the governors of the western provinces which constituted — 
the actual theater of the war. | ; 

The internal conflict between the Hasidim and their — 


opponents continued, especially since the government saw — 


no reason to interfere. The method of study mtroduced by } 
the Gaon of Vilna was propagated through the foundation of — 
the school for higher talmudic learning at Volozhin (1803) — 
by the Gaon’s foremost pupil, Hayim of Volozhin. In this — 
circle there was even a measure of toleration towards those 
secular sciences which were helpful to an understanding of 7 


f 


@ tee sai SENMENT 631 


yates wot qaewral history. The | 


ae fe -_ P «i . 
“ i Selah: Wes Prepanog m the West 


em J 


plants” Std see might be a 

Biss oe ter patee of giving up 
Bay ie g seve or the other 

. is Pinky 4 et dak fuheion. 

RAS Vat of Eglightennment 
rd Verteaient. Memdel ( 
Rr oak vay Mendelsohn te 

Bae secs t i ~ewhioite by 

PP imiee. sod Campe’s 


¥ . 
adel 
' 
’ 
. 
Bd 
, 
} e 
4 J 
é ca 
“a 
t * * 4 
‘ 
" 
i 
‘ 
: a? ar 
oe | *a! id a 
a AS ef 
z , 
—- 
i See ee 


+ eg Sort Ace ee 
{ F 4 “ paw 
=e PTT os, hak 


Sk RUSLAN JEWS UNDER PAUL AD 
ge Seow languages to the extent Hy 2 
peed ek. Cem 
Phe projected expulsion trees thes wi 
Aéems’ difheult of realization. in 
‘euercons filled the Jews with di a 


seervocation he the eich Notak 

Weclrin (p. 613) a8 a manoeuver ¢ 
sa of Prussia, Austria, and Ru 
ecnors Were cinniaiiste in haa to cx 


ame te the re estivatind dak 
the peasants and were only: 
% ; os ¢ r¢ ih S. 


achuue mp of civil act fa th 
wereld phon ay the Siapnahatne life, 


" governors of the western B ei ovine aca 


BEGINNINGS OF ENLIGHTENMENT 631 


the Talmud, such as mathematics and natural history. The 
revolution of Jewish life, which was preparing in the West 
under the influence of the school of Mendelssohn, was on the 
whole powerless to affect these eastern regions. At Warsaw, 
during the period of Prussian domination, there might be a 
longing for political emancipation at the price of giving up 
Jewish separateness; and at St. Petersburg one or the other 
might leap into the arms of the Greek Orthodox religion. 
Still the beginnings of the Berlin variety of Enlightenment 
were discernible in the Russian Pale of Settlement. Mendel 
Levin of Satanov (1741-1819), who had met Mendelssohn in 
person, translated into Hebrew a manual of medicine by 
Tissot, the moral philosophy of Franklin, and Campe’s 
books of travel. | 


CHAPTER LXXXIlIl 
CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 
(1814-1823) 


Nor the Jews of Central Europe the triumph of the 


Coalition against Napoleon meant a struggle to rewin 

their rights, wherever jeopardized or curtailed by rea- s 

son of the reaction, and at the same time to pursue their — 
efforts at their own cultural transformation. Much as the 
leaders protested that political rights should not be bought — 
at the cost of religious convictions, the modification of Jew- b 
ish life, in education and religious worship, went hand in 
hand with emancipation accomplished or contemplated. The — 
taste for European culture had developed; the entry into the © 
life without, even while preparing, called for adjustments in @ 
the life within. There was much precipitate haste; no one © 
calculated what the issue might be; but the first step was } 
taken, and there seemed to be no going back. 4 
The departure of the French before the allied forces — 
brought about everywhere a return to the old treatment of — 
the Jews antedating the occupation. Upon the advice of — 
David Friedlander, the Jews of the Hanseatic cities made — 
common cause; they commissioned a capable and friendly | 
Christian attorney, Carl August Buchholz, of Liibeck, to 3 
represent the interests of German Jewry before the states- — 
men assembled at the Vienna Congress (1814-1815). The — 
Jews of Frankfort sent a deputation of their own, the manu- — 
facturer Isaac Joseph Gumprecht and the court-financier — 
Jacob Baruch, father of Ludwig Borne. ‘ 
Whatever aid came from the highly stationed and socially a 
influential Viennese Jews and their ladies, was for the most — 
part of the indirect kind. The salons of Baroness Fanny, — 
daughter of Daniel Itzig of Berlin and wife of Nathan Adam Al 
von Arnstein (1748-1838), and her sister Cecilia, wife of the. 
famous financier Bernhard von Eskeles (1753-1839), were © 
* ; 


632 i 


¥ 


vue VIEKXA CONGRESS | 635 


a by tin: Prowsan statesmen, The dice 7 
re ts often the gece of the Baroness’ 
a Wie wt Merervich's banker, Leo- 
| AAS E25) ‘Phe representatives of 
avishly p ceetoectavard ie theit hoets and 
f gamed Tews and Jewesses whem they 
5, they dimerved & apeedy . trans- 
eH te chodtocs behing raised in the 
. as tigi tx ueptes, Tewish eman- 
"eal santo thoukt he advantageous 


Te kooks 
Cs | 


ir vor Mitectiky: wos nore impressed 
bd type ul few, eo « one wan Simon 
1845) fosmeatiy re Proucon who, together 
q Meth, aed ih Mesnvian Lazar 
853) etshadaseed : A gRehie as te Pratete Metter. 
ra fe improvedmy: je jae Set status of the 
Austria Tn fearrdine ee i uy eens for the 
nde rat ron, the Preavac: ; he vig wacctipes: Har 
or Of anact wed iavinal pet ter fous of 
: ‘a fostiie diego; wits. thes Doetaren 
ordance with ‘le Prk-vten esas of TATE 
position came frei Hee. or were y aoa Fhe. 
‘ Ee ehsalution WEN Geen dere Dee: PERS 
ne to the incoming Pew .5 -\sagitiieige ho Uigke 
i? ean the Femi tk ncn “cet pees 
‘tio. theie teaaeudine vb ipptien ah chum 
nied that uate idea “2 Site foe te 
| privileges at ieuihén aac tad lap Shap te 
“By! was at the « ih ailean' alba Ga pce: Sine 
wae insisted OM 779 1 Re a aici. a eS 
Strack any anise te ee eS ee oe 
ced he the French ‘1 9 go) “Aes ee een 
7 the states ea Be Mine rae Veena 
at for thy Bret time the Jew iv) rahe Wom eOn- 
-.. of gener: uropese poletecs | 
PRONE. when this comprecer Wag venched, 
a, HOR yirat the consistaaal anys Rigafet « 


’ 
WWADTED 
a 7 ee ¢ ty 
eee Sunt 
TRANS? 


wo Aor the Jews of Central Ruane ae triumy 
iret “apaleo meant Dp: 

eon of the reaction, sail at rth same ire ae 

their own igi oye trang oe 


rotestec ck 
the cost of rehigieus cot 
» life, im capes ate and 1 rel tigious ‘worship 
a ¥ : 
Me ee 


he hie within. Ther re Was oa pom 
what the issue page be; said ihe u 


taker, and there seemed to 


deoarture Gf the 


avid Tedidnde ty he ee mw on aN Bes 
amon cause; they con amissioned a capa 
hristan att sch ney, Carl 3 August Buchhot 


on 


+ " ’ 

represent the i itercets of G Satis ce 
n assembled at 
lews of Fran 101 rts 


facturer Leaac wider ss Cusp 


Jacob Barwac hi, father of Ludwig 
\ Abi ite * ‘ot ai ad can from is hgh 


yes C. whe en mM 
Part Of Of PRI eee 
: : an oe 2% le 
“guenter OF rane zi 4 
i 7 my 4 2 
on Arnsatem (174601 
. 


y 


1815] THE VIENNA CONGRESS 633 


regularly frequented by the Prussian statesmen. The Aus- 
trian diplomats were as often the guests of the Baroness’ 
sister-in-law Marianna, wife of Metternich’s banker, Leo- 
pold Edler von Herz (1743-1825). The representatives of 
the nations were lavishly entertained; in their hosts and 


in the other ‘new-fashioned’ Jews and Jewesses whom they 


met at these gatherings, they observed a speedy trans- 
formation, often resulting in the children being raised in the 
Christian faith. Judging from these examples, Jewish eman- 
cipation, the statesmen thought, should be advantageous 
to Christian society. 

The Prussian Wilhelm von Humboldt was more impressed 
with the ‘old-fashioned’ type of Jew. Such a one was Simon 
von Lamel (1766-1845), formerly of Prague, who, together 
with Arnstein, Eskeles, Herz, and the Moravian Lazar 
Auspitz (1772-1853), submitted a petition to Prince Metter- 
nich for a moderate improvement in the legal status of the 
Jews of German Austria. In framing the Constitution for the 
Germanic Confederation, the Prussian plenipotentiary Har- 
denberg was in favor of an act which would put the Jews of 
the several states on a footing of equality with their brethren 
in Prussia in accordance with the Prussian decree of 1812. 
The greatest opposition came from Bavaria, Saxony, and the 
Free Cities. A resolution was finally adopted (June, 1815) 
recommending to the incoming Federal Assembly to take 
steps in granting to the Jews the enjoyment of citizens’ 
rights in proportion to their assuming the duties of citizen- 
ship. It was provided that until then the Jews should be 
allowed those privileges at present accorded by the con- 
federate states. ‘By’ was at the last moment substituted for 
‘in.’ This change was insisted on by the opponents who thus 
hoped to side-track any favorable action, since the emanci- 
pation effected by the French ‘in’ the states had not been 
granted ‘by’ the states themselves. It was at the Vienna 
Congress that for the first time the Jewish question was con- 
sidered as one of general European politics. 

At the very moment when this compromise was reached, 


Israel Jacobsohn, now that the consistorial organization in 


634 CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION 


Westphalia had fallen through, removed to Berlin. There he : 


instituted in his home a private service according to the new _ 
style, with instrumental music, prayers in German, anda — 


German sermon. A similar private service was called into — 


existence at the home of Jacob Herz Beer, the father of the 4 
composer Meyerbeer. Both private chapels were ordered — 
closed by the government, which was averse to sectarian 


innovations (1816). Of the young men who acted as preachers — 


at those services, Eduard Kley (1789-1867) accepted the 
post of headmaster of the Jewish Free School at Hamburg. 
He likewise succeeded in forming a group of liberals who © 
took steps to introduce the new style of service in a perma- — 
nent edifice of their own. The Hamburg ‘Temple,’ as it was ~ 
called, was dedicated in 1818; Kley and Gotthold Salomon — 
(1784-1862) became the Temple preachers. 

The service was ordered very much after the pattern of © 
the Berlin experiments. There was choral singing to the — 
accompaniment of the organ; German predominated in the — 
liturgy, though the main prayers were recited in Hebrew. 4 
The sabbath portion from the Torah was read in the Por- ~ 
tuguese pronunciation and without the customary cantilla- — 
tion. The prayer-book, edited by Meir Israel Bresselau (died — 
1839) and Seckel Isaac Frankel (1765-1835), two noted — 
Hebraists, followed on the whole the traditional cast. The — 
omission of late accretions, such as the medieval ‘piyutim’ of — 
the Ashkenazic rite, was compensated by the introduction of — 
the more poetic pieces of the Sephardic ritual. The excision — 
or rephrasing of those portions of the liturgy which dealt — 
with the hope of the Messianic restoration, was byno means — 


carried out with anything like consistency. Nevertheless it 


was dictated by a show of complete identification with the — 
surroundings in the struggle for political emancipation. It — 
was a parting of the ways which the orthodox element was — 
bound to view with alarm, considering that the Temple ven- _ 
ture was public beyond previous attempts, even though the — 
members remained within the general community. 4 

The rabbinical college of Hamburg denounced the new — 
movement as heretical. The local feud was carried abroad — 


oleae HAMBURG TAMPLE. 635 
of reforms at Berlie secured the opinions of 
one Hungarian fant, Aaron Chorin, of 
4), favorable to the innovations (1818). The 
f bea cOunter-pudiication of. condem- 
. vine frei the moet eathoritative rabbis of 
i ch as Akiba Eger at Jamie (} 761-1887), his son-. 
5 y Sober: at Pressburg (1763-1839), Moerderai 
olsburg (1763-1829), a: wa many others of lesser 

protested particularly aga:nst the introduc-. 
; i which became the dividing line between | 
enon m Germeny. Phe protagoniats of 

“nearing the davyers involved in the 
; but their Uaeornprocnising attitude 

to. “stich demands of the times as were 


ota the right PS i when the Hamburg 
ed in. 182k isaac Bernays (1792-1849) as 
a the tie prefers by bez minell), Pos 


Bea 3 Ori, es sade. Thus : a ac 4 VE &- 
: Sena peeps stich . while plavie tet 


ne Jews might to bring themselves jie weeded 
| without, their ete? or polite nitty 
' es at far from: betrg fulf filled. The habcktinasiaih 
1, epgendered by: the defeat of the Preach. 4 

sevtns ction which quickly stifled ail bberdi che bana 
Bie ta redeem the promise of (22° wees 
y, In. published pamphlets and Gn thy fectree of 
inimical tone wae struck. Jn the streety ot Witex- 
rg, Carisrahe, Heidelberg, Mannhwis, Frank: 
rg, excesses were committed agaitat hy wR 


eee: 1980034 to the om (VAM, 


‘ of the Siittadk ake and ime bes! 


isa Uy LTU RAL TRA 


shuts y instrimmental rous 


German sermon, A similar priv 


icaed! by the gover nment, 

novehions (1 GrSh Of the y ac 
at thobe services anaes K ties dere f 
moet <b bez ciasaaees of the Jewish Free. School. 
He likewise succeeded in forming a grou i 
aoe to introduce the new style of serv’ 
cifice of nee awh The be ri ‘Tew 8) 


iA] RHZ) ee Cre Te . 
Piao Se Tr vice i Was. ¢ OF dere acy A Very | a) 7 a 
experiments. There was 
“a oe 


ment of the ¢ gan Geena, a 


be ue eae te. En 
ry, as rly rr mair 


i 
ti i> we'lir 


ee pe 


Lap sa Tt 


elas 
Oy i jie te accre ions, eee as 


the Ashkenazic rite, was compent | 
the more poetic pieces of the Seph i 
or rephrasing of those port tions | 


@ 


with the hope - sor Mess sianic restor 


eres es (hase dae. Pee 
Was CMCVATER DY ais 


* 


a parting ni ap wave sa 


Z 
— 


pound to view wi ith alarm, ¢ considering 
ture was publi¢ be yond prey vious atten 
members remained within the gener 


Phe rabbinical ibe of Hanib 
movement as heretic * 


Paul i 


1818] THE HAMBURG TEMPLE 635 


when the friends of reforms at Berlin secured the opinions of 
two Italian and one Hungarian rabbi, Aaron Chorin, of 
Arad (1766-1844), favorable to the innovations (1818). The 
orthodox answered by a counter-publication of condem- 
natory letters (1819) from the most authoritative rabbis of 
the day, such as Akiba Eger at Posen (1761-1837), his son- 
in-law Moses Sofer at Pressburg (1763-1839), Mordecai 
Benet at Nikolsburg (1763-1829), and many others of lesser 
renown. They protested particularly against the introduc- 
tion of the organ which became the dividing line between 
orthodoxy and reform in Germany. The protagonists of 
orthodoxy felt instinctively the dangers involved in the 
break with tradition; but their uncompromising attitude 
made them blind to such demands of the times as were 
justifiable. 

It was a step in the right direction when the Hamburg 
community elected in 1821 Isaac Bernays (1792-1849) as 
chief rabbi (or ‘haham,’ the title preferred by himself). Pos- 
sessed of talmudic knowledge and a university education, he 
was among the first orthodox rabbis to preach in German. 
He steered his course, not always with the desired clarity, 
between the extremists on either side. Thus a third vari- 
ety of Judaism was preparing which, while placing itself 
squarely upon tradition, reckoned with the exigencies of 
the new life. 

Strain as the Jews might to bring themselves into accord 
with the world without, their longing for political equality 
was for the present far from being fulfilled. The heightened 
nationalism, epgendered by the defeat of the French, and 
still more the reaction which quickly stifled all liberal thought, 
were not calculated to redeem the promise of 1815 even 
approximately. In published pamphlets and on the boards of 


theaters an inimical tone was struck. In the streets of Wiirz- 


burg, Bamberg, Carlsruhe, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Frank- 
fort, Hamburg, excesses were committed against the Jews 
with the cry: Hep-hep, death to the Jews! (1819). 

In Hesse and to a less extent in Baden and Wiirttemberg, 
some measure of the acquired rights and the ecclesiastical 


636 CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION [1823 =e 


organization was allowed to remain. Elsewhere the old con- 


ditions were resuscitated. Liibeck and Bremen again drove ~ 


the Jews from the city limits. In Hamburg the burghers 
would not countenance political rights for the Jews and in- 
sisted on restricting them in commerce, handicrafts, and the 
holding of property. Bavaria put off any legislation in favor 
of the Jews (1822). Saxony could not prevail upon the trade 
guilds to admit Jews (1818), but at least conceded to those 
of Dresden the privilege of maintaining a synagogue (1825). 
In Saxe-Weimar, Goethe led the agitation for throwing the 
Jews back into medieval conditions (1823). Similarly did the 


Jews fare in Hanover and Mecklenburg, and restrictionswere 


heaped upon them in Austria, the hotbed of reaction. The 
Jews of Frankfort, after a long drawn out contest, acquiesced 
in being placed in a special category of ‘Israelitish citizens,’ 
with no political rights and a number of irksome limitations 
as regards matrimony, owning of dwellings, and the trade 
in commodities (1824). 

In Prussia the promises for constitutional government 
made before the war were forgotten. Instead, the old pro- 
vincial estates were brought to life again, and these repre- 


sentatives of Junkerdom refused to extend the operations of — | 


the emancipatory act of 1812 to the reconquered provinces. 


But even in old Prussian territory an arbitrary interpreta- 


tion of the law kept the Jews from civil appointments and 
from such vocations as that of an auctioneer or apothecary. 
Christian children were forbidden to visit Jewish schools 
(1819), and Jews were enjoined not to bear Christian. names 


(1828). In Prussia, as elsewhere, the paternal absolutism did 


not refrain from meddling with the internal affairs of the 
Jews, and the intervention led to curiously contradictory 


results. While Saxe-Weimar insisted on forcing the German. 


language upon the synagogue service (1823), Prussia, in the 
very same year, prescribed that the Jews must conduct their 
worship after the traditional pattern, with no innovations in 
language, ceremonies, prayers, or singing. It even forbade 
the German sermon. On the plea that the main synagogue 


structure was undergoing repairs, the ‘Beer Temple’ had’ 


eee ae eS ee ee eS eS 


oS Se te ‘ > — by 
Te et eee ee ee ee 


TEMPLE CLOSED es a adh 


it was idehaitely shut down. are. 
iE had instigated the action; the © 
sie tec indirectly to a tMetaecence of 


truly epoch-mabieig- | | i 


. 
' 
¥ 
: 
i 
2 at 
Bs . 
is 
de 2, 
. 
. 
+ i 
. 
ts 
* 
‘ 
n 
Se ¢ 
‘ 
' 
- ae oad 
5 
7 
® 
‘ 
: 
- 
3 o 
‘ 
¥ = 
4 f ms 
: 
¢ , 
v5 
es b 
* m4 
. 
‘ é 
dl 
4 , 
all 
a 
#) ¥ 
. ° 
‘ 
‘ 
. 
a 
. 
. 
* 


, . CULTURAL TRAN 
MyYbtiention was allows ed te remain, Be 
rine were te suscitated. ne athe 
eee 3 ; een | In Hae 
1 : fon rn Mery ine 
f, : v1 - 
wee ls | rat Delen the pry lege ee vaintalaing 


cal 
Wernar, Gosthe led 


re we BManover ari d Mec! 


ak 


» 
eet 
“ 
73 
= 


* 
* 


kfort: after erator ey paras! 


bet ins a 8p acial ¢ piece = 


i 


righ i 


rule the War were forgateen . 
Ty Pere yews weht for fe < tet 
a fuakerd ed | refused to ext 


Ga ST 


eh 


anett were ‘forbidden, 


« roedaing with: 
lows, sent the igteenention: led : 
ewiilte. Wile Se oe dimar insis ie 
nguage ipen thelky fore cont s 


- 


worship after hee ie bas at patt 
igiipirayd, CeTecgnitited, prayers, 


German serAiee in the utr’ 
irachive was ance bi ‘ 


" oe ‘BEER TEMPLE’ CLOSED 637 
ee id 
ae 


t ilies , 


eX 
; ad 

I 3) es etal ‘ 
2 4 1% 4 a r 


ui 


Be Ort ee Mae On mS 7 SD) 


CHAPTER LXXXIV 
THE RENASCENCE OF JEWISH SCHOLARSHIP 
(1819-1868) 


EOPOLD (Yom Tob Lipmann) Zunz had been a preacher 
at the Beer Temple. Born in Detmold in 1794, he 


lived on to a ripe old age of above four-score and 
ten years and witnessed the stages of the profound trans- 
formation in the life of his people during the nineteenth cen- 
tury. At his death in 1886 he was mourned as the Grand Old 
Man of the new Jewish learning for which in his youth he 
had laid the foundations. The regular training which he 
received in the Wolfenbiittel gymnasium and in the uni- 
versities of Berlin and Halle prepared him admirably for the 
task which he set himself early in life, to submit the whole of 
the Jewish literature to a critical study along modern his- 
torical lines and to present the results in the living German 
tongue. 

Zunz coined the expression ‘Wissenschaft des Judentums,’ 
which meant an understanding of Jewish antiquity in all its 
parts as far as expressed in literary monuments. Hebrew 
writing he regarded as having reached its conclusion; a 
closed period lay behind which demanded an appraisal. The 
method of study must be disinterested, but by no means 
detached from the present-day problems which required for 
their solution a right appreciation of the past. 

While yet a university student, in 1819, together with like- 
minded associates, Zunz founded a society for Jewish culture 
and study (‘Verein fiir Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden’). 
It was hoped that familiarity with Jewish literature and 
history would stem the tide of apostacy which once more was 
rife. But the president of the Society, the jurist Eduard 
Gans, was the first to embrace Christianity for the sake of a 
university career (1825); his example was followed by an- 


638 


a: A, art ae | 
ne Rees ab Peas ; O19 


ever ‘reve Za waa saved 
Me es eats a eben"; he was far 
a Shit ucye os be gaything but 
ris ‘yayecit thy epterference 
witha? 4c 2 antaental 
eRucligegy ier Toten,’ 2832) 
ager? ates @ asian ingeean 
Mie ae notes. “The tapeile, 
ve he eee es Whaat carpe Snpets 
have: teownn thee Res 
ee eM fowiah hasnilet inal 
4 i Se ae xb Sue Dea <¥. Wis 


edd 5 et 
dt ge “ Retars: —_ 
Stay Jo) Gere 


PT ra OTR He. 


4 MRS Se * irl, oe ae to 


“ yr 3% t 
< m ws, ‘+3, “ rs se er 
ea Sar eee Pe 
* 
a! sis ns Fie. o,f GS ST AS ULE 
‘ cee =o EVR Feat 


aC wee To feamereey 
div it } teasing? ah tim > mal Pe Here pit aa 
; one Eee ¥gia si97 dye cat Wale wraghd +23 
revealed; Gerd se cave in prounat 

at brechin with: Punks, Ue Mestane 
amit tone eee page thee atvtath dink the 
narit {TBAB trie ce bin Nek: ary OCs. 
With ie yeret od oe al of the fewlsh: 


7 


Kee ed with deca we? 26 Gennes! metry aed 
ita | ? 
b was by ov we tits eee vet, ae Zeavx Ind 
peteve. At the twoenis of su~ *ostvian agghon- 
she, in the ftalian OLVESEAS: UTS ot (si tictes, es 
be used for its wehicle tee Heteow tongue, Pat 


: Sa pied Raggio ( (eyes a pemapnp se ari 
lek, Beatin apnit and haaestly telietied 


Turis (feswh leweg) aed phe 


fd i+ : - 1 A a : 
4 flee ae Beelis:. wis mis SS spanteend ie. 2 


fe te whew a = sh a 


~~ 


w wiv 


ne ; 
: . eae 
ree YT A YORI [ 
CHAPTER LXXX 
{ASCENCE OF JEWISH | 
a" ; 
ws . 
sf t 
g 
a. 1S % 
En the lille of his p 
\ ith i Bey 188¢ 


ear aie : eer ieee eet Berlin and Le i mal 


FO he 


t ‘5 4 a be meg ye set hitr self — in a: 


2 ab i + 
parts co fer as ciprewed int ‘itera 


loser! werd is be e hind which is vr 
mer! of study must ‘be disinte 
: ternched foam the present-day pr 
ie their solution o right appreciation 
“a hile vet aaniversity es 
mMuNnGed . Sa RON, z evi aban 


eRalors WOU Sten th the tide of ape . 


1844] ZUNZ 639 


other member, the poet Heinrich Heine. Zunz was saved 
from the leap by what was more than a ‘whim’; he was far 
too deeply at home in Jewish literature to be anything but 
thoroughly at one with his people. Against the interference 
of the Prussian government he proved in a monumental 
work (‘Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden,’ 1832) 
that the sermon in the spoken language was a continuous 
Jewish institution ascending to remote times. The book, 
however, was not merely a casual polemic, sharp and con- 
vincing as it was for the practical purpose; it was the first 
comprehensive historical study of the vast Jewish homiletical 
literature and of the early development of the liturgy. With 
equal mastery he subsequently threw himself into a delinea- 
tion of the liturgical poetry (‘piyutim’) of the synagogue 
(4855-1865). 

From the start Zunz favored a reform of the worship 
which should admit commendable innovations, like music 
and choral singing, and such changes as pertained to con- 
tent, mode of recitation, and language of the prayers. Above 
all he sponsored the idea of rectifying abuses by restoring 
the original and vital customs in the place of the decrepit and 
lifeless usages. As Zunz grew older and the havoc wrought in 
Jewish life stood revealed, he raised his voice in protest 
against the suicidal breaking with Talmud, the Messianic 
hope, and fundamental institutions like the sabbath and the 
Abrahamic covenant (1844). Engrossed in his literary occu- 
pations and content with the post of principal of the Jewish 
Teachers’ College at Berlin, which was opened in 1840, 
Zunz looked with disdain upon the professional ministry and 
its ecclesiastical pretensions. : 

Hebrew writing was by no means defunct, as Zunz had 
been led to believe. At the two ends of the Austrian agglom-. 
erate of states, in the Italian provinces and in Galicia, the 
new learning used for its vehicle the Hebrew tongue, thus 
taking up the thread where Azariah dei Rossi (p. 503) had 
left it. Isaac Samuel Reggio (1784-1855), at Gérz, was im- 
bued with the Mendelssohnian spirit and heartily believed 
in the compatibility of Torah (Jewish learning) and philo- 


640 THE RENASCENCE OF JEWISH SCHOLARSHIP [1865 


sophy (secular knowledge). According to this tenor he edited 
the works of older scholars with interesting comments and 
strove to bring out the true sense of the Scriptural word in 
anew commentary, notably that on the Pentateuch, accom- 
panied by an Italian translation (1821). Reggio’s chief merit 
consisted in his lending a hand to the establishment of an 
institution for the training of rabbis on modern lines, the 
‘Istituto Rabbinico’ at Padua, which was opened in 1829. It 
was the first school of the kind, antedating by one year the 
rabbinical seminary at Metz (transferred to Paris in 1859), 
which was originally founded as a yeshibah (1704) and then 
transformed into a Talmud Torah (1820). 

The man who made the Padua school renowned was its 
principal professor, Samuel David Luzzatto (1800-1865). 
Scion of an ancient family (Moses Hayim Luzzatto was his 
great-grandfather’s brother), he possessed a wide range of 
Jewish and secular information, and wrote Hebrew with 
masterly skill. His life’s work encompassed original and 
penetrating contributions to the grammar of Hebrew and 
Aramaic (1836, 1855-1857, 1865) and to an understanding 
of the Scriptures (commentaries on Isaiah, the Pentateuch, 
and other books, 1855 and subsequently). Luzzatto raised 
biblical studies among the Jews to the dignity of a specialty, 
requiring the major part of a man’s time and pursued as a 
profession. Other branches of Jewish literature, especially 
Hebrew poetry, found in him a zealous student who brought 
to light unpublished works and made clear.many an obscu- 


rity. He was an uncompromising foe of the innovations — 


among the northern Jews. Again and again he assailed the 
surrender of the Jewish spirit to the Hellenic, and he was 
equally severe on medieval worthies, such as Ibn Ezra and 
Maimonides, for coming to terms with the alien wisdom. 


By the side of Zunz, the creator of the history of Jewish — 


literature, and Luzzatto, the restorer of the study of the 
Hebrew language and Scriptural interpretation, it was the 


gift of the Galician lay scholar, Nahman Krochmal (1785— © 
1840), to grasp the philosophic meaning of Jewish history ~ 


with its periods of rise and decline constantly repeating them- — 


; 
; 
s 
F 
_ 


‘ 
iS 
4 
¥ 

i 
P 
4 


i ee 


; 


Sees. AND RAPOPORT 641 


tt Hegel 8 systema ol philosophy, 
“ thesis cf Opposing 1 movernents 
“he spiritual in the absolute. 
“se “everlasting people’ pre- 
, lA every movement is the 
i ie reed work, post heniomal y 
Pie: ang er Ca ristically niet a 
ie oe oe: Soxterntion,’ It slgfited a 
EA crt«. eet and a réeinterpreta 
¥ tuck zereasoned cnttusi 
Be whoa ae tech & ‘Taith refined. 
Bea ah eiss cabhinical offers in 


yas 


vwyotten or hele 


A Sots and eleventh. cen 
tito she nuiveernbled the 
Saito ote ly discovered. 
WWiseg Tk kee ace hy evaluating 
peat Sees yr ai wteoducing Het 

MER Deitas® i. Re cppare "es writ. 

Pie et heiiersx yee? Chem as aten- 
en Maier Meat 2: nosey of iInformas 
OE Aid eek eo 8 pweartration they 
i Pes or ratlonaliem and 


or bite: see cdect aectxmcdccal work wi. 
RSPR Ber ier * Sek ee 34 ce Franklort 


‘ene Mien hae ey jailed $8 
eee Kjeatcteried, that the 
ta airhaducda; Sak cenmlcdae 
PRR > Ct safeguarding of 
Rae Die! ey ares sez] UENO 
ee Aeris which pre- 

Reais. 2a" oye it bie people fram 
Pitesti Site, “4 lh Mie - -shoneienienite 
he fig: ia Et ad wR ss 


Mit SiRam 4 Rapoport (17 Kis i, 
Be Pa r oaterieal essay 43" 


c 
Poy 
is 
J 
Bs 
Rat 


eA; ; 44 WEhe SLtaQANce ” “ 
s \ + > ost geandtather'’s brother); he possessed - 


eeu) rein VASCENCE GB» 


eas 


Baht it} 


wledge). Accor dine to on ne 


the wan ‘ okler scholars with in teresting comm 


aS 


? sty ving out the true sense of thé Scriptural 
apeitary, nota ably that on the: Pentateu 


we i 


Puinrvheedd tpt Italian translation jose: aise 


efi f neiishiene! a 


i biniee?. . t Pad ie, whichis was | oper 

school of fitke kind, antedating by 

ninary at t Metz (transferred to-P iS 

3 0 wile ally founded as a. yeshibah (1704 

seged into a Talmud Torah 1820).) 7 
We ' man who mag e ot Padua school 


, (Moses. Mayim 


\ 


3 
ancl secular + information, 


Hale 1836, 1855 1857, 1868) and to 


gave. Other. branc or as: 
a — found in bene a zeal 


miér of che swish spirit to 


Bs the le of Fes nZ, igre create 
literature, and Lugzatta, the re 
He aseud ig ngu a rnd ‘Seriptural 
gife of the Galician lay scholar, 
1840). to gra yi a ve philosophic me 

rth | of rise and decline 


1868] KROCHMAL AND RAPOPORT 641 


selves. Under the influence of Hegel’s system of philosophy, 
he saw in Judaism the synthesis of opposing movements 
making for a consecration to the spiritual in the absolute. 
The progress of the life-story of the ‘everlasting people’ pre- 
sented itself to him as bound up with every movement in the 
large world. His chief, but unfinished work, posthumously 
published by Zunz (1851), was characteristically named a 
‘Guide of the Perplexed of our Generation.’ It signified a 
strengthening of the Jewish consciousness and a reinterpreta- 
tion of the essence of Judaism in which unreasoned enthusi- 
asm and cold logic are reconciled to form a ‘faith refined.’ 
Another Galician student, who held rabbinical offices in 
Tarnopoland Prague, Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport (1790-— 
1868), pointed the way in a number of historical essays to 
the recovery of creative periods long forgotten or little 
understood. By dint of a profound knowledge of the talmudic 
literature and its sequel in the tenth and eleventh cen- 
turies, coupled with critical acumen, he reassembled the 
scattered data from sources known or recently discovered. 
Thus he vitalized eminent figures in the past by evaluating 
their significance in the nexus of events and introducing into 
Jewish history the notion of development. Rapoport’s writ- 
ings were all in Hebrew; Zunz acknowledged them as stim- 
ulating; Christian scholars lauded them as mines of informa- 
tion. In richness of content and methodical penetration they 
were incomparably superior to the shallow rationalism and 
cold detachment which dominated the historical work of 
Isaac Marcus Jost (1793-1860), teacher in the Frankfort 
Philanthropin. It was exactly what Jost signally failed in 
understanding and Rapoport fully comprehended, that the 
past must be judged by its own standards, that each age 
developed that which was necessary to the safeguarding of 
Jewish life and existence, and that history was a sequence 
of unfoldments each standing in relation to that which pre- 
ceded it. Rapoport approached the story of his people from 
within, even as he repudiated the vagaries of those leadersin 
his own day who made ready to sacrifice the rich past for the 
beggarly crumbs of ease in the present surroundings. 


CHAPTER LXXXV 
AFTER THE JULY REVOLUTION 
(1830-1846) 


HE bloodless July revolution of 1830, by which the 
popular Orleanist Louis-Philippe succeeded the arbi- 

trary Bourbon Charles X., affected the Jews of 

France favorably; still more potent was its effect abroad, in 
Central Europe and even in insular Britain, eventually lead- 
ing to Jewish enfranchisement. In France, the law of 1808 
(p. 615) had been suffered to fall into desuetude when the 
time-limit expired in 1818; but the full measure of equality 
was achieved only in 1831, when Judaism was placed on a 
par with other religions by the granting of state support to 
the synagogues and the Jewish ministry. The last vestige of 
discrimination disappeared in 1846 when the specific form of 
the Jewish oath (‘more Judaico’) was abolished, thanks to 
the efforts of the brilliant advocate Isaac Adolphe Crémieux 
(1796-1880), since 1831 vice-president of the Central Con- 
sistory at Paris and throughout his long life the indefatigable 
defender of Jewish rights at home and abroad. In 1835 he 
prevailed upon the French government to discontinue con- 
sular relations with the Swiss canton Basel for its refusal to 
admit an Alsatian Jew toits borders. In 1845, however, when 
a new expulsion of the Jews from Basel was ordered, the 
conservative minister of foreign affairs, Guizot, refused to 
interfere in the internal affairs of a foreign government, 
exactly as he had been reluctant in 1841 to make representa- 
tions to Saxony for excluding a Parisian Jew from Dresden. 
Internally, the process of Jewish amalgamation with 
French interests and culture went apace. Jews became prom- 
inent in politics, in art, and in letters. Benoit Fould entered 
the Chamber as a deputy in 1834; in 1842 there followed 
Max Cerfberr on the conservative benches and Crémieux 
in the opposition. The composer Haléyy (1799-1862), who is 


642 


46  REticrous CONDITIONS IN PRAS OE 643 


; a opera ‘La Juive,’ wee born in Paris 
eeetaacaat, the equaily taleuted «pd prolific 
M 41791. 1864) , who befrigeded Richard 
. ly to be wraduces by him in Jater dams, produced 
t; bie operas in in the French capital. Pee a. Paris, 

eine » (4797-1886) and Ludwig Borne (78% 1837), 
 Judaiw by gei by HO Teens ini iferenat bi the race 
yy apratg, 14d the movement of Young “Ger- 
4s prepared the German people fer veperal 
‘yetamere The re ohn giO LIS: pred: of fie Peench 


‘any were heiverted: to | “atholick nok Phe 

) and Aiphonse (in 184.2} Raris :bonne, the latte: 
ge a8 din conversionist acti ties among fie fens 
dane in Palestine. On the other han, there 
f 0 rose superior te the genera! apathy. Adioiphe 
9-18933), protester at the Sorbonne and mean. 
i, Won receguition for his méritews 
ioala (7843). The unassuming Solomon Munk 
*abgiaaght froan pag 2, lost his eve ee ower 


tudies: his siieelbt 40: Atay eens was sia ox 
Arabic Original of the ‘Guide’ of Maimonides 
‘translation in three stout volinmes. {T856~ 
@ he who recogtieed in the Avicebron of 
‘scholastics, Soforsen Tn Gabiral, the great 
| poet and philosersher. | 
‘the Jewish resertteraent in che seventeenth 
id above (p. 493), was at first rather a matter 
& There was no law in England which forbade 
vorptl Jews, but the Act of Unifernsite of 1559, 
de any othér rites; except those of the Church of 
pwhal, was still iq focce. However, by virtue of 
me power ot the Crew, the small Jewish com- 
in L awas able to wentuce inte the open with 
gion # organization An Onder io Comnedly made by 


France favorablyrs hint i more. potent, prarig ct 


‘ - . , ok ey an AF 
¥? 
. 


CLAD 


ued ay \r 


AVTER THE JULY KEVOLUTION 
(1830- 1846) 


g pope ular Ox deaniar } Gittins 
i. trary Bourbon Charles Xy, affeetedy 


a | 3 


pees » J 


ine’ to fewish itches +h isement, 
415) had been suffered: t o fall Lobe ae 
ime-lastit expired in 1818; but the full me 
was achieved pales 1183 ¥ when. Jud i 
par with religio ns by the granting of 
the synagogues and the Jew ish minis! 2 y x : 


discrimination disageepied i 1846 w 
the poses oath (‘more Jude | 
the ett , of the brilliant advocate Teaae 
(17% O), eimee pane yi 

ey. and throu 


h 
acini¢ an Alsatian ta twits border ter 
ih LErt \ CML ulsion: ‘of t : 
conservative minister 0 th 
interfere in the internal affairs 

; Bees 2 
exactly as he had been nreluctant ci 


nch interests Arpaia wen 
inent in polities, im art) ‘and in: 

he Chamber asa bsg uty in 18 | 
Viax Cerfberr on the conservatty 
n the op Rearirsss Th ae sis ease Hi 2 


1866] RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS IN FRANCE 643 


best known by his tragic opera ‘La Juive,’ was born in Paris 
of Bavarian immigrants; the equally talented and prolific 
Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864), who befriended Richard 
Wagner only to be traduced by him in later days, produced 
his most notable operas in the French capital. From Paris, 
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) and Ludwig Borne (1786-1837), 
both lost to Judaism, yet by no means indifferent to the race 
from which they sprang, led the movement of ‘Young Ger- 
many’ which prepared the German people for political 
maturity and unification. The religious life of the French 
Jews, except in the strictly orthodox communities of Alsace, 
was of the weakest sort: the cantors in the synagogues sang 
beautifully and the rabbis were nicely mute. Two brothers of 
the Cerfberr family were converted to Catholicism—Théo- 
dore (in 1826) and Alphonse (in 1842) Ratisbonne, the latter 
of whom engaged in conversionist activities among the Jews 
and Mohammedans in Palestine. On the other hand, there 
were those who rose superior to the general apathy. Adolphe 
Franck (1809-1893), professor at the Sorbonne and mem- 
ber of the Institute, won recognition for his meritorious 
sketch of the Cabala (1843). The unassuming Solomon Munk 
(1803-1867), an emigrant from Silesia, lost his eyesight over 
his assiduous labors on manuscripts in the field of Oriental 
and Jewish studies; his greatest achievement was the pub- 
lication of the Arabic original of the ‘Guide’ of Maimonides 
with a French translation in three stout volumes (1856- 
1866). It was he who recognized in the Avicebron of 
the Christian scholastics, Solomon Ibn Gabirol, the great 
Spanish-Jewish poet and philosopher. 

In England, the Jewish resettlement in the seventeenth 
century, as told above (p. 493), was at first rather a matter 
of connivance. There was no law in England which forbade 
the return of the Jews, but the Act of Uniformity of 1559, 
which made any other rites, except those of the Church of 
England, unlawful, was still in force. However, by virtue of 
the dispensing power of the Crown, the small Jewish com- 
munity in London was able to venture into the open with 
its religious organization. An Order in Council, made by 


644 AFTER THE JULY REVOLUTION [1753 


King James II. on November 13, 1685, formally declared 
that the Jews should ‘quietly enjoy the free exercise of their 
religion, whilst they behave themselves dutifully and obedi- 
ently to his government.’ By 1701 the Bevis Marks Syna- 
gogue was completed. A year later, David Nieto (1654- 
1728), the most notable among the congregation’s spiritual 
leaders, was installed as haham. He was an Italian by birth 
and of a philosophical bent of mind; a theological treatise, 
published in 1704, laid him open to the charge of Spinozism, 
of which, however, he was cleared by the Haham Zebi. 
Nieto’s chief literary effort was a defense of the oral law 
against the unbelievers, ‘Kozari Part Two,’ modeled after 
Judah ha-Levi’s work. 

The Sephardic element of London Jews maintained the 
direction of the growing community to the end of the eigh- 
teenth century, though German Jews had begun to arrive as 
early as 1692 and in 1722 had a place of worship of their 
own, the Great Synagogue in Duke’s Place. Naturally, the 
newer arrivals could not compare with the Sephardim in 
wealth or culture. Some of the richest financiers of northern 
Europe belonged to the Bevis Marks congregation. Such 
were Sir Solomon de Medina, the first Jew knighted in Eng- 
land, who made himself extremely useful to the Duke of 
Marlborough on his campaigns (1702-1714), and Samson 
Abudiente (with his Anglicized name, Samson Gideon, 1699— 
1762), the friend of Sir Robert Walpole. To such highly 
stationed families the legal restrictions to which the Jews 
were subject were irksome. Repeated efforts to provide by 
an act of Parliament for the naturalization of Jews resident 
in England, led to no results. A bill passed in 1753 met with 
popular opposition and was repealed the next year, although 
an act had been passed as early as 1740 which permitted the 
naturalization of Jews in the British colonies of America. 
Jews holding land were accordingly prevented from passing 
it on to their offspring. Accordingly, Gideon, in his desire 
to found a landed family, decided to raise his children in 
the Christian faith, and his example was followed by a num- 
ber of the leading families. ryt | 


-. THE HOUSE OF ROTHSCHILD 645 


wot George F11. (2760), was power- 


ue 


ia Win the oolirical status of the Jews. 
< bminetctech century a secood defec- 
nt Seenbaritic. families became wide-spread. 
at Davie Ricard . MPT 4823), be it -said 
aerate | jafisiern if : peRpeERON 


| rm cin vie 4, tific each alla ls aac 
by Pe cmagiecticn ( iox declining toaerve 
Ge fe: sees) fare Be tate stnoken from the 
: re aa afser ble. tee ttiect esgih 4 S357; aa hadi } ike 
a. tie ee gnese, te wos alive to «the 
= aiid ker fi ee wha ave of retigiony bat 
to. #hur Pe | De a re te if woutd Caty ¥ 


Wen By tities eo: of important 
an ron His tradition cod an eager 
g the Lead fas Mlinion: " Se PMeTiC, at zi Chaya: 
abi : basse Cece 2 fest y ccna! oof cor 
e Di f advcdond ones i to take up tale 
is were Ge te 4G sett. Giceche} LOvig 
ag la bi We-47 04+; David Veale 
i “sea Ver ti he Heath wi 1792. The sata 
on Hirache! Liman» 150 whe, though born ip 
oi Of Binet Lavin: was educated abrwad 
the Re Wewniancy of the Ashkenazic 
ee O63 was ty the adyen: of the Lickismiss 
ane ad and of the Both, thikcts from Pramkfort 
der of thi House of Rivhschild was Mayer Amehel 
ort hardeey, eh it het a on iniwestea for 
ii HemeC see, rotit up a hicrative brokerage 
& Ma kivesons, the one co ssesuing the greatest 
iF twas the third, Nachen Meyer { 177}. 
viel 1800 located. in Manchester and fron 
Lo (By codperstian with his brorhers at 
a, Pais, and Naydes, the head of the Lon- 
ptook vast financial operations embraciig 


Se 


ena Which was culled into existence 


ie 
‘st thes “mselves ier 
overament. By O1 the btn — 


‘allied as tebe He was an Teal by 
tosophicé “a? hent of mind j a. cooled rt 
ti D704. laid hi ‘im oper to the charge of Spi now : 
_ however, he was cleared ce the ores. Le 


— 


seremhee bees of London een mai 
e of the growing ; commun ity oe the end 


402 ea ae 1722 hind ‘A place of wor 
Great Synagogue in Duke's Place. } 
rivals could ‘pk compare with the 
rv culture, Some of the richest financiers 
he ihn sie i ong B Ne’ Marks ¢ cong 
rm de hinted ite 


we awh on his campaign (1702-171) 


ke friend of Sir r Robert ‘Walpeles’ 
3 ae ies the legal restrictions | to 1 
pject were icksorme. lee wey 


Ape saltioie panera was meget ae ome 
vcen passed as early as 1740 which 
ol ices in the Britiely aoe A 


*3 ir? 


leading famil lies. 


1805] THE HOUSE OF ROTHSCHILD 645 


The Board of Deputies, which was called into existence 
shortly after the accession of George III. (1760), was power- 
less to secure an alteration in the political status of the Jews. 
At the beginning of the nineteenth century a second defec- 
tion of prominent Sephardic families became wide-spread. 
It was then that David Ricardo (1772-1823), be it said 
against his father’s will, abandoned Judaism in preparation 
for his brilliant career as a political economist and member of 
the House of Commons. In 1813, the scholarly recluse Isaac 
D’Israeli was fined by the congregation for declining to serve 
as warden. He preferred to have his name stricken from the 
list of members and after his father’s death (1816) had his 
son Benjamin baptized. Of course, he was alive to the 
worldly advantages that lay in the change of religion; but 
little did he dream to what exalted heights it would carry 
the precocious boy. 

Still the congregation was by no means bereft of important 
figures. There had been a continuous tradition and an eager- 
ness among the laymen for religious instruction, at a time 
when the rabbis of the German community could not com- 
mand a single pupil advanced enough to take up talmudic 
studies. These rabbis were of the old school. Hirschel Levin 
tarried in London but eight years (1756-1764); David Tevele 
Schiff persevered from 1765 to his death in 1792. The min- 
istry of Solomon Hirschel (1802-1840), who, though born in 
London (as the son of Hirschel Levin), was educated abroad, 
coincided with the growing ascendancy of the Ashkenazic 
element, enriched as it was by the advent of the Goldsmids 
from Holland and of the Rothschilds from Frankfort. 

The founder of the House of Rothschild was Mayer Anshel 
(died 1812), a Frankfort banker, who, chiefly as investor for 
the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, built up a lucrative brokerage 
business. Among his five sons, the one possessing the greatest 
ability as a financier was the third, Nathan Meyer (1777- 
1836), since about 1800 located in Manchester and from 
1805 on in London. By coéperation with his brothers at 
Frankfort, Vienna, Paris, and Naples, the head of the Lon- 
don branch undertook vast financial operations embracing 


646 AFTER THE JULY REVOLUTION [1845 


practically the whole of Europe. The subsidies paid by Eng- 
land to her continental allies during the war with Napoleon 
were handled by the Rothschilds; during the years of recon- $ 
struction they introduced the method of raising loans for 4 
the nations of Europe and South America by passing them 
on to English investors with a guarantee of a fixed rate of 
interest. By his marriage to a sister-in-law of Moses Monte- 
fiore, Nathan Mayer came into association with the heads 
of the Sephardic community who maintained financial con- 
nections with the Amsterdam bankers. The barriers between 
Sephardi and Ashkenazi were being let down; Montefiore 
married the daughter of an Ashkenazi. The combined influ- 
ence of both sections was a tower of strength for the Jews 
of England in their battle for civil and political rights. 

It was not an easy combat against set prejudice. In 1829 
the Catholics achieved the removal of most of their political 
disabilities. But the declaration, ‘upon the true faith of a 
Christian,’ now required of persons elected to an office in 
lieu of taking the sacrament, while it relieved Christian 
dissenters, accentuated the exclusion of Jews. The Jewish 
issue was forced by David Salomons (1797-1873). In 1835 — 
he was elected sheriff of London. Upon refusal to make the — 
prescribed declaration, the difficulty was solved by an act of — 
Parliament dispensing with the declaration for the particular 
office of sheriff of a city which was a county by itself, such as 4 
the city of London was. But when in the same year he ~ 
was elected alderman for a ward of the municipality of Lon- 7 
don, the courts pronounced the election void because the — 
alderman-elect had refused to sign the prescribed decla- 
ration. His reélection to the same office in 1844 and his ~ 
repeated refusal to subscribe the declaration in the form — 
unacceptable to a professing Jew, led to an act of Parlia- 4 
ment, passed in 1845, which created a new form of oath for a 
Jews elected to municipal offices. Thus one of the disabilities * 
was swept away. | 4 

The office of sheriff in the county of London had mean- — ; 
while been held by another Jew (1837), whom the young — 
queen Victoria (1837-1901) knighted on that occasion. Sir | 


ag: a. St oe. we se 
ee aaa ee, TNT in Bee ee te 


33 noses MONTEFIORE | - 647 


1885) Niuwtrated throagh bis long 
n of unswerving devetiow to queen 
hearted concern for the welfare of 

| tthe world. He dammed the 


th the contest for the reamoval 
is just commencing, a hil oxtoriding 
Jews as to Christians was iniro- 


ciel of Canada (834)).and 
e Assembly aud Council received the : 


eat ie 


etically the whole of Europe. 7 pai 
ed to her continental i du ring aa waa 
we handled by the apd ids; during the’ years. 


struction they introduced ae aeeise of raising 
the nations of Kurope as d South America by . 


ish investors with as guarantee ee af 


fare, Nathan Mavis & ~arbe ito ¥ association with 


of the Sephardic community who maintained’ fine 
NEC iO i= orth the Ai mste ae! AML : bankas bar barriers 


Harried bape: daught er rof a in er ey: Phe con 
ence of both sections was a tower OF streagth | 
of England in hele battle for civil and political ri n 
it was not an easy combat’ against set prej i . 
(athohes achiev ed Ai ecco - of Toost of hei 


* 
Pos 
, ‘ ~~, 
ryliTjeaR Ny 
a af % LAs » 
ee 5 
enn t 
' be 4 
‘ rae. * 
* + —o te | 
i <7 E3744 
a 4 oA 3s. at el Ere 


4 1 % 
> a er awh Fyre oe 
i@ was electe re Sit 


worthed ded f laratic in, the ety was s solve 


a 
» 
det 
ey 
.- 
& 
ro 
, > 
eq 
Pl 
% 
el 
of 
oar 
oD 
fe 
bE: 
ie 
Puay 4 
Be 
Be 
ae 
* 


r an ist sine on. ses: But pipers ja the same 
was eheted aiderman for a ward of the . ‘ 
alderman dent hed vefus a to sign Won 
rats His retlection to the same ¢ i 
repeated refusal to Aho: the declar: hi 
unaceeptable to a professing Jew/ led to an. + 
nent, passed in 1845, which created 3 new | bi 
Jews clected to munic cipal pa pig ne © 
Was BWept A Way. 
The office of sherifl 


- } * : 4 yD 4 
while beet — rey 


1832] MOSES MONTEFIORE 647 


Moses Montefiore (1784-1885) illustrated through his long 
life the fine combination of unswerving devotion to queen 
and country and of whole-hearted concern for the welfare of 
his coreligionists throughout the world. He assumed the 
British traditions to the full and remained at all time a 
scrupulously observant Jew. 

While in the mother-country the contest for the removal 
of Jewish disabilities was just commencing, a bill extending 
the same political rights to Jews as to Christians was intro- 
duced in the Legislative Assembly of Canada (1831), and 
after passing both the Assembly and Council received the 
royal assent (1832). 


CHAPTER LXXxXVI 


RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS AMONG THE JEWS 
OF THE UNITED STATES 


(1802-1868) 


XCEPT in the state of Maryland the political status of 
k, the Jews of the United States was on a par with that 

of all other citizens. The exception was removed in 
1825 when the Jews of Maryland became eligible to offices 
by subscribing to a special declaration of their belief in 
future reward and punishment. The measure of relief was 
due to the influential position of the Jews of Baltimore— 
among whom the Cohen family was the most prominent—to 
their patriotic service in the defense of Baltimore during the 
war of 1812, and to the sympathies of a distinguished group 
of Christian citizens. 

As the Ashkenazi element grew in numbers, whether they 
came straight from Germany and Poland or by way of Eng- 
land, the difference of ritual and Hebrew pronunciation led 
to the establishment of separate congregations. Thus arose 
Rodeph Shalom, ‘Pursuer of Peace,’ in Philadelphia (1802), 
and Bene Jeshurun in the city of New York (1825). Still 


more naturally was the Ashkenazi ritual followed in new ~ 


communities like Cincinnati, where a body of young English 
Jews organized the congregation Bene Israel in the same 
year. The mode of worship was in keeping with the tradi- 
tions which the new-comers brought with them. 

It was among the Portuguese families of the south, in 
process of fuller identification with the life about them, that 
the first stirrings were manifested for reforms in the syna- 
gogue service. In 1824, twelve members of the Beth Elohim 


congregation in Charleston, South Carolina, led by the 4 
journalist Isaac Harby (1788-1828), seceded to constitute 


the Reformed Society of Israelites and organized an abridged 


service of which portions were read in the English language. 


648 


Se ee Pe Pe er end 


ae | 


649 


i Yieocered ‘fends The expert 
| eal + aa Only with the coming 


£3 ha 4, b, ¢ 3 ix a 


) yon | never Fe ae 


t The Pew ay Fede gir 
anh nls. MEME. de tei 


Hee Fett ree! 


? | the Re ae 


‘ ‘wien See ese a ne . 
be Phe eae 
b aatind ereioiet.- mei 
a sonal Re es ee 


ay?) 


tie Be 
Rati Wes 
ety oe 2a Ay 
acts ae 


wae, 


2333 ery 


a. ay Le 


ret 


regation a8 preacher 
of ut tines of thie Hamburg 
hparn the canserva- 


decicated in 


decdicatary sermon 


' ie OY Pales- 
four Tenple 
ceremonies and. 
the sert etiectexd 
tut ta New Varb, 
aol synagogur 
tse aed try Core 


a me 
> were 


~ 


SS anuel Newt: 
Lywtight, get 
won, a Fieve aad 
Yio Pape 
tM ORR IM 
7 weeatiaeiect ho 
: he gery teats 
yar a 
died @ gio. 
Rae Rave the 
ay was: taki 
ot 2 Gaeough, 
top nebvicatiod 
\ i2o>e eee, 
he eeu ea lat, 


"at cael 


Ri * Peer tt po eet 


+ ue eee a 


“ 
= 


z inate ak Pialkes- 


ise “ih dle 
- clerments of 
she tews, in a 


ee | irri Dp 
ep © oe S ee oe Sed 4 
ELIGIOUS DEVELL 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
(4802-18 368) ; 
cupr in the estate c arya the poi a 
. he Tews of snk tone S tates was On @ par wit 
a all other citizens pow bivenia' wae , 


cribing declamnceaa of thei 
e reward and punishment The measure of relie 
the davaigrdyadlc pos spi n of the “— of Bali 


at = 4 tty, 
iZ 
otic service in 1 


the Ashkenazi element arew. in note 

traight from Germany and Pola au dh or by w ‘a 
he difference of titual sae Hebrew — 

stablishment af s 


Mm SNaAomM, FUrPsver oO 


mae passes was eee Ashkenaai ritual follo 


he mode of wors shi ip was in banc: 

nis which the new-comers s brought: with th 

il Was among ree Portuguese families ¢ 

soos of fuller identifi ‘ation with the life 2 
the firs sticrd ings were Man ifested for refo rt 3 
cogte sefving. In 1824, twelve members of the 
congregation im C *harleston, Sonth Caroli . 
| list fsaaet Harby G7 88-1828), sced 
the Re ciety of Israe lites and organtaec 
ervice of which portions were bition nee 


1825] MORDECAI MANUEL NOAH 649 


Sermons were delivered by the lay members, and the con- 
gregation worshiped with uncovered heads. The experi- 
ment, however, was of short duration. Only with the coming 
of Gustav Poznanski to the parent congregation as preacher 
(1836) were reforms introduced on the lines of the Hamburg 
Temple, although not without opposition from the conserva- 
tive element. The new synagogue structure, dedicated in 
1841, was equipped with an organ. In his dedicatory sermon 
the minister exultantly declared: ‘This country is our Pales- 
tine, this city our Jerusalem, this house of God our Temple.’ 

A plea for relief from certain ‘burdensome’ ceremonies and. 
improvements in the synagogue worship of the sort effected 
by ‘a set of Jews’ in Germany was made also in New York. 
The occasion was the dedication of the third synagogue 
edifice erected by the congregation Shearith Israel in Crosby 
Street in 1834; the speaker was Mordecai Manuel Noah 
(1785-1851), distinguished as a journalist, playwright, and 
politician. He had served his country as consul in Tunis and 
traveled in the Barbary States and through western Europe. 
Brought face to face with Jewish misery and rightlessness in 
most countries of the Old World, the thought had matured in 
him to transplant the Jews to America. In 1825 he purchased 
a tract of land on Grand Island in the state of New York and 
issued a manifesto to the Jews of the world to found a gov- 
ernment of their own in this refuge to which he gave the 
name of Ararat. The corner-stone of the new city was laid 
with great pomp and ceremony, but the scheme fell through. 

Neither at that time nor subsequently when he advocated 
reforms of the synagogue did Noah for a moment relinquish 
the Jewish hope of restoration in Palestine. In point of fact, 
the political events in the neighborhood of Palestine just at 
that period suggested to him the possibility of a disintegra- 
tion of the Turkish empire and of the turning. over of Pales- 
tine to its rightful owners, the Jews, with the consent of the 
Christian powers. He realized that there would be difficulties 
in effecting civic cohesion among the diverse elements of 
Jewry; he therefore planned the venture in America as the 
first step in organizing the government of the Jews. In a 


650 RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES [1853 


‘Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews,’ delivered in 


1844, he called on the free people of America to aid the Jews bg 


in their efforts to regain Palestine. The Jews must learn that 
it is their duty to prepare the fulfilment of the divine promises 
actively by human agency, and the power and influence of 
their Christian brethren must be invoked in carrying out the 
great work of restoration. The Messiah is yet to come, and 
Gf he has not come, we are bound to seek him, not here, but 
in our own land, which has been given to us as a perpetual 
inheritance, and which we dare not surrender without at 
once surrendering our faith.’ 

Thus the alinements, developed in Germany, repeated 
themselves in America. The nascent American reformatory 
movement received a counterbalance when in 1829 the con- 
eregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia elected as its min- 
ister a man thoroughly alive to constructive work. Isaac 
Leeser (1806-1868) came to America at the age of seven- 
teen. He had received his secular education in a secondary 
school at Miinster in Westphalia and had read several 
tractates of the Talmud; but in the main he was a self- 
taught man. He found before him virgin soil. The children 
were in need of Hebrew spelling-books and of manuals of 
religious doctrine; men and women required prayer-books 
correctly printed and adequately rendered into English. The 
indefatigable leader applied himself to the task of supplying 
all these needs. His crowning literary effort was the English 
translation of the Scriptures (1853), which until superseded 
by the new version of 1917 was the authorized translation 


for the Jews of America. Beginning with 1830, and then 4 


regularly from 1843 on, he preached to his congregation in 


English. Fearlessly, consistently, implacably he fought the — 
progress of reform with his vigorous pen in his monthly 


magazine ‘The Occident,’ which he edited from 1843 to his 


death. He took a leading part in the creation of charitable 
and educational institutions, and his influence went beyond ~ 
his own community. It was by a member of Leeser’s con- 
eregation, Rebecca Gratz (1781-1869), that the first Sun- 


day School for Jewish children was started in 1838. 


t 1540} 


raveite which profoundly site the Jewish 
eras Damascus. On February $, Father 

1 '@f the Franciscan convent, suddenly 

gh it Was known that a Turkish muie- : 
med to: kill dim, his brother monks spre nai 

he ‘had been gain by the Jews for ritual pur- 

on the score Gf his having been seen in the. | | 
t the day before his < eagsge trance. The French a 
rt Meno. with the aid of the governor, Sherif 

Se ‘Arrests made in the Jewish quarter. A 

a 8 extort from a fewtsh barber by means of 

© medieval fashion, and seven notables of the 

arrested and tortured. One of them, Joseph 

old man, died under the cruel treatment: 

Semisraced Tulare; the others, unable to 

ire, took wooed theruseives the blame for a 

ther they mar their fellow-Jews had ewm- 

wall children, sty in number, were confine 

ft without food. Three of the rabbi eamt other 

ee at the iastigation of the Freach con- 

diast; Isaae fevi Picciotto, an Austrian 

Aha te thers mterposition of the Austrian 


s publications i in ie French presse. Hie. px 
( short sintift of the detained Jews, The gover- 
y des ous of exetuting them, ecoght suthoriza- 

sa Mehemet . Au, os reoutunga Pasha of 
4 possoased bimiecif if Palestine and Syria in 
a # Pursuing a peliey friendly to the usurper. 
 Ferentarion to Taysie- Philippe and his min- 


~ va 


be 


he. Kei on Oe PopuS DEY ELOPS LENTS IN THE: M 


OMe sir a, 
Thus rhe alinements, .. develdoal in 
neelyes in America, The nascen 
ovement ‘received a serene ance when | 


. ip. i 
Discourse’ on the Restoration of, the: 
i€44. he called on the free people of Ax 


Cf their et ITS th) POR qin Palestine, The Je 


pag thelr ducy tO) prepare tae > Fulf wing nent 
actively by humancage 
7 t J 
oe ae ae 
mAD ds 


grext work of saaiieud bla ‘a The res 

has not come, we are bound to a 
‘no our own land, which has been given 
yheriiance, and: en we dai € not 3 
rende ring our aith.’ 


ister @ me 


od 


nh ehaeeg ish awe to eo 
Levser (1806-1868) came to Amerita- 
teen, He had received his. secular edu 
school at Minster in Westphal 
| tae . the Talmud: buat in 
‘aught man. He found before h 
were int mer of Hebrew piso 0 
iS coe men and wornen 


> 


correctly printed and adequately 


. prone oa applied himise 
atl ch e needs. His oe yt 


* 


ira jon of the Scriptures 
bcd ‘he new version of 1917 pais: 
ror the jews of America. Begins 


Enelish. Fearlessly, consist 
progress of reform‘ with’ his 
magazine “The Occident,’ wh 
death. He tools & leading: pa 


and eet inattention : mn 


CHAPTER LXXXVII 
THE DAMASCUS LIBEL 
(1840) 


N 1840 an event which profoundly stirred the Jewish 
| world took place in Damascus. On February 5, Father 

Thomas, superior of the Franciscan convent, suddenly 
disappeared. Although it was known that a Turkish mule- 
teer had threatened to kill him, his brother monks spread 
_the rumor that he had been slain by the Jews for ritual pur- 
poses, merely on the score of his having been seen in the 
Jewish quarter the day before his disappearance. The French 
consul, Ratti Menton, with the aid of the governor, Sherif 
Pasha, had several arrests made in the Jewish quarter. A 
confession was extorted from a Jewish barber by means of 
torture in true medieval fashion, and seven notables of the 
community were arrested and tortured. One of them, Joseph 
- Lafiado, a feeble old man, died under the cruel treatment; 
Moses Abulafia embraced Islam; the others, unable to 
endure the torture, took upon themselves the blame for a 
crime which neither they nor their fellow-Jews had com- 
mitted. Even small children, sixty in number, were confined 
in prison and left without food. Three of the rabbis and other 
prominent Jews, jailed at the instigation of the French con- 
sul, remained steadfast; Isaac Levi Picciotto, an Austrian 
subject, escaped, thanks to the interposition of the Austrian 
consul Merlato. 

The French consul did his worst to poison public opinion 
abroad by libelous publications in the French press. He pre- 
pared to make short shrift of the detained Jews. The gover- 
nor, equally desirous of executing them, sought authoriza- 
tion from his master Mehemet Ali, the rebellious Pasha of 
Egypt, who had possessed himself of Palestine and ‘Syria in 
1832. France was pursuing a policy friendly to the usurper. 
Crémieux’s representations to Louis-Philippe and his min- 


651 


652 THE DAMASCUS LIBEL [1840 F 


ister Thiers met with lukewarm replies, and he was forced 
to own: ‘France is against us.’ Upon the urgent requests of 
Palmerston, the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, 
and Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, Mehemet Ali was * 
willing to turn over the case to a special court of the consular s 
agents of England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The French 
consul-general at Alexandria, however, did all in his power 
to prevent a reopening. . 
In the House of Commons, on June 22, Lord Palmerston 
announced that he had duly served notice on Mehemet Ali 
concerning the impression which the barbaric treatment of 
the Jews of Damascus was bound to arouse in Europe. On ~ 
July 3, a great meeting was held in the Mansion House in 
London, at which members of Parliament and representa- 
tives of the Christian clergy vigorously protested against — 
the medieval libel. Meetings of protest were held by the Jews — 
in New York City (August 19) and in Philadelphia (August 
27) at Mikveh Israel, where, besides Leeser, three Christian 
clergymen spoke. On behalf of President Van Buren, secre- — 
tary of state John Forsyth gave out the information that — 
letters had been sent to the consul at Alexandria and the 
minister to Turkey with instructions to use their good offices 
in preventing or mitigating those horrors ‘the bare recital of 3 
which has caused a shudder throughout the civilized world.’ 
At an assembly of representative Jews in London which — 
was attended by Crémieux, it had been resolved to senda ~ 
deputation to the East, consisting of Montefiore, Crémieux, — 
and Solomon Munk. The French consul interposed all pos- — 
sible obstacles, but French influence in Egypt was now on ~ 
the wane. A collective note from nine other European con- — 
suls forced Mehemet Ali to order the release of those Jewish 
martyrs who had not succumbed to death (September 6). In 
October, Damascus and all of Syria were freed from the © 
dominion of Mehemet Ali; shortly afterwards Syria was — 
restored to Turkey. Montefiore and Crémieux were received — 
in audience by the sultan Abdul-Mejid (1839-1861), who — 
graciously issued a firman pronouncing ritual murder a base — 
libel on the Jewish people and confirming the inviolability — 


RWRY 653 


° 


* 


on: SE eect in tee Ortoman empire. The . 
ge Jews far ait wile which the dastardly 


served as a ot teat, with alf their divi- 
“ae ‘ie ibs Sie Jews hag? a com- 


q “ } ") 4 eh 
pat met with tuke 
LES % nCE IS ALAIMNST AL 


Paimerston, the British retary ay state for. ‘foot 
my hy, ine Austin . hi an cellior, Mehemet’ 
turn over fie case special court of the COTE 


tar € rk gland . Aust 7 1a ‘ Set? gsia (uy and P russia. The Fr 
consul-veneral at Alexandna, howe ever, diet all inh 


1 cF% te bet ee 4 REOTIOT ILE o Bsa § Tt aA ee 
5 ‘ hee rouse CFL. { oa rr yk . OF 0 Jane: 22, Lord | 


es 


eee ses ae ee Py 
LS 4 i He that he pete stint & 


¢ of Damascus wag boas uid to arouse in 
@ great meeting we 
nh, at which mem “ahi ¢ 4 Parlionaielil pies 
of the eRabaear) ey By Vif goroushy: protes 


gcadt ies aba Mecti nes of protest were held. by 
rot Ce A t 19) — itt pia, 


aes! 


irs 34 


ni sng twig t LOSE “hecnanie any 
hic 3 CAUSE dder throughout the ¢ 
At an assembly ee repres sen tative ews in 


* * 


{ tended by a EX, it t had beet Tes 


was 

pi 

Co 
ib 


and Sx Sc . een ihe Freee eatin ee 


ble obstacles, but French in fluence in E, VI 
i wane. A collective note from nine othe 


suls forced Me me emet Ali to order’ the release-o 
martyTs whol bo NOL Succ mb ed to death 
October: Dkaunaieoa nnn ae of Syvia were 
dorninien of Mehenk et Za 3 : erware 
estored th) Turkey. A M3 ; 7 
mo lience by a? su , 
graciously issieda 


Jj 


<2. 2) 
- 


| y Pur 2c er 4 ideas sh “4390 
ite LH THe af Witsit 0 ieag my le 


4 5 ties 


THE COMMON BOND OF JEWRY 653 


of Jewish persons and property in the Ottoman empire. The 
united action of the Jews far and wide which the dastardly 
affair provoked served as a proof that, with all their divi- 
sions, political, cultural, and religious, the Jews had a com- 
mon bond which nothing could destroy. 


CHAPTER LXXXVIII 


THE STRUGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION IN 
WESTERN EUROPE 


(1830-1858) 


immediate effect of the July revolution was but meager. 

This much, however, was accomplished: the govern- 
ments were ill at ease and gave in here and there; above all, 
men spoke out their mind freely and prepared the larger 
upheaval of 1848 which came in the wake of another revolu- 
tion in France. One German Jew, preéminently, understood 
that the righting of the Jewish conditions was a part of the 
general liberal movement, and that point was with him 
pivotal in the life-long warfare he waged on behalf of his 
coreligionists. 

Gabriel Riesser (1806-1863) was a grandson of Raphael 
Cohen, the chief rabbi of Altona and the two sister congrega- 
tions, who had joined in the ban against Mendelssohn’s 
translation of the Pentateuch (p. 596). The change that had 
come about within three generations showed itself in the 
grandson; he was sent early to a secondary school and passed 
on regularly to the university from which he was graduated 
as a doctor of laws. Riesser felt himself thoroughly a Ger- _ 
man. He longed for the career of a university teacher, but he — 
would not stoop to change of religion. He could enumerate 
‘ twenty or more who had followed the line of least resistance; 
he would not question their motives, believing as he did in 
the right of the individual to be answerable to his own con- 7 


iE THE states comprising the Germanic Confederation, the 


science. But he scathingly rebuked the governments for — 
thinking so lightly of religious convictions as if they could _ 


be changed like a cloak, and of Christianity as if its profes- q 


sion were a mere civic affair and its expansion a matter of 


state reason indifferent to conscious assent. 4 
Riesser firmly believed that there was no such thing asa 


654 


sae Poe RIWASER “GSS 


2 gtence of its wri; ithe: cere- 
ee tha hope wen. in hie judg- 
’ : how, fayt rather of au ste char: 
| sia the medieval fons of Juda- 
fey. Nevervacless he dearanded 
tt D heina and reformers ahike, - 

the pe gear that the Talmud iat 


eee st: (Gttimaship, He would pot 


ry the: ane lew"; urcler elise very title 


BERD es 2 ale heal ‘for religion aiid 
+ . > 
fe aceite whenever there was ant 


diem, So ks oounselerdt the lows 
Recor proposed by the 
bar Fete? eee themselves of certain 
e286 -Beey ewarcigetion. Despite a 
shel ere pine: tava condition wag int- 
nt HEAR iy wan aiminister Retteck 
me ee: ‘42 proviso which they 


ges: der iwonios ments in the Rava- 
ks ® meiatry ordered provin- 
valk ibis, eaiehers, and layne, Who, 
Ao 0 onal nr of diincity doctrines 


dd char nd ae > we sees“ po Sunday. 
oh tlisaei - es prewraren: put off any 
RANA cr ceed aruarion of the Jews, 
here get we mnveoded by a reaction- 
informed: the jewish communities that the 
| oes ‘toberaze amy newfangled changes i in 
| m practiqn (1838), 6. 


tee or that ubservende ae 


Rtghrs, and at uo time week) | 


signs ebitisises Pinkie. (82 468). Alt, - 


cyt » rYyYrre Dp y matin XV an 
{ al P| iA r J 53 ?" ae > a x 


ie STRUGGLE FOR EM 
WESTERN EUROPE - 


. was ac tere ished: ore 
mer were il at ease and gave in here and there; 


% 


sir fern fre eat and ee Ui 


in th ife-lon g wa otal fi ‘waged on 
; ATisSts %. ( 


a, the chief rabbi of Aloe we ri two pena . 

1s, who had’ joined m the Ban against Men 
nalation of the Pentateuch (p. 596), The chang t 
ume about within. three generations showed itself ii 
randson; he was sent early toas secomary sch 
regularly to the a versity from which he? 

» a doctor of laws, Riesser felt himeel thoreughl 
men. Me longed for the career of a university teat ie 
would not stoop to change of religion, He could « 
wenty or more who had followed the line of least . 
re would not question their motives, beheva 
the tizwht of the individual to be answerable t 
science. But he scathingly rebuked the gO 
thinking se lightly of Tea pIOUR convictions as 
be changed resi a cloak, and of © hristianity @ 
sion were a mere civic affair and its expansi 
state reason ind different to conscious assent. — 
Kiesser firmly bi slieved that Be: was nO. 


1838] GABRIEL RIESSER 655 


Jewish nation with a corporate existence of its own; the cere- 
monial laws and even the Messianic hope were in his judg- 
ment not of a purely political, but rather of a religious char- 
acter. Moreover, he considered the medieval form of Juda- 
ism as irrevocably passing away. Nevertheless he demanded 
political emancipation for orthodox and reformers alike. He 
had no patience with the ‘dogma’ that the Talmud must be 
absolutely condemned or that this or that observance should 
be bartered away for the rights of citizenship. He would not 
listen to discarding the name of ‘Jew’; under that very title 
he published, from 1832 on, a periodical ‘for religion and 
liberty of conscience.’ 

Riesser’s pen and voice were active whenever there was an 
opportunity to battle for Jewish rights, and at no time would 
he rest content with half-measures. So he counseled the Jews 
of Baden to reject outright the condition proposed by the 
diet of 1831 that they first should rid themselves of certain 
‘religious hindrances’ to their emancipation. Despite a 
memorial prepared by Riesser, the same condition was in- 
sisted upon by the diet of 1833, the liberal minister Rotteck 
_ hoping that the Jews would accept the proviso which they 
had repudiated. 

Riesser followed hopefully the developments in the Bava- 
rian legislature in 1831. The home ministry ordered provin- 
cial assemblies of Jewish rabbis, teachers, and laymen, who, 
however, were divided on the question of religious doctrines 
and observances. The Wiirzburg convocation would hold 
only to the old traditions as found in the Talmud and Shul- 
han Aruk; so, too, the assemblies of Ansbach and Munich, 
while that of Bayreuth favored the abolition of the ‘second 
days’ of festivals customary outside Palestine (1836). All, 
however, opposed the transfer of the sabbath to Sunday. 
In the face of such disunion the government put off any 
measures of improvement in the civil situation of the Jews. 
Moreover, the liberal ministry was succeeded by a reaction- 
ary one, which informed the Jewish communities that the 
government would not tolerate any newfangled changes in 
Jewish doctrine or religious practice (1838). 


656 _ THE STRUGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION [1847 


The action of electoral Hesse in granting the Jews uncon- 
ditional emancipation (1833) was acclaimed by Riesser with — 
joy. Elsewhere in the smaller states no appreciable change ~ 
in the status of the Jewish population occurred before 1848. — 
In Prussia, the phantom of a ‘Christian’ state operated — 
inimically against Jewish hopes of amelioration. By the regu- 
lation of 1833 the Jews of Posen were divided into two cate- 
gories, those who were deserving of naturalization and those — 
who were not. After the accession of Frederick William IV. — 
(1840-1861), a project was in preparation (1842) to segre- 
gate the Jews in corporations by themselves and, specific- — 
ally, to keep them from all government offices and even from 
military service. Riesser entered the arena by tearing off the — 
mask behind which the illiberal designs of the government 
were hidden. The state was not obligated to move a finger — 
to further the amalgamation of the Jews with the other 
inhabitants; but it should not step in to hinder. It was mis- — 
understanding the Jewish cohesion to invest it with the — 
character of a nationality long defunct. If the dictionary — 
had no word by which to denote Jewish separateness, itwas — 
because nothing like it exists in the world. The Jews are held — 
together solely by the religious idea; everything else is sub- — 
ordinate to it; whatever there lingers of a corporate order is — 
the result of oppression from without and is being rapidly — 
sloughed off. q 

However, the king of Prussia was constrained to introduce 4 
a semblance of constitutional government. In the spring of — 
1847 the Combined Provincial Diets were convoked, and a — 
compromise measure was passed regulating Jewish affairs — 
(July 23). The Jews were granted equality with Christian — 
subjects, except where the law as it stood established an- — 
other ruling. Accordingly, Jews were not eligible as deputies — 
in the diets; nor were they to serve as judges, police or 
administrative officers. In the universities Jews might teach 4 
languages, mathematics, and natural sciences, but by no- 
means be members of the senate or deans. In each town or 
city the Jews were to be organized as a religious community, 
with the right to elect their own executives and ministers. 


a‘ er ae ae | 637 


bbe wires gies withort a central . 


eo tae necks eo the foww of France 
ines Sd iene Tee with the internal 


a tn Cer w ene re wr eal ter religious 

Po Mimo eeogke might 
Mend eoecetin. Lert ta gear! 
5 inn ca ipa Dye wow he nt 
Sate Ue et er eget ataett 


ete se wither t-veeere, 19 goer 


f out in GR Petes, Ae che ctipraers 

" / ; Sn ae kz cy pa - 

: = <4 y Oa Sa eoiee ae 
eatin, ‘ ey ee > 
= oT Ss @ 


5 Ss anal ee s 

Py SEs “Pa tiie eres eS 

- * A 4 
1 7 +. pe ek «ok a ets 

4 Kopf iets- ite e a. Pee eee | a oe Pte ad 


et wear TOES he ee 
ene Fbeyey appa pas pe C toe scien 
5, ant oe Ati rue & F $a. inate b eee ee 
b convent = i, doe,” 2 ‘gukiort, exapultebeat 
fs tenets Eon | Filtewes , tehho oe ebiatte”, 
Hieqit, Rix LeeN Oey SPR pe Az 
; geperssoas oy beh air TA tyes Pe CRISTAE. 4 
= fehis ef Corrs: dirknerrarits Med ads a a he 
‘Ricorporated tuts Fie ( woes a Ate 
pd atl distigeticns om accouns of oS ye 
was shori- Aveed . “Fhe ais “EO SEB RMe, BAe Fe ; 
. “se elt wY tite ‘Tismef hash y FPR fede oS 
cite ee Aes haw. Is fue, th di oan ny Sieh 


26 af me: Rutoiul + Sena jks | pr oe 
scot in amit pee Te 2 Hagan aati 
; Several sovernigis eye oo “nite! 3 


i fet ; 
af electoral Hesse in 
ipation (1833) was ae pres we Riess 
erein the warsebid st wr 3 0 appreciable ¢ 
is OL the Je ish population oee urred before 
a, the phantom of, a. ‘Christian’ eta 
imically against jewish hopes of ¢ f amieliaratiae By the : 
tation of 1833.the Jews of Z osen were di vided yess we a 
L, rh 
613. a 


1¢ Jews in corporations bs ry  homaco A 
keep them froma nd & 
niictary service, Riesser ent cecael has arena a bond es 
L h thediliberal designs of the: 
iden. The state was not obligated: to. . 
rther. the amalgamation of the lews. with: 
| t step in to hinder. Pt 
lerstanding the Jewish cohesion (9 qaiiveae 
-ter of a nationality long defuncti . If a! 
oy which to. denate Jewish: separatens 
cause nothing like it exists ia the world, ‘The | 
towether solely by the religious idea: everything 


4 
as 
= 
— 


ants: butipshould ne 


WMSOTSS 


rlinate toit; whatever thei re lingers of aco ‘po 
e wesults of oppre sston from bear: and j is: 1 
* ‘ pert : 
ei a Fi 4 eT, 
Le 


iowever, tie RING ¢ f Prussia wag constrained 


conpblance of constittttional government, | 
; the Combined. Provincial Diets: were 
npromise measur re WM s passed. regulating: 


July 23). The lewse were granted equality ¥ 
ubjects, except where the law as dt steeds 
other raiee Rancntigade jews were not. i ib 
in the <ieta; nor were they te.sagere | 
administrative oficers. inthe oniversitios Jews MY 
Janeuages, mathematies, and. natural sciepees, toby 
nears be members of these ake or. deans. nh ch & ¥ 


city the Tews were to be orgamzen as v reli . 
with the righke to elact their. wT executives ‘ 


THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 657 


These communities were to remain units without a central 
organization comprising them all, such as the Jews of France 
had. The government would not meddle with the internal 
affairs and would leave the Jews free to settle their religious 
differences. Schools could be established only for religious 
instruction; in exceptional cases elementary schools might 
be created for the teaching of other subjects, but in general 
Jewish children should frequent the schools alongside of 
Christian scholars. Each community was to maintain itself 
financially by its own means, subject, however, to govern- 
ment control. | | 

Full emancipation came when the French revolution of 
February 1848 swept eastward. In Paris, the Provisional 
Government, set up in the place of the Orleanist monarchy, 
included Crémieux as minister of justice. In March, insur- 
rections broke out in Vienna and Berlin. In the collisions 
with the troops several hundreds of the insurgents, among 
them a number of Jews, fell, and the victims, Jews and 
Christians, were buried in common graves, rabbis and 
Christian clergymen joining in performing the sad rites. 
Similar uprisings occurred all over Germany as well as in 
Hungary. Everywhere liberal constitutions were wrested 
from the monarchs, and all, save that of Bavaria, included 
clauses removing Jewish disabilities. The German National 
Assembly, which convened in May at Frankfort, numbered 
four Jewish deputies, among them Riesser, who subsequently 
was elected a vice-president. Riesser nobly defended his co- 
religionists against aspersions on their fitness as citizens. The 
fundamental rights of German citizenship, passed by the 
Assembly and incorporated into the Constitution of the 
empire, abrogated all distinctions on account of religion. 

But the joy was short-lived. The larger states were by no 
means minded to be bound by the ‘fundamental rights’ which 
they refused to proclaim as law. In fact, the liberal constitu- 
tions severally granted or promised were withdrawn or made 
nugatory. The deputies of the National Assembly were dis- 
persed; the old Confederation and its Diet of delegates rep- 
resenting the several sovereigns were reéstablished (1850). 


Taal 


658 THE STRUGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION [1858 


It was small comfort to the Jews that the privilege of sitting — 
in the legislatures was not taken away from them, when by 
arbitrary interpretation their civil rights were constantly ; 
infringed. Jewish emancipation in Prussia, Austria, and the 
smaller states was allowed to remain on paper, but was far 
from actual. In Hungary, the collapse of Kossuth’s repub- 
lican government through Austro-Russian intervention re-— 
sulted in the Jews being compelled to pay a special indem- 
nity for their participation in the revolution. By the grace of — 
Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) the amount wasreduced — 
to a million florins and subsequently used as a fund for 
Jewish educational purposes. J 

In England, Baron Lionel de Rothschild (1806-1879), ald j 
est son of Nathan Mayer, was elected to Parliament in 1847. : 
It was not, however, till 1858 that he was permitted to take 
his seat, the form of the oath being so amended as to relieve _ 
the scruples of professing Jews. The leader of the conserva- 4 
tive majority in the House of Commons was then Benjamin 
Disraeli (1804-1881), who, whatever he thought of Jewish — 
participation in politics, was glad that the question, awk- 
ward as it was for him as a born Jew, was at last disposed of. 


| ibestated over the new edition y 
¢ Hamburg Temple, Bernayw con- 
igaty while a number of like-minded 
Coolleagues i in Hamburg, The princigal 
Omission of the prayers for national 
The Temple leaders protested that 
gon hiv present abode, exactly as at 
os lew Babylonian exile not all me 


“ soo iti a firm eee in 5 ths 
ae he was free’ to patiless that he ba 


meh Hin Sabie agen. Ke Vi lerinay in 
comatrctet its 1823, he # Satored en con- 


awhick wax icheadiing back to bhe rected 
ad been alienate. — 

matter Was the desire fo accentuate Jew- 
mere équivocation as regards rehabilita- 


he i, and thatan adjustment was preparing 
mdigpersion as defnitive. The Jew was to 
shin own navionsal pei iter become 


" » Wek eee roe and: tabairatic 
yes ot the edifice of cihwiadke Judaiem 
659 Rie ; 


Aot imply that each and every Jew 


ie. Te was becoming manifest that a cleavage = 


ronment through Austro-Ras sian init erventi 
he Jews bem conimpe Led toy pay a a hier ind 
‘is participation ui the re ats es By the ¢ 


o Ne 
wads, 
* \ 
a> 7 
¢ ee 
re ate 
+ * 
“Fa 
nt 
. 
sey +t 
Ns eer 
» “1 
i Jit 
he He ‘Oe 
st Ie? 4 i 
* 
f +3 
t- as 
2 


nterpretation their civil Tights Were <omeg 
‘ewish emancipation in Prussia, Awstriay am 
tes was allowed to remain OM Daper, Due: 


on. florins and subsequently us si as: a f 


was for hin as a born Jews was sat ae disp - 


K STRIGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION = 


comfort to the Jews that theprivilege af ai 
ures was not taken away from them)avs 


hungary, the « ollapse of ae ee n =i} 


* 


Kee 
~s 


ncis Joseph (1848-1916) the amountwast 


‘tional poten: es 
id; Daron LA 
athan Mawes was peyton: to Parl ase ir 
however, til 1858 that he wag ipl 
form of the oath ae t 
afin ofess ing lews 
y i 

4. 18 31° 


Ag : xc ae rhe = quietie on 


eyes 


CHAPTER LXXxXIX 
REFORM AND COUNTER-REFORM 
(1841-1860) 


N 1841, a strife was precipitated over the new edition of 
the prayer-book of the Hamburg Temple. Bernays con- 
demned it outright, while a number of like-minded 

rabbis supported their colleagues in Hamburg. The principal 
point in dispute was the omission of the prayers for national 
restoration in Palestine. The Temple leaders protested that 
the restoration did not imply that each and every Jew 
would necessarily.abandon his present abode, exactly as at 
the time of the return from the Babylonian exile not all the 
Jews returned. Isaac Noah Mannheimer (1793-1865) dis- 
countenanced the omissions, being a firm believer in the 
national restoration; but he was free to confess that he had 
outgrown the idea of the reinstitution of the sacrificial ritual. 
He favored certain innovations, like confirmation for chil- 
dren which he had introduced in Copenhagen. At Vienna, in 
the new synagogue constructed in 1823, he labored on con- 
servative lines, in codperation with the celebrated cantor 
Solomon Sulzer (1804-1890), to render the service attractive 
and to edify the congregation with his sermons, gifted 
preacher that he was. He was averse to interference with the 
Hamburg congregation which was leading back to the house 
of God many that had been alienated. | 
Still the pivotal matter was the desire to accentuate Jew- 
ish patriotism by mere equivocation as regards rehabilita- 
tion in Palestine. It was becoming manifest that a cleavage 
had been reached, and that an adjustment was preparing 
which accepted the dispersion as definitive. The Jew was to 
surrender completely his own national aspirations, become 
denationalized ; the question was, how completely. The most 
radical proponent of a denationalized Judaism was Samuel 
Holdheim (1806-1860). With ruthless logic and talmudic 
dialectic art he battered at the edifice of talmudic Judaism 


659 


660 - REFORM AND COUNTER-REFORM [1843 


and the residue of rabbinical jurisdiction. His basic premise © 
was, ‘The law of the state is supreme,’ and he drew the con- 4 
clusion that the Jewish laws of marriage and divorce must — 
go. In his later years he had no scruples about officiating at 
mixed marriages. Still with Holdheim Judaism had an © 
eternally binding element that was not national in character; — 
there was a limit to its elasticity. He could not therefore go ~ 
the whole length with the programme of the Frankfort — 
Reform Society, a group of laymen in consultation with 
the mathematician M.A. Stern of Géttingen. Their Declara- 
tion, issued in 1843, pronounced for unlimited development — 
of the Mosaic religion, threw over the Talmud as devoid of — 
dogmatic or practical authority, and rejected the Messianic 4 
restoration of the Jewish people in Palestine. In the original — 
draft a paragraph had been inserted to theeffect thatthemem- 
bers of the Society did not consider circumcision binding. 

There had occurred some fatalities by reason of the rite, 
and a senate regulation was promulgated that all such par- 
ents as desired to have their children circumcised should — 
employ only persons authorized by the city to perform the — 
operation. The optional character of the rite, it was thought, — 
was thus recognized by the city authorities, and a father 
actually neglected to have his child circumcised. The rabbi — 
of the community, Solomon Abraham Trier, addressed a 
circular letter to a number of colleagues and scholars, among 
them Luzzatto and Rapoport, all of whom expressed their — 
horror at the breach, though diverging on the disciplinary — 
measures against transgressors. Holdheim wrote a treatise 
declaring the rite to be not a national but a religious one, 
and therefore obligatory. Riesser, while not quite sympathiz- 
ing with the Frankfort hotheads, insisted that no pressure i 
should be exercised upon the individual consciences of par- — 
ents. Zunz (p. 639) unmistakably and forcibly castigated the 
vagaries of the Frankfort group. So positive a stand on the 
‘bloody and barbaric’ rite of initiation was irritating to — 
Geiger; he wondered whether it was true that the master — 
had—as a matter of principle, not merely of conformity— _ 


- ABRARAM GEIGER | 661 


253. ‘T leave it to those he dake a delight 
sneeless Judaism frou: meorives inimical to 
forthe religious can be <suby be religious, 
b Me Universal acceptance aed oo a living 
aéeh S that we must refsem, gee religion.’ 
(18105487 4) was quate se ahical as 
+ however, waa a schalar at meee?! arene 
hodicnl treisting. The biel Aeeeeee work, 
an facie gurfastis up the aatber's geamecation , 
+ the @evelopmbn! of religheus idean in 
rim the form which Shade Writ aeterned 
eB ned in. the. early vera {Vent wad 
‘ ; Bibel,’ $857}. “ae wu ian jeerttongers 
i tien by 9 tet oe SES iywtt 
ie wae Miliary ab aagel hes ehitae, 
ay all ‘Gites war = "ks tA el fresh 
Pita eiletlecting Wes edged not ep 


( was Written beer  eooe every 
ol, every individuniss ¢ octoced? into 
i alas 8 heading fig wicks. ol the 
the Hehte ber ate Sal exept OF 
ee poe eg ~~ papate* 


cs ae. is ae a pretearan 
eh Est detictinae Sp tingp Shas borne 


~ Paleas "woah the re 
a sestatts where oil 


mt 


; “past not be tenes. meiay She wy mann. 


id oe fe -~ mee abies Lach * * its. 


ition of the Jewish people in Palestinesine the 
+] vat agreph had been inser secs to the effects that ¢l 


ion, The optional pre yhes ter of Tal ates it was 


hemnaticun M.A. Stern n of G6ttin gen. Their 


ssued in 1843, pronounced for walimited d€velc 


Raaniy ae clomon Abraham Trier, add 


at the breach, though divergingvan the: 
ives 2 vainst transgressors, Holdheinn wrot 
ei © rite to be not a national but ai reli 
herefore oblig atory. Riesser, while not quite 3) 
rh the Frankfort hotheads, insisted that. no 


due of rabbinical juri dics ion, “ie one Ot re 
ec law of the state is supreme,’ and he drew, th £6 
the Jewish laws of matr lage and divoree m 

ter years he had nc scruples about officia tin 
iarriages. Seill with Holdhem- Judaism Tagg 
binding clement that was not national im cha 
s a limit-to its waster He could not theref 
le length with) the programme of the-Fr A 
Society, a group of laymen in consultation ; 


losaic religior sae ew over the Talmud as di 
ic or practical authority, and rejected: the M 


f 


ius recognized by the city authormies, amd: 
ly neglected to hi ave his child circumcised. 


letter to a a ‘ieee ot { colleagues and scholai 
uzzatto and Rapoport, all of whom exp: 


x“ exercised upon the individual conscience: 
b Ps e 
nz (p. 639) unmistakably and forcibly cas 
5 oF ee Frankfort group. So positive a 
nicl barh ATIC “rite of initiatic 
» wondered whether it was true: 
atter of principle, not merely OF con 
a cin his home a ‘kosher’ table, Un 


1857] ABRAHAM GEIGER 661 


dignity and firmness. ‘I leave it to those who take a delight 
in it to attack defenseless Judaism from motives inimical to 
religion. The rule for the religious can be only the religious, 
that which is held in universal acceptance and as a living 
tradition. It is ourselves that we must reform, not religion.’ 
Abraham Geiger (1810-1874) was quite as radical as 
Holdheim. Geiger, however, was a scholar of encyclopedic 
erudition and methodical training. The chief literary work, 
which achieved a fame outlasting the author’s generation, 
had for its subject the development of religious ideas in 
Judaism traceable in the form which Holy Writ assumed 
in the original text and in the early versions (‘Urschrift und 
Ubersetzungen der Bibel,’ 1857). Many of the conclusions 
lent themselves to correction by subsequent research, but 
the main contention was brilliantly conceived. ‘The Bible,’ 
wrote Geiger, ‘is and at all times was a Word full of fresh 
life, not a dead book. This everlasting Word belonged not to 
a particular age; it could not be dependent for its meaning 
on the time when it was written down. . . Hence every 
period, every school, every individuality introduced into 
the Bible its own way of regarding the contents of the 
Bible. . . Thus the Bible became the full expression of 
the higher life of the people. That which seemed deficient 
in the text of the holy book the national spirit innocently 
supplied.’ This thought, which elevates the fluid historical 
development above the fixity of the written letter, was borne 
in upon Geiger by his activity as a reformer, just as in its 
turn it imparted to his practical work rule and direction. 
Judaism thus presented itself to Geiger under the his- 
torical aspect. Ideas and institutions came to be and had 
not been before; hence they were subject to change, they 
could pass away, replaced by newer modes of expression. 
Geiger therefore believed in the capacity of Judaism for new 
development, though perhaps not to the unlimited extent 
of the Frankfort group. But where he and Holdheim parted 
company was that the latter in the end allied himself with a 
private group in Berlin, similar in origin and perhaps also 
in its intent to the Frankfort society. The Berlin Reform 


662 REFORM AND COUNTER-REFORM [1846 


Association was called into being by a number of radicals in — 
1845. On promulgating their creed and taking steps for a 
curtailed ritual, almost wholly in German, they were bitterly 
opposed by the newly elected rabbi of the community, — 
Michael Sachs (1808-1864), a modern man of high scholar- — 
ship, but thoroughly conservative. The pulpit in what a few — 
years later became the Berlin Reform Synagogue was at 
first offered to Geiger, who, however, declined, while Hold- 
heim accepted it (1847). Geiger would hardly have consented ~ 
to the transfer of the sabbath to Sunday, as was done in the ~ 
Berlin Reform Synagogue under Holdheim’s ministry. Geiger — 
would have considered it a concession to Christianity, whose — 
claims to superiority he intrepidly fought. At all events-he — 
would not separate himself from the main community, with- — 
in which he desiréd to carry out his reforms. As the law in — 
Prussia stood then, the Reform Synagogue remained a pri- — 
vate society and no more. 7 
Thus Geiger worked within the Breslau community, the — 
first large position he held after his youthful charge at Wies- 
baden (1833-1838). He craved recognition as a member of — 
the rabbinical college; from the start he was involved in a 
bitter feud with the orthodox senior rabbi, Solomon Tiktin — 
(died 1843), who refused to admit his junior to functions of © 
a legal-religious character. All the time Geiger was bent upon ; 
reforming the service and connived at the omission of cer- 
tain essential rites on the part of liberal members. He further- 
more placed himself in communication with those rabbis - 
who were of his way of thinking and he was the acknowl- 
edged leader in the rabbinical conferences (1844 at Bruns- — 
wick, 1845 at Frankfort, 1846 at Breslau). tee 
The men who gathered at these assemblies were far apart. 
The most practical among them was Ludwig Philippson 
(1811-1889), founder in 1837 of the first Jewish weekly in 
German (‘Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums,’ continued till 
1922) and author of a German translation of the Scriptures — 
with explanatory notes, a labor of fifteen years 85 
There were practical questions to be considered, as for é 
ample the problem of school children carrying their books 


sal 


» “RAPHALL HIRSCH 663 


zon the sabbath day. The ‘Werala 
peeecey tO practiog, ayataring doc- 
Biving in te deat when once 
er was On the phe diy of the 
© the Dresdes yi: Zachariah 
rit Seed bis dissent te mike owing. 
E fankel was. the vows vey Heregurbhed 
¥ | He had come halts eeeN ts! : on 
Pes fis atitrude as baigg praition: 
~ 2 i wee eeuarely Ay tye ask: “nag 
sa Riniger iM that, white rabies nie, tex 
P parol, he teed chat whas hast cage 
neon. A Peramineni usta). FevAts 
i034 Ths he ‘eeitekdered ti oe cee: 
, Bete posi. wraships. 2 lrmedsstedy 
‘ phils v5 te L epeigrereie: eechest, 
a vRek hid & Labiiwaeneath at 
. Dade ferzate ieseried nal nt eum Lar - 
i sehonien’s - Sah ewer ow TRY 
PORE 0 exe seve! am thecal 
g bhiw. Haat te & cg} Sweet, OOP hetedbs 
Sate “4 fens eiice of the new 
#tr ke Pie oe as ee Charatter 
by it a a tye 2a? socthah it ae the. 
bak Air boede shee belt on eit 


. ro et. foe thee bh osedomtendd 
dst Pibtea: ent serra. bas wre t ty: ot 
BEEN. Borate. Bogut ei Dlignch CRS ESRR} 
ferweat is a WP Bove. Haun hn wana wujera- 
Petivieie, Shiela). ihe cemehings of 
at e Bie tittive xy. The conelusion 
atiy “od are Sect to hw Ste-long 
exten, Hitec: Aarons. aad Frank- 
Petes Gutters, bee bali ety and raodern 
were ¢ ympiallbheiiiesin 
. Ninefe + page Hen txesei oubblieled in 1836, 
ed hi : 4 programe, winch ws hie’ subsequent 


oe 

pet 

- 

ae! 
ryder 
A, A 
cy 

Li 


ryt‘e aT 
Bi H 


“iger, whe, however, declined, wh 
$47). Geiger would hardly haves 
he sabbath to Sunday) ab aWae Gone 
worue under Holdhemns sministe | 
leredd it a concession te Chinstas yy 
‘ity he intrepidly fonght Ama ¢ 
himself from theyaam communi 
te car ry out his s reforths, As 


ket within t he Bresla sit con 
be held after his youthts ee 


the orthodaxiaemhtr ; ties sciseiel 
‘used to admit his junior t@ tin 
iracter, MH the time Geiger was: 


“a + 


into being by ee Hi radi 

cir creed and taking ster 
wholly in German, they were b 
y lected rahe of the con 
64 a a modern man of high sei 
onservative, The pulpit ia what § “1 
he Bi ae Reform Synagogue 


/ 


ray ; 4 : : 
De i ‘5 Ys ‘e 
~ Soin nie ae 


he ait re ONT ition asa 


ived at the orn 


tu a re — members. I 


ae 
a 


WMoOns 


der in 537 of the frst hes 


a { 
9 a ie 
ce ae f 


-: 


ae 


1836] SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH 663 
to school and writing on the sabbath day. The liberals 
advocated accommodating theory to practice, squaring doc- 
trine with life; in other words, giving in to laxity when once 
it had become wide-spread. It was on the third day of the 
Frankfort Conference that the Dresden rabbi, Zechariah 
Frankel (1801-1875), registered his dissent by withdrawing. 
_ By the side of Geiger, Frankel was the most distinguished 
scholar in the assembly. He had come half-heartedly; on 
the very first day he defined his attitude as being positive- 
historical. He placed himself squarely upon _ historical 
continuity, differing from Geiger in that, while allowing for 
critical researches into the past, he held that what had come 
to be must be honored as a permanent institution from 
which it were treason to part. Thus he considered the reten- 
tion of the Hebrew language in the public worship absolutely 
essential instead of merely advisable as the Conference voted. 

Geiger had for many years advocated the establishment of 
a rabbinical seminary. He was largely instrumental in secur- 
ing an endowment from a member of his own community; 
but when, in 1854, the institution was opened in Breslau, 
he felt it as a humiliating blow that he had been completely 
passed over. Frankel became the first director of the new 
seminary and imparted to it the conservative character 
which remained with it in after times and marked it as the 
center between the two extreme positions on the left and on 
the right. 

Indeed, there was an extreme right. Not the old-fashioned 
orthodoxy, but one that was reared anew, a foe worthy of 
the modernists’ steel. Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888) 
was Geiger’s fellow-student at Bonn. But his was a tempera- 
ment given to mysticism, intensified by the teachings of 
Bernays, the haham of his native city. The conclusion 
ripened in Hirsch early and gave direction to his life-long 
ministry—at Oldenburg, Emden, Nikolsburg, and Frank- 
fort—that Judaism and humanism, Jewish piety and modern 
culture were compatible ideals. 

_. In the ‘Nineteen Letters of Ben Uzziel,’ published in 1836, 
he outlined his full programme, which in his subsequent 


664 REFORM AND COUNTER-REFORM [1856 


writings was merely worked out in detail. The trouble with 
the young generation was, he contended, that it did not ~ 
know Judaism, and with the elders that for them piety wasa 
mechanical performance. Judaism stood for the spiritual — 
perfection of every Jew and every Jewess; instead of trim- — 
ming the Torah to the measure of the age, it was rather life . 
that must be consecrated by the conscious fulfilment of all 
the commandments, each and every one of which is’a neces- _ 
sary part of an organic whole. Yes, Israel has a mission to 
the world; but in order to accomplish it, God has imposed _ 
upon the Jews moral and spiritual separateness. Israel’s 
national existence was conditioned by a life according to the 
Torah; it was forfeited when that life was not realized. It — 
will come back in order that the fulness of the God-willed — 
conduct may be achieved, but come back in God’s own time, — 
and must not be accelerated by human agency. Then the — 
whole human race will be converted to the Jewish view of — 
life and acknowledge God as One. The goal is the universal a 
brotherhood of man. For that goal Israel must wait andwork — 
and live, live the full Jewish life. Humanity will be the loser — 
if the Jew, instead of developing his own individuality, will — 
yield to the hollow sentimentality of the age and accept con- — 
ceptions from without which are not his. For the sake of the 
very mission the Jew must persevere in his aloofness, not — 
from hostility to the world, but as an act of service to the — 
highest interests of human kind. Jewish steadfastness calls — 
for sacrifice upon the altar of duty; convenience is an un- — 
worthy rule of life. Emancipation is to be welcomed; the — 
Jew may now rise to his full stature of manhood, be man ~ 
and Jew at once, full man and full Jew. ee 
In 1840, a reform congregation of the moderate type was — 
organized in London. It took the name of the ‘West London 
Synagogue of British Jews.’ The step was combated by the ; 
orthodox authorities, particularly by(Marcus) Nathan)Adler | 
(1803-1890), who was installed chief rabbi of the Ash- | 
kenazim in 1845. However, in 1856, the reform synagogue — 
was authorized by an act of Parliament to register marriage — 
ceremonies. td 


and the seating 
Hane if OCenracts ‘ 
a arte 4erenatyy end the 

pm Mawr Hnwtsod, wad acres 
ORS WE hee ae osnad « mii rel 

te ik: a ae ae ee reser fiat han p : 
Sere. Stitt: Pen was Raetonwels, 


— Beas Mos Fas thelr tareuaree 


ke of de hee 2655 6 LS areaw, alver Se 
d hy Pride G6e- Ses via: was Dieses wy 

Ringdom: ab Pissct soir the asnre me 46 
The: tonstinmtes. <7 {71s was ‘a Sie ia 
bthat the jews wer 62) cin. in che cok A 
sens: ets ns thot the jowneBuald 
Jet chein Menaedliade 
wyeat, Rewt arete thee 
a oe 4G ein hoe 


"e Bh | Praised 1 vaca suSnieet 

; a ee: _ Newoatiiwosv, che 

: coheed i» seat to the Ackedniscentive - 

wer gett the. eee erouhl be graweéd civil 

lent With a ee ote ther oe | r 
form’ "jews by gh ‘cn eee ae 

, na pordance with tear aces: cuerters, Jews were 
or 2 teat by confining ite i: qpecial quarters. 

y 648 


2ETICFA thon. Was, he ‘con Ten ded, that. it: 


n, and with the eld lers that for thet piety 
al. performance, Jud 
n of every Jew and every jou lintendl of 
© Torah to the measure of thé age, qi twas rathe 
‘ast be consecrated by the conseiows fulfilment: 
ommandments, each and every one of which: : 


+ 3 


it of an organic whole. Yes, Terael Rae ae 
vorld; but.tn order 6 mates it; Godt has 


onalesistence was corns i an fine a a life pestis 
th: it was forfeited when that life was aot ie 
me back in order that the fulness af the: 
duct may beacheve . but Come back in God 


PREE RE ky Fhe dai psa a8 4 Or Te eon fi. is : - 
herhood of wan thas t the at seal ioe perch 


the Jew, instead’ 6 ( deve lop ing hus own “in 
ld to the hollow. sentimen tality of the 2 age 
ions from without wh - are hot his. For: 
nsleplon the Jew must persevere i his 
frort ty to the swe mer but as alact i 
n shest i interes ; of human kinds Jewish | 
sacrifice upon the altar of duty; conver 
hy mai of fife. Bmanely pation: is to be 
| ise to dis ful stature of 
od few at once, full man aad fall Jew, one 
in 1840.0 reforny congregation OF the 
rcanized im London: 1 stone Ae An name of | 
‘nagogue of Bri ight, jews. ’ The step wast 
dox authoritieB) pax deularly by(Mareug) 
Ls0a~4 $90): who was installed schie abby 
1845, aN it 1856, 
seriged by an act of Pa eee 


CHAPTER XC 


POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS 
IN EASTERN EUROPE 


(1815-1855) 


ETWEEN the Vienna Congress (1815) and the seating 
B of Rothschild in the British House of Commons 
(1858), the Jews of Confederate Germany and the 
Austrian dependencies, of France, of England, and across 
the Atlantic passed through a period of external and internal 
development which proceeded along more or less similar 
lines. Their political and cultural status was sufficiently 
marked to divide off the Jews of the West from their brethren 
in the East. 
What was left of the grand duchy of Warsaw, after the 
slices recovered by Prussia and Austria, was bound to 
Russia as a new kingdom of Poland with the czars as its 
hereditary kings. The constitution of 1815 was a liberal 
document, except that the Jews were left out in the cold. A 
commission, while recognizing in theory that the Jews should 
receive civil and political rights, considered their immediate 
emancipation as harmful. The Jews must first wean them- 
selves from their present occupations and take to tilling the 
soil, rid themselves of their communal separateness and 
change their system of education. The Polish viceroy refused 
to fall in even with this modest project. Novosiltsov, the 
czar’s representative, who had a seat in the Administrative 
Council, proposed that the Jews should be granted civil 
rights coincidently with a transfcrmation of their habits of 
life. But the Polish members of the Council answered: ‘Let 
them first become Poles’ (1817). So the Council proceeded 
to ‘reform’ the Jews by expelling them from towns from 
which, in accordance with their ancient charters, Jews were 
barred, or at least by confining them in special quarters. 


665 


666 CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE [1830 


- Nor were the Jews admitted to military service, in lieu of — 
which a fixed conscription tax was exacted. q 

The displeasure of the Poles with Jewish separateness was | 
seconded from within by a group of assimilationists, wealthy y 
bankers and merchants in the capital, who labeled them- — 
selves ‘Votaries of the Old Testament’ or ‘Poles of the — 
Mosaic Persuasion.’ The government was not slow to frame : | 
a law, which was sanctioned by an imperial ukase (1822), — ‘ 
abolishing the ‘kahal’ administration and replacing it by 
communal boards strictly confined to the ordering of religious 
and charitable affairs. In Warsaw the assimilationists ob- — 
tained control of the management of the community. They q 
were close to the powers in the government and codperated 
with them in civilizing the Jews and modernizing Judaism. 
The very first thing they did was to open a school for the . 
training of rabbis (1826). The language of instruction was — 
Polish; most of the teachers of the secular subjects were — 
Christians. The post of principal was held by Anton Eisen- 4 
baum, an extreme assimilator; Hebrew and Bible were — 
taught by Abraham Buchner, who had published a pamphlet ~ 
setting forth ‘the worthlessness of the Talmud.’ a 

The repudiation of what was sacred to hundreds of thou- — 
sands of their brethren availed these Jews but little. When — 
in 1830, at the outbreak of the revolution, they offered them- — 
selves as volunteers for service in defense of the fatherland, ; 
they were told that Jewish blood could not be allowed to : 
mingle with the noble blood of the Poles. Nevertheless . 
Joseph Berkovicz, whose father Berek had fought as a 
colonel under Kosciusko in 1794, called upon his coreligion- — 
ists to fight for Polish independence. The communal leaders 4 
set themselves against the formation of a separate Jewish — 
regiment. In the sequel Jews were admitted to military ser- _ 
vice, but only in the militia, not in the regular army. How- — 
ever, since the commander of the National Guard insisted — 
that the Jewish guardsmen should shave their beards, a — 
special ‘bearded’ section of the metropolitan guard was 
formed, comprising eight hundred and fifty Jews. The col-— 


lapse of the revolution and the iron rule of the Russian — 


SION FROM ViLLA GES | 667 


. B after “1832 mtraduced oe appreciable 
Ste us of the Jews, which wes regulated by the 
h law. But in 842 the fews of Poland were 
dy brethren in Missa, Bath being 
AMARY service in person, Tiree years 
din § tbe tradiric: ig! Jewiakh mode of dress 
tative in Pela likewise. . 
a prope ; n, the lent. ten years of the + feagn wt Alex- 
(1815- i828), ‘brought io the fews « aminture of 
na M amd avers repreneon, ‘The former 
by ‘the creation of + whiedety ud Tepaetitiok 
"1 bel out gubetaant:«’ oe oes si to whole 
‘ Jews. Howe hae (bse. achetne: was 
tiny Seger thay oft aid shere were 
: PeVEN Tomhies fein Oty. neither 
pod. heption Rit VA oo peedaeg pass- 
ps being converte! ee By bee Serds ¥, there 
hereticu amawenew ee) 4 Gate Pres the 
fa hae g whe gious mes et i eth day 
tex’) and Pr ertexmes Mem akin to 
of course, brstst sees Jew weeth: the 
it occurred beh fesse { a vay) eteere no 
Never? | AL Was eter! ho he Jews 
d From any Phawe when * de: teas ag Sect 
OF 
lynieei ‘wl he Setar secs. gaa present 
ap een Feary y bees “vy Chetetan 
ie miamorial getwies cof en beerrue Ber 
21. White Binetis eo. cs aay aioe 
clon afer oA e Rabe piesiaaite 
0 ti pokey, aterkeass itespagitett, of Bassa - 
a the villages <4 he Geena cette of: Tah cggiadee~ 
Phe order ea retihwes mrricd ci; be the 
sore thas Perent, ikcacai! feo had been 
os rol six, Serna: Ages Wt MNCS 26 
a . Phhis texts: a (Soe ae A eort 
ard in Jewish matters 2 orechind to the min- 
jas t 2 affairs: $0 HOS. te boordt wae alto- 


~ 
we 

_ 
a 


wwe admitted to tm eee servos 
acrintion tax was exacted.” as 
are of snags les with Jewish per 
within by a group of assimilationists, We 
chants se the + ‘apital, who labele _ 
of the Old Testanmaat or ‘Poles 
on. The government was not slows 
netioned by an imperial uk 

‘kaha’ administration and rep 
bbe st miners % ad ned to the ordert 
« aftairs, In Warsaw the aseimilan 
Lo une E man: agement of the commiin 
he powers in the government ‘and 
witising the Jews and mire 

: ego they cid was to open as 
tiie £1826), The ee of i in 


| “4 - is a t ri 1a, a 

f ; pa ‘Ve B, 

ae ese 

ie Ws 

53 i * e 

i 

< mole blood ‘er the: ‘Poles. 


on, whose father Bereles 

teske in 1794, called. upon 
iv independence.’ The: co 

abet: the formation of a | 


1824] EXPULSION FROM VILLAGES 667 


viceroy Paskevich after 1832 introduced no appreciable 
changes in the status of the Jews, which was regulated by the 
former Polish law. But in 1842 the Jews of Poland were 
placed on a par with their brethren in Russia, both being 

forced to discharge military service in person. Three years 
_ later the law forbidding the traditional Jewish mode of dress 
was made operative in Poland likewise. 

In Russia proper, the last ten years of the reign of Alex- 
ander I. (1815-1825) brought to the Jews a mixture of 
benevolent paternalism and severe repression. The former 
was exemplified by the creation of a ‘Society of Israelitish 
Christians,’ which held out substantial privileges to whole 
communes of converted Jews. However, the scheme was 
finally dropped for the very reason that all told there were 
' reported only thirty-seven families from Odessa, neither 
possessing certificates of baptism nor able to produce pass- 
ports. Instead of Jews being converted to Christianity, there 
came to light a heretical movement of dissidents from the 
Greek Orthodox Church, who observed the seventh day 
sabbath (‘Subbotniki’) and professed doctrines akin to 
Judaism. The Jews, of course, had nothing to do with the 
movement, since it occurred in remote provinces where no 
Jews resided. Nevertheless it was ordered that the Jews 
should be expelled from any place where the ‘Judaizing’ sect 
had made its appearance. 

The alleged proselytism of the Jews served as a pretext 
for strict measures forbidding Jews to employ Christian 
domestics or to lease manorial estates and thus become mas- 
ters of serfs. In 1821, White Russia was stricken by a famine; 
naturally the Jews were affected as well. The government 
harked back to the policy, previously interrupted, of banish- 
ing all Jews from the villages of the governments of Moghilev 
and Vitebsk. The order was ruthlessly carried out; by the 
beginning of 1824 more than twenty thousand Jews had been 
expelled. The college of six Jewish deputies was powerless to 
avert the calamity. This body was created in 1818 as a sort 
of advisory board in Jewish matters, accredited to the min- 
istry of ecclesiastical affairs. In 1825, the board was alto- 


668 - @ONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE [1827 


gether disbanded. The government considered the deputies 
undesirable go-betweens, who ferreted out its intentions and 
prematurely divulged them to the communities in the Pale. 
The imperial policy was plainly to reduce the number of 
Russian Jews. Even the progressive elements among the 
Russian people were distinctly inimical. The revolutionist 
Pestel—he subsequently paid the penalty of death as one of 
the leaders in the December uprising upon the accession of 
Nicholas I.—proposed to curb the Jews by means of correc- 
tional measures or to assist them in setting up a state of their 
own in some portion of Asia Minor. 

Nicholas I. (1825-1855) pursued a determined policy, 
which he carried through with inflexible thoroughness, to 
uphold autocracy, orthodoxy, and Russian nationality. Not 
only was Russia to shut itself off against western European 
influences, but within also all national differences were to be 
wiped out before the dominant race. It was proper enough to 
extend conscription to the Jews equally with all elements 
and classes of the population. The ukase of 1827 gave expres- 
sion to the hope that the training acquired by the Jewish 
recruits would, upon their return, communicate itself to 
their families. The unmistakable meaning was made clear 
beyond doubt by an elaborate statute of ninety-five clauses. 
The time of service was to be twenty-five years. Jewish 
recruits, however, might be taken at the tender age of twelve 
years. All boys below the age of eighteen were to be trained 
in preparatory establishments, the actual duration of the 
service being reckoned from the time they reached the nine- 
teenth year. These ‘cantonists,’ as they were called, were 
sent away into the farthest provinces, at a distance from — 
their home surroundings and influences. The sturdiest chil- 4 
dren alone reached their destination, the weaker ones suc- 
cumbed during the long journey. Every method of torture 
was used to induce the children to embrace Christianity. 
They were starved, or they were made to eat salted fish 
and then denied water; they were kept forcibly awake and — 
were mercilessly flogged. Small wonder that few remained 
steadfast. yi 


> 


* JRWIKH ‘CANTONISTS' 669 


nee (‘kahals’) were aneteyrable for the 
: aoe Was to suppiv. Tipemipt were cer- 
Heath, artisans and mye igics, agricul- 

Sand the smal! — «¢ graduates 
Metra institutions: i the community 
mania, (he commun: ge agemw jeete a regular 
“henge they were called ‘cartier any one 
engitgh children under teehee wears, in 
age was tisstated. The havidee ix® chiefly 
rho Rt 20 means to pay tke Pach license 
ch at who were not seffeerniiv well- 
ie “the huncing agent. Ty site sit the 
Bcd was spread (hat che geveierent 


pimaesesand that those ae : te tafoer: 


ied, ond boys and girls were eientt ic 
earthy ther. The law of 1&8 tas Bi inet 
page of ee live, butt of covra sae et pe 
@ already wrerried: Thus the leat 4 
honda aud fathers were conscript, ws 


mrrang the Jews; of which the few nar 
ilrareh, had the word b or bedkgiege: Geese? ate 
‘The Pale of Settlement was stweklesiy 
(ie comprised Lithuania Kowie ‘do. 
: hee southwestern OCH EMERG CV rey Tay, 
aegis thai, Sagan ev} Silas ae Se wih 
fa. (Chernigor, Pokava) ovipes Soar Peer 
ia. (Rhereon, acetal @. Poopedda, 
| Nikolaev and Seva steers, td Kavera- 
mve ot the city of Kiev: +4 whe Battie 
~~ old detilers were periminted tc reside. 
mtire ity vérst zone slag Pe western 


— hinieed to ix weeks, were 
sof gulernaterig] passports, on ni 
sa vihiahdeeuneil im the Reena in 

Adomeed merchanas af the fret be two 


e Sect Peer not be conscript? A teeic 


Ce new-Comers. As oo thee interior prnv- 


mest 


holas }.-—propdsed to curb the Jews by’ means 


nhald autocracy, orthodoxy, and Russian 


“ite, however, aches ¢ ake pee 


ureparatory establishments; the 


eke 4 
ere mercilessly flogg 


‘ 
i - 
MII RST, t 
eoee es 
‘ 
» 7 , ry 
t 1] an 


oe 


atureh ef ieityale peaks to the ‘comin ae + ee 
imperial policy was ae ai wad to redute, hea n 


Series... 7 


feaders i the December - storie upon the 


= 


| sneasures or to assist them In sehen up 


s 
in some portion of Asia Minor. is 
Res ee a po 

sf. (182541 


oy - jae 


: 855) purshed a deter 
ne carried. through with inflexibies rs 


Wiis Rus i. te wee aise ot agains as 
ences, hut. wit wy es national differe 


Bese 


allan ees to the c Jews cual wi 


the hove tyne he 


Ait boys below the age of eighteen | % 


g reckoue aig: bg time L : 


of py TRS 

i57 ‘ Cais t AES 
Rey he Nps 
YAY ce the # 


home surroundings and infly JETIC 
aione reached their d lestinat 40 
during the long journ 


cd to induce the children, 


then denied water; they were 
reds. onal Ww 


& 


1835] JEWISH ‘CANTONISTS’ 669 


The Jewish communes (‘kahals’) were answerable for the 
number of conscripts each was to supply. Exempt were cer- 
tain classes of merchants, artisans and mechanics, agricul- 
tural colonists, rabbis, and the small number of graduates 
from Russian educational institutions. If the community 
fell short of its quota, the communal agents madea regular 
hunt to catch (hence they were called ‘catchers’) any one 
available, often enough children under twelve years, in 
which case their age was misstated. The burden fell chiefly 
upon the poor, who had no means to pay the high license 
fees required of merchants, or who were not sufficiently well- 
connected to escape the hunting agent. In 1834 and the 
beginning of 1835, a rumor was spread that the government 
would prohibit early marriages and that those married before 
the law went into effect would not be conscripted. A panic 
seized the communities, and boys and girls were joined in 
marriage in their early teens. The law of 1835 did forbid 
marriages below the age of eighteen, but of course offered no 
exemption to those already married. Thus the number of 
families whose husbands and fathers were conscripted, was 
unduly increased. 

The Statute concerning the Jews, of which the law just 
cited was the least harsh, had the word ‘Forbidden’ written 
almost all over it. The Pale of Settlement was considerably 
narrowed down. It comprised Lithuania (Kovno, Vilna, 
Grodno, Minsk), the southwestern provinces (Volhynia, 
Podolia), White Russia (Vitebsk, Moghilev) minus the vil- 
lages, Little Russia (Chernigov, Poltava) minus the crown 
hamlets, New Russia (Kherson, Ekaterinoslav, Taurida, 
Bessarabia) except Nikolaev and Sevastopol, the govern- 
ment of Kiev exclusive of the city of Kiev. In the Baltic 
provinces, only the old settlers were permitted to reside. 
The villages on the entire fifty verst zone along the western 
frontier were closed to new-comers. As to the interior prov- 
inces, only temporary furloughs, limited to six weeks, were 
to be granted to holders of gubernatorial passports, on con- 
dition that the travelers were dressed in the Russian instead 
of the Jewish garb. Licensed merchants of the first two 


670 CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE [1840 e 


classes paying the highest tax might visit the two capital 
cities, the seaports, and the fairs at Nizhni-Novgorod and — 
other cities. q 
‘The Jews were forbidden to employ Christian domestics — : 
for permanent work. It was permissible to hire Christians 
for temporary service, provided the laborers were accom- "4 
modated in quarters of their own. The Russian language was = 
made obligatory in public documents. The ‘kahals’ were a 
charged with the duty of seeing to it that the instructions — 
of the authorities were carried out with precision and that 
all taxes were correctly paid. Barring the city of Vilna, 4 
where the Jews were wholly excluded from municipal self- — 
government, those Jews who were able to read and write — 
Russian were eligible as members of the town councils and 
magistracies. Synagogues were not to be erected in the 
vicinity of churches. Jewish children were admitted to Rus- — 
sian schools of all grades, without compulsion to change — 
their religion. A strict censorship was exercised over all 
books published in Hebrew. . q 
In 1840, the Council of State, principally won, over by the 
ministers of instruction and of home affairs, Uvarov and 
Stroganov, came to the conclusion that the ‘Jewish evil’ — 
must be attacked at its root. The ‘evil’ consisted in Jewish — 
separateness, and the ‘root’ was the Jewish educational sys- 4 
tem. Imperial sanction was obtained for the establishment 
of a committee to define measures for the radical transforma- 
‘tion of the Jews of Russia. As an initial step Uvarov’s pro- — 
ject was accepted to create in all the cities of the Paleele- — 
mentary schools in which Jewish children were to be taught 4 


the Russian language, secular subjects, Hebrew, and religion 4 


according to Holy Writ. Thus the growing generation would © 
be weaned from the Talmud, in which, according to the — 
opinion of the Russian statesmen, resided the chief cause for 
keeping the Jews estranged from their compatriots by the © 
‘perverse’ religious traditions which it inculeated. It was — 
foreseen that the Jews would not take kindly to the reforms a 
from above, however their ultimate purpose might be dis- — 
cuised. It was necessary that the ‘obstinate’ people should © 


eM ‘HASKALAH’ 671 


e ‘benevolent’ intentions af the govern- 
a fount she desired man for the task in the 
= Jew, who had just come to 
p the pet of preacher and divector of a 
© Jewish community of Kign. 
i 1882) was a graduate of the wniver- 
a sympathizer with religious eefornte of 
ia mnceess 31 the Riga schde! drought 
ia Uyaroy, by whom he hard Sete pre- 
ed, to visit the cities cf the Pale ane there, 
at on of theenlightened circles, to aN higenoe 
wor-of the proposed school refers These 
7 0 5 pata (maskilira), ox ixteetis 
iy bh}, were then exac ad at ‘he stage 
ale a Ravens at the end of the pre 
~ for the most part self- Davai lee 
masute at European culture amd oiren 
dowhieh they then proceeded ti 
Ta ia ‘Gterary efforts in the Hebrew 
5 in Gaemeny the movement had iseved 
i) of Hetivew writing. its counterpart i 
a@ ren: ee huth of the Hebrew language Be 
! _ rs whit eventualiy struck deep Foote i 


4 
ey vhs 


we ithe: jeaders iu this movement: bes 
Baer Leviascho coef ell ai Kremenes: 
rl: ceed ou amid privationg sad with 
y! , tated profundity. Yet, wader 
Hime anit place, the very commeanrplaces 
2 es: j ances etcetera 
ue Were mowelties at which the bigoret - 
gather aeively beheved. in the guod 
ementand was flattered by tokens af 
+ stationed officials and ministers of 
ea ritual murder trials he et by a 
proved its usefulness even on sub- 
“ tte other bearers: ne 


art CONDITIONS IN EASTERN pu 


Glasses paying the highest tax might sit th iz 
cities, the sea ports; § ahd the fairs at NizhnicN 0 


The lews were | sachets to employ { risa 


for temporary acu: prev aide the inboueaeae 
dated in quarters of their own. The Ruselan 
made obligatory in pubhe a 
chat wed with the di uty of seeing to it pine the ¢ 
i che authorities were ca arried out. with: preci . 
all taxes were correctly. paid. Barring the “4 
where the Jews were w oll excluded from 
re , those Jews who were: able. bee 
Riistan were cligible le as members of 4 et ne 
1agistt gate SY pi AOL Sear were not iit be e 


“a 


romenii 


ministers of ssctnnaee 
Stroganov, came to’ the ‘ona that 


bai 


tern, Tn imperial aane tion was = obtained 


P was ace sae to pene in < scale oe 
-ntary schools in which Jewish children 
the Russian language, 's secular subj cts, © 
nad to Ho! : W rit. ie us a 


Loenhng the jem est ae pas . 
fade verse’ religious traditions which 


foresgen that the Jews would not take’ 
from above, however their ultimate p 


THE ‘HASKALAH’ 671 


be taught to trust the ‘benevolent’ intentions of the govern- 
ment. Uvarov soon found the desired man for the task in the 
person of a young German Jew, who had just come to 
Russia to take up the post of preacher and director of a 
modern school in the Jewish community of Riga. 

Max Lilienthal (1815-1882) was a graduate of the univer- 
sity of Munich and a sympathizer with religious reforms of 
the moderate sort. His success at the Riga school brought 
him an invitation from Uvarov, by whom he had been pre- 
viously received, to visit the cities of the Pale and there, 
with the codperation of the enlightened circles, to influence 
the masses in favor of the proposed school reform. Those 
that called themselves ‘enlightened’ (maskilim), or friends 
of ‘enligktenment’ (haskalah), were then exactly at the stage 
of the Mendelssohnians in Germany at the end of the pre- 
ceding century. They were for the most part self-taught 
men, who acquired a measure of European culture and often 
enough achieved erudition which they then proceeded to 
disseminate by means of literary efforts in the Hebrew 
tongue. But whereas in Germany the movement had issued 
in the destruction of Hebrew writing, its counterpart in 
Russia produced a renascence both of the Hebrew language 
and of Hebrew letters which eventually struck deep roots 
among the people. 

The first place among the leaders in this movement be- 
longed to Isaac Baer Levinsohn (1788-1860), at Kremenez. 
His literary efforts, carried on amid privations and with 
inadequate library facilities, lacked profundity. Yet, under 
the conditions of his time and place, the very commonplaces 
he uttered, whether in the defense of Judaism or in advocacy 
of secular education, were novelties at which the bigoted 
looked askance. He rather naively believed in the good 
intentions of the government and was flattered by tokens of 
_ appreciation from highly stationed officials and ministers of 
state. The recurrence of ritual murder trials he met by a 
timely publication which proved its usefulness even on sub- 
sequent occasions. Among the other bearers of enlighten- 
ment may be singled out the prose writer Mordecai Aaron 


672 CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE 


Giinsburg (1795-1846) and the poet Abraham Dob Lebe ne . 
sohn (1789-1878). Groups of men of the newer orientatic 
were to be found in the Lithuanian metropolis Vilna and in 
the newer community of Odessa which became a very focus _ 
of modernity. a 4 

Lilienthal met with a friendly reception in these cixSieam : 
but it was uphill work to convince the old-fashioned that ae 
there were no evil designs lurking in the government scheme 
and that the old schools were not imperiled. Still he exp 
enced no difficulty with the head of the Volozhin yeshibah, 
Isaac, successor to his father Hayim, the founder of the a 
school (p. 630). The venerable scholar consented to serve on — 
the commission of rabbis and laymen summoned to St. i 
Petersburg in 1843. The other members were the leader of | 
the Hasidim in White Russia, Mendel Shneorsohn, grand on 
of Shneor Zalman (p. 586); the Berdiczev banker Halperin; 
lastly, Bezalel Stern, principal of a modern school at Odessa. 
The two rabbinical members vigorously stipulated that the 
schools of the old type should be preserved intact alongside zi 
of the new institutions planned by the government. An 
imperial rescript of 1844 ordered the establishment of Jewis : 
elementary schools of two grades and the opening of two 
rabbinical institutes (these were subsequently located in 
Vilna and Zhitomir). In a secret communication to the min-— 
ister of public instruction it was made plain that the old 
schools were to be closed gradually.’The announced purpose 
was to bring the Jews nearer to the Christian population by 
destroying the study of the Talmud and the prejudices 
fostered by it. Before the plan was realized, Lilienthal, in 
1845, had left Russia and emigrated to America. He be 
given his solemn pledge to the notables of the Vilna com- 
munity that he would not be a party to any sinister motive e 
on the part of the Russian government; he kept his word a: 
soon as its insincerity was borne in upon him. Sg 

Inexorably did the government proceed to the céoinplal 
realization of its programme which encompassed the destruc: 
tion of Jewish communal organization and the enactment of 
repressive measures calculated to involve the broad mas ses 


E'S MTL 


ser <7 Shy tat of thate inter- 
oe oe of ies were placed en- 
Dei tit siunieipal govern- 
Wiss se neemneominded to 
Qeiy as tax-collectors 
AM GS wien penple, fr addi- 
Dime regia te pay a 


Me 


Shs tie ool. The. 


a ete, ey eee ae Lm Gaere nh - 
cmarten: PF heee 
Pe le 
ee a SAPEST 


evi» ie uc Say Sees chad, ate 
‘ Te a ety + ov rig “ spa tora es 
ies “phvae naa eee, thee, tei, atrivess 
re st 5 Rae WHE = aren oh) Utabaphant @ 
e of Jens Miri: Mines & eet wut the 
Mie. The grvetiimeny wae om ta 1852 


the country was sen stunged into the 
b53-1855), asd thie! heen Vote is i 
x from the sesh ct ake arses 


4 Fe RUSSLA 673 


me againat the hage wae of | (oom pak nis 


CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE ee ; 
dnsburce (1795 1846) and the poet Abrakamy 
, (1789-1878). Groups of men of the mewel 
re to be found in the Li panes pipe j 
ymmunity of Odessa which —— 
Lillenthal metowith a frie ndly reception in t 
hill work to convinee the old fas asl 
e no evil desi me lurking in the gover 

i that the old schools we e not, ieee Si 
need no difculty with: ce had af the Vologh 
ccessor to his father Hayin), the tom 

p. 630). The venerable echoes congen ter : 
umission. of rabbis: and laymen sumun 

shurg in 1843. Lhe other members weras 
Llasidim in. White Russia, Mendet Shneorso 
Ameor Zalman igs 526) i); the Bet diczev ban 

yo Rezalel Stern, prin cipal ofa modern sche 
two rabbinical ineral bess vig ‘orousty stipul 


14 or ret the bpaearer: 


wand Ab utomsts ) fe & Bec ‘et pliers 
of public instruction if was made plain. 
is were to be closed itd reine ally. “The annour 
; o bring the Jews ne arer tO the Christian. 
x, cee avcoying the study of the ‘Tal au ae 
tered by it. Before the plar was’ realized, 


‘ ‘ ha 4 eit Kuss and ef nigrated. Am 
Raat 2H his solemn pledge Lo Sa notables of t 


oh oaceey that he woulkLnott a party sone 

see sin e part of th eiseeyees 1 ZOV oversniege ial 

ip Hee ite Lnsines -rtty vas borne: in por him. Dee 

uh eearably did, the coverinaill proceed. to 

: sation of it ts programine which encompa 

ow, «¢ Jewish communal orgat rization and th 
MGASUT’s seit lated to: inveles, the 


1846] MONTEFIORE’S MISSION TO RUSSIA 673 


in economic ruin. The ‘kahals’ were stripped of their inter- 
nal administrative function; Jewish affairs were placed en- 
tirely in the hands of the police and the municipal govern- 
ment. But the government was by no means minded to 
dispense with Jewish fiscal agents to serve as tax-collectors 
for the imperial treasury among their own people. In addi- 
tion to the regular taxes, the Jews were required to pay a 
special tax on ‘kosher’ meat and on sabbath candles. The 
disposition of these revenues lay in the hands of the provin- 
cial governors or the ministry of public education. These 
additional funds were to make up for shortages in the ordi- 
nary tax and to pay for the maintenance of the new schools. 
At the same time the law driving the Jews out of the frontier 
zone was made to cover also cities and towns, and not 
merely the villages as previously ordained. Furthermore, 
the Jews of the Pale were divided into two categories, the 
useful and the useless. This second class, which included the 
petty tradesmen and the large mass who lived from hand to 
mouth, was subjected to increased disabilities. 

The plight of Russian Jewry stirred the influential Jewish 
circles abroad. In London it was determined that Monte- 
fiore should go to Russia. He came in 1846, was received in 
audience by the czar and conferred with the minister in 
charge of Jewish affairs. He was given every facility to travel 
in the Pale and was bidden to submit a report based on his 
personal observations. The tour was marked by enthusiasm 
on the part of the Jewish masses; but their hope that any 
change in the government’s attitude would result from He 
mission was doomed to disappointment. 

A Jewish merchant from Marseilles, Isaac Altaras, arrived 
in the same year in Russia with a project to transplant a 
certain number of Jews from Russia to Algeria; but the 
scheme fell through. The government was preparing in 1852 
drastic measures against the huge mass of Jewish proleta- 
rians. However, the country was soon plunged into the 
Crimean War (1853-1856), and the measures were dropped. 
Fresh horrors resulted from the shortage of Jewish recruits. 
The order went forth that all Jews without passports—often 


674. CONDITIONS IN EASTERN EUROPE [1853 


Ok 
a 
* 


enough they were made to part with them by the trickery of E 
the appointed captors—might be seized for the army. At the 
very eve of the war, the government found scope for hare 
sing the Jews by commanding European style of dress, while 7 
Jewesses were enjoined from cutting off their hair when ua 
entering upon marriage. On the top of all Jewish misery, the ‘4 
Jews of Saratov had to undergo trial on the charge of ritual | 
murder. One of the imprisoned innocent sufferers—two had © 
meanwhile committed suicide and the others were physical 
wrecks unable to discharge their penal servitude—was pam 
doned by Alexander II. in 1867, thanks to the intercession of 


Crémieux. ‘ Se : m 


PRES OF ae HOEIRY MOVEMENT DS 
ANG I LimoPE 


Tas. ase 


a pete in Sow Vor tg 1845, it was 
ie Bhat he Vow thee ghe olosing 
hy va Bi: worl’ woe tie Acer wha 
of F us San ero Bs Vesiewiins. tanaht bawiies af Polish 

/ ies ot segs fren home, had 
. B, and they Gare taji- wend Aw ot oy werlure- 
Mats IFC it Rawal. Pos rele with 1836 ar 

i Pinar berets hats: whee: en ae The perod of 
 follinw aig (G48, vere «eas an inpour- 
MARY, Preenwasnis tom Mavaria and 
Comers Wetee fevers ot Gente of worldly 
ttearted the weraccs ¢ eww hey eked 
cid! 0 ng andr wee et comes tong chhepetence, 
at came altel PS ctraeeie) Ase che ot better 
as, and there were Memoped of Culture. 
‘Ofiered: Many ceperwawthn of ochich these 
- . quick 20 AVGd “ee oes see Nedra: waa the 
d-at home, ta esi! ifs Lar ees aud to engage 


Jews kept thaie nacive wpeschi ie: a -can- 
4; both in thely hear sad in public gather 

rwas large; seme heed come feo the carne 
edison hailed) fron: a neighboring: donality.. 
, med Yr about thes all: They 
thermore divided from thw cid Portugaese wettiens 
as from 1 the more recent Polish arriwale by tiedt reas! 
D; which was the Ashkenazic in vogue in soathera 


675 ee i. 


‘ay ‘ ; 
nie ts Au bar 
f Sh ae wk i er 
a) SACS oe fi ie te 


arsuits leading to risginalic The distovery — 
» enia jureri Kate KE whe UTE i ce 


y and somewhat distinct frum: thy ‘one obtaining 


4 
7 
4 7 
* 4 
ral o 
rae | q coal * 
rat 5 
+4 o£ 
Pa Se i} 
(> 4 i} 
L%, > is ( 
1 
—, 
¢ ; tak o4 
’ 4 
moe aa ey 
C205 SERIE 
+7 sree ew: ‘2 oe 
pe oA Ley t DRA, Soe 
y. ; 
t § ty /. 2B 
F P 
- } Lit 
' ra 
Cabesasoes COLE Gal 
2 > 
+ ; a. 
DAS ¥ . ww i Fecha 


5 part with them Dy tne tF 


iding Eu opened of d 
‘» the top of all Jéewishan 


ose di innocent sufferers= 


cht be seized for the arEny. 
nt found scoped 


frou oun otf their hi 


o trial on the charge 


d = others wer 


44 tt He & 


‘iexander ii.ini 867 tha aa to thei un 


r 
’ 
ert] 
, # 
‘ 
Fu 
« 
, 
‘ 
. 
' 
5 
ws ~ 
ine 
Pr 
i 
Fa . 
. 
t 


CHAPTER XCI 


PROGRESS OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN 
AMERICA AND IN EUROPE 


(1845-1876) 


HEN Lilienthal landed in New York in 1845, it was 

W beyond the reach of his vision that the closing 

year of his life would witness the first mass 
migration of Russian Jews to America. Small bodies of Polish 
Jews, either by way of England or straight from home, had 
long been arriving, and they were followed soon by venture- 
some individuals from Russia. But beginning with 1830 and 
then continually in ever increasing numbers, in the period of 
reaction preceding and following 1848, there was an inpour- 
ing of Jews from Germany, particularly from Bavaria and 
Baden. The first comers were favored with little of worldly 
goods; until they learned the strange language, they eked 
out a living by peddling and rose but slowly to a competence. 
Only those that came after 1848 counted a number of better 
situated families, and there were many possessed of culture. 
The new land offered many opportunities of which these 
immigrants were quick to avail themselves; theirs was the 
freedom, denied at home, to establish families and to engage 
in mercantile pursuits leading to prosperity. The discovery 
of gold in California lured some of the more enterprising to 
the far western coast. 

These German Jews kept their native speech for a con- 
siderable period, both in their homes and in public gather- 
ings. Their number was large; some had come from the same 
village or town, others hailed from a neighboring locality, 
and there was a decided homogeneity about them all. They 
were furthermore divided from the old Portuguese settlers 
as well as from the more recent Polish arrivals. by their ritual 
-.(minhag), which was the Ashkenazic in vogue in southern 
Germany and somewhat distinct from the one obtaining 


675 


676 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA AND IN EUROPE [1850 Bg 


north of the Elbe and farther east. In New York City, where % 
the largest number of German Jews resided, there were by % 
1842 three German congregations, which in 1845 united by - 
electing Lilienthal as their joint rabbi. In the same year the _ 
congregation Emanuel was organized, which from the begin- 
ning showed an inclination towards reforms in the worship. _ 
Religious differences were developing; in order to create a 
common meeting-ground along educational and _philan- 7 
thropic lines, a group of German Jews founded in 1843 the = 
Order B’nai B’rith (Bene Berith, ‘Sons of the Covenant’), 
which rapidly spread over the United States and in time also _ 
to Europe and the Orient. 7 
The movement for reform throughout the land, whetherin 
new congregations starting out with that definite object E 
in view or in older synagogues which had begun on orthodox 
lines, was an importation from Germany. It was destined ~ 
to outstrip the German model, so that what was exceptional © 
there became the normal practice here. There wasin America — 
no possible interference from without, nor were the con- — 
gregations, each an independent corporation, amenable to a : 
central communal authority. Rabbis fresh from Germany, © 
imbued with the spirit for innovations and notably those 
_who had taken part in the early reforming conferences, were q 
free to change the ritual and religious practices, usually step — 
by step, but sometimes quite precipitately. By dint of an a 
organizing ability akin to that which distinguished Ludwig — 
Philippson in Germany, Isaac Mayer Wise (1819-1900) 
became the leader of American reform. Of a commanding — 
presence, a forceful preacher, genial to his friends, a fighter 
when any one crossed his path, he above all entered into the 
spirit and temper of his adopted country, while many of his — 
co-workers remained German to their dying days. His initial — 
ministry was in Albany, in the state of New York (1846-_ 
1854); in 1850 he had a clash with his old charge because of — 
a doctrinal point and his friends organized for him a new E 
congregation. The remainder of his long life he spent in Cin- 
cinnati as preacher, teacher, editor, author, and organizer. — 
Through him that city became the seat of reform in Ane : ; 


WISP . 677 
hor a ieee Petal CMinhag : 
i yttes: the 4 peeetiend Confer- 
th sathertes, which. was 
“Gy Ss ye (tans were 


mtn, Phe Gatieastty of the | 
cart: ecatiedt that they 
ee jae ios, Sve com- 
cig added cay Pe ane eae 
ss ; \ 
te e he 
oi 2. ¢ MEX 
4s Wipe P ee 
Khe | : 
" Re 
cr : j ee 
et wat s ete “aS 
aie as dees oo eee ae 
ay ae eo ; 50) ae “SA ile 
Shes ats “ene : is i j wend 
4 ie ee i fing 
<4 - Se ae ie eR hog 
ere Wy mee > Gee rahe 
rere ° panber. 
Th 2 hag , © oeasebvrer 
iam HS eS ped. 
ta, «dy oo ere 
| eid ee Bs is ee Saavis - 7 
eh et : ee it he served 
GRASS pest ok: ere OF SRB RD, 
IRE RE oo cg 
4 Niet ot ey EO, aeoor - 
ees. cin eg oh Sardinia 
. 


hen any one eros ash his path, heabové 


THESE Y (Was if 


8 
eae 4 y 
+} ee 
onl 1 J 
ae 
¢ 
My - 2.7 | " Pi | 7 . 
wy + i see 4 . 
+ eee a qi cs (eS) eT es fi 
* 
- one, Pore - 


nS. We 
MOWED All f 
a4, 
BEE. oT ie | 
sit Wea fs a8 
Pr ce ep oe 
C3 PHOS CUT L w 


mic Lines, a group Hot , Snails aa: found 
nai 'rith (B n@ Bertth, ‘Sons of the c 
ich rapidly spread over the vate ‘phates and in 
Earope and the Orient ee Sai “hess 
e movement for reform tinea the: and, w 
congregations Sher ting out with that 4 


ew or in older ean dbalax = which eed beget 


tatrip the Gennan moc 80 ‘that tual was f 
became the normal ee here: There was! 
ible interference from without fee 
ations, each an independent corporation 
al coramunal wuthae ity: Rabbis. freee 
ect. with the § 
io had taken px wt in the eed ; er 

ta change the ritual and relijtountpraekialaa 
step. but sometimes quite precipitaheiye iy 
nizing ability akin to that whieh distingt 
epson ‘in Germany, Isaac! Mayer : 
ame the leader of American reform: 
ence, a forceful preacher, genial to ie 


and t ern per of] is adopt ed count: , 
ers remain weit German to the ! ¢ 
4 Albany,’ in the state of N 
= naagieh he had 4 clas ch with 


Pye 


rations, The rer nainder OF h 


i sisal city beens a 


~ 


1855] ISAAC M. WISE 677 


Wise had made early plans for a new ritual (Minhag 
America) ; it was consummated after the Cleveland Confer- 
ence in 1855. The key-note of that gathering, which was 
attended by Leeser (p. 650), was union. Concessions were 
made to the right wing by reaffirming the authority of the 
Talmud, while the progressives were satisfied that they 
could get round the Talmud by interpretation. The com- 
promise was denounced by the ultra-orthodox on the one 
hand and by the extreme reformers on the other. David 
Einhorn (1809-1879) had just been installed in Baltimore 
after a reforming career in Germany and for a brief time in 
Hungary, in the course of which he developed radical ten- 
_ dencies unacceptable to those rooted in the old traditions. 
He immediately launched a protest on behalf of his own con- 
gregation, concurred in by Temple Emanuel of New York, 
against upholding the authority of the Talmud and the 
‘hierarchical’ designs in the west. This controversy laid the 
foundation for the split between east and west which lingered 
on for decades; the two camps of reform now came together, 
now fell apart again, until in the end the power of organiza- 
tion prevailed, not without concessions to the theorists. 

Still more accentuated grew the division between the 
reformers and the traditionalists, the latter among them- 
selves likewise representing various shades. There were fresh 
- adhesions on either side. But soon the country was engrossed 
in the gigantic struggle for the saving of the Union during 
the Civil War (1861-1865). The Jews of the north and of the 
south fought along with their compatriots in the opposing 
camps; naturally the northern states had the larger number 
of Jews, and even the recent immigrants threw themselves 
with zeal into the combat. The Jews of the south occupied 
prominent posts in the Confederate army and government; 
among the most distinguished men in Jefferson Davis’ 
Cabinet was Judah P. Benjamin (1811-1884), who served 
as attorney general and subsequently as secretary of state. 

On the continent of Europe, likewise, a momentous strug- 
gle was preparing which, when it terminated in 1870, accom- 
plished the unification of Italy under the king of Sardinia 


678 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA AND IN EUROPE [1858 ¢ 


and of Germany under the leadership of Prussia. At thesame 
time it swept out of power Napoleon ITI. (1852-1870), who 
had made the cause of the oppressed nationalities his own, i 
In the course of the upheaval the Jews of Central Europe 
received their complete emancipation: in Austria in 1868, — - 
after the collapse of absolutism in consequence of her defeat : 
by Prussia; north of the Main in 1869 by constitutional 
enactment of the North German Confederation; in southern & 
Germany as soon as Bavaria joined the German Empire in 
1871 (in Baden and, Wiirttemberg full equality to the Jews = 
had been conceded in 1862 and 1864). The consummation 
was achieved only after repeated and concentrated efforts of 
the Jewish communities which, thanks to the energy of Lud- _ 
wig Philippson, besieged with their petitions the several — 
legislatures at every opportune moment. Nevertheless the — 
success was entirely due to the advocacy by the liberal ; 
croups, often in the face of the government's opposition. The — 
Jews of Italy had the greatest cause to rejoice when in 1870 — 
the papal states ceased to exist and Rome became the capital — 
of the united kingdom. @ 
It was not so long ago that an outrage had been com- : 
mitted in Bologna against the most sacred rights of Jewish — 
parenthood by the agents of Pius IX. (1846-1877), the re- — 
actionary enemy of modern civilization. In 1858, papal — 
gendarmes carried away by force the six-year-old son of a_ 
Jewish family, Edgar Mortara. The child had been chris- 3 
tened during illness by his Catholic nurse. The Church — 
insisted that the baptism once administered made the boy a — 
Catholic and that he must be brought up as such against the 
will of his parents. This truly medieval act shocked the — 
civilized world. It made no difference to the pope that the 
-Jews everywhere, in freed Piedmont, in Germany, in Eng- 
land, in America, raised their voices in protest. Montefiore — 
came to Rome and made a personal appeal to the vicar of © 
Christ—he remained obdurate even to the representations of - 
the Catholic monarchs Napoleon III. and Francis Joseph. — 
The child remained in the hands of his captors, who sys- x 
tematically imbued him with hatred for Judaism, so that 


ein . i Ge refused to return to the faith 


morved to strensthen jens colidlasity® 
ieee tated into being Pacis i in 1860 
Pe aqieaverielle, which mb), «i ite chief 
efonae of jewish rights wheerscecrr at- 
e dent of the sem anjisics ton 
PY faG6S So 1850. 
iGtial aarit in Fuvope aveslecued tn che 
Pathe eOncepticn that tha freteh people 
ce adi REL che arierd ifeeree wee, 
2 ete ie ite ancestral nae ¥hue 


ere of the ae ta ort tte 
a, nay blends ie. DCH. 

> Hirgch or (LFOMARTAD, @. 
8 Aoi tidvet ys LRG2 te hpi ani 


my Joa feeeion im 1 Paleatisie: 
sis ed a calesizing society toeflect 
er thie soci a Phe ancient home- 
i Paihechas's suttarien. the ‘Alfano 
weheitiael ached Mikveh tergel, near 
' whebats ht Mavies Norter (1828-4880). 
le xg sesteiex Pebetiac ts de » Senet pew 
ip iemiwerdiacciy tiv Ricvars Hosa (182249879). 
gt y rab,’ Oe eo tan. Snnkalty called, Re 
a revehisine. erect duran yy nen, x 
i it ta tuaeti, he woe absorbedk bey i pie. he 
sSeoletansie. Tie Doma uaa Jiatearn 
af becte Bi drt own people. Lex Bom bewik 
" ‘published is 1267. be tokdiviat “tpelanet 
an Pas Wtineten: of phe Sanacein Raphae? 
{ wae eae! vie jewish natintvd hin. 
ee thet a fewsh Coogrese sovntia 
; ‘ mg of Pahetine and pennted te 
; see wi meres OF solving the Jewish 


Be ASRAELITY. UNIVERSELLE 679 
‘ 


' 
‘= 


G4 my under tae 
i ; 
, é ~ a, 
2 tf OE AT DOV 
: 18 TU d tT 
 - $ 
yi : if » % pit i * 
j hee & 8 Ne it 
x f - 
PARE CH QLD + 
% 4 
: WOLrtnh O° TH 


oa Wc ist 
of the north 4 


ower INaPpoO 
12 pasa nationalith 


5 
Pier ole es tas 8 
ik 


whit me mn os on atic } ir 


" ship cf Pe: 
eom LTE (8524 


the Jews of Cen 
emancipation? Mi’ “Aust 
lutisyt in consequence: 

Vain in 1869 by ‘van 


YoEee 


uf Baden and. W ivetenibege + tall ale 
conceded in’ 1862 and’ 1862 Thee 
chievedl only after Tepe ated atid’ coneettta 
sos COMM nities which thanks te ‘the 
Phi vaerte ieee ae thelr ‘petitions? 
mires every Opper tune moment? “Ne Y 
: was entire dive ae the adv peace” 
sften in the fate of the government’ ¢ ot ip 
of Italy had the greatest cause 16 rejaneen 
2 pal states ceased to exmna and Rome becan me 
gnited gree a 


it Wes: Thee So 
x , 
%,, +7j ea Fe 
3 t 4 
AT ees a i - 
nary enemy Of me 
mcarmes carned 2way voy 
BP NE eens Gemma ice " 
Wish Tammy, ear yar 
aed during iiness by 
2 
emus ere 7 ; re oe ‘® 
SISEGQL TMG Cae O atts Sit 


PHYS eh 


fo eS sree tenis a re 
i L HS Parents. 14s 
a be < 4°49 
WOH 

Vinzed world. F 

f. A 

¥ 
} ee! 


ne Tr Rome 
iained ob 


CLR TItOnR AE 


— she 


nah ok His. € Pie 1X. (18 & ; 
seen civilization. 


fortara, The ehitd hg 


sod that he mus 


Mt made no difference a the 


ng wae 


18 "Napo Hh ‘ 
in the hands 
hom with & 


" 


ne 
r force the sik-yea 


his Catholic: nurse, 

once administered | 
t he brought up as St 
truly medieval’ act 


1860] THE ‘ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE’ 679 


when he attained majority he refused to return to the faith 
of his fathers. | 

The Mortara affair served to strengthen Jewish solidarity ; 
as an outcome there was called into being in Paris in 1860 
the ‘Alliance Israélite Universelle,’ which made as its chief 
programme the defense of Jewish rights wheresoever at- 
tacked. Crémieux was the president of the new organization 
with brief interruptions from 1863 to 1880. 

The rise of the national spirit in Europe awakened in the 
minds of some Jews the conception that the Jewish people 
itself was a nation, in fact of all nations the most oppressed, 
which must look for repatriation in its ancestral home. This 
view ran counter to the doctrine of the reformers, just as 
it set itself against the platform of the newer type of ortho- 
doxy by its advocacy of human and diplomatic agencies. 
The rabbi of Thorn, Zebi Hirsch Kalischer (1795-1874), a 
pupil of Akiba Eger (p. 635), published in 1862 a pamphlet 
in which he endeavored to prove that the Messianic redemp- 
tion must be preceded by Jewish rehabilitation in Palestine. 
He called for the foundation of a colonizing society to effect 
the settling of Jewish tillers of the soil in the ancient home- 
land. Asa direct result of Kalischer’s agitation, the ‘Alliance’ 
founded in 1870 the agricultural school Mikveh Israel, near 
Jaffa, under the supervision of Charles Netter (1828-1882). 

Kalischer’s plea for restoring Palestine to the Jewish peo- 
ple was taken up immediately by Moses Hess (1812-1875). 
This ‘communist rabbi,’ as he was ironically called, had 
passed through a revolutionary career during which, as 
anarchist and socialist in turn, he was absorbed by the prob- 
lem of the European proletariate. The Damascusand Mortara 
affairs brought him back to his own people. In his book 
‘Rome and Jerusalem,’ published in 1862, he boldly attacked 
the reformers and the orthodox of the Samson Raphael 
Hirsch type for having sacrificed the Jewish national idea. 
He expressed the hope that a Jewish Congress would 
take in hand the colonizing of Palestine and pointed to 
renationalization as the only. means of solving the Jewish 
etestion. 


680 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA AND IN EUROPE [1871 ? 


Hess owned himself powerfully stimulated by the early : 
‘volumes of Graetz’s ‘History of the Jews’ which had then © 


appeared. Heinrich (Hirsch) Graetz (1817-1891) enjoyed in 
his early years the tuition and friendship of Samson Raphael 
Hirsch, both in the latter’s Oldenburg home and later in or 


near Nikolsburg. But his sober, critical mind recoiled from 


Hirsch’s symbolism. He was drawn rather to the party of 
Zechariah Frankel, under whom he accepted in 1854 a posi- 


tion on the teaching staff of the Breslau seminary. Graetz — 
devoted himself in his latter years to biblical studies; but — 


his chief fame rests on his work as historian. His ‘History,’ 
completed in 1870, was distinguished by vast erudition, a 


critical handling of the sources, and especially the happy i 


instinct for discovering in the most unpromising material 


a mine of information. Moreover, the presentation was vivid op 
and the narrative had warmth. He told the story of his peo- _ 
ple from within, with the large world as a background and 
no more. He spoke to all Israel and found a unity of purpose < 
across the diverse periods. He had his prejudices and short- = 
comings; but what Hess admired and others found fault a 
with was the unmistakable romanticism which he spread — 
over the tale and the staying conviction that even in the — 
times succeeding the formation of the Talmud Jewish his- 3 


tory retained its national character. 


The difference between Hess and his critics among the — 
reformers was that the former operated with the newer ideas s 
championed by Napoleon III., while the latter followed the — 
tendencies in vogue since Napoleon I., the great leveler of — a 
nations, who made Jewish emancipation conditional upon v 
the surrender of Jewish nationality. Thus the reformers — 
steadfastly and unflinchingly kept to their course. They 
were the leading spirits in the Synods of Leipzig (1869) and = 
Augsburg (1871), gatherings of laymen and rabbis, chiefly — 
from Germany and Austria, but also (at Leipzig) from bs 
Switzerland, Belgium, England, and America. The aim was 7 
to create a world-embracing clearing-house for mooted — 


‘s 


— 
aS 


religious questions in Jewry. The orthodox, however, kept i 


away, and at the conclusion dissociated themselves from the — 


~ 7 


~es* 
a 
os 


FRAPS 1 MCMOOLS 68] 


beet uw fovea the specific resolu- 
ig) Sor wi Hoth gatherings 
eemeix t-xtaris (1824-1903), 
vee farts to prove that 
6; 2a sterrtiication with 
F % eae for himself 
pacmelity to. which 

Ge owe Leeiger was 
ape a. te hye? the Leip. 
ee agineras met in 


Reims k a practical 


me, £ re te wk ee Cae} Bey Bieri 


he te 2 ere Te ats e 


as) eee a Bh or sy tactty- two 
peed Govt | boris Lawtromw 
tf ts “Ratios Shah, Shorty 
. Jastrow. Theda sen + Ve -eeconeary of the 
ti PMG HE fior ae <> “%j tetor and o eracht 
schokarsd i ister. co cloging of Miae 
Wise rearewt vs oh orcs wo establich w 
In 1675 the this § coe U ctiege av Cin- 
PCiCs *, with Vidz » - fart hs chair of 
worthily: DemuRAS oT. £79 on by Mase 
28 M1903), whe ie ix pres ed a veboatte 
f to the Talmus | te i sai My 
5 rs peither the TET SS GT the cert nahh 
satisfied with sry ~ agu seminary. Vat it 
: mode] for “aD Hie nna arbool at Batagwet, 
Be Set up in 1877. Amessy Oe test teachers “a the 
tens Here two grades of the older mating 
€ 1 Bacher (1850-1913) and David Kaufman 
versatile sch ol aes enstatves? Jewish 


~\ ‘A 
‘i 


. 


< 
is 
& 
> 
bi 
ee 


YW fl ag] hirmeell OY be falls siteulieal Pree 
ete s ‘Histor td of the Lng: whieh) : 


Mis early years 1% he tuition <u friendship f Samson 
Hirach, beth in the intter’s Old en burg home and 
near Nikolsbure. But his sober, critical mind 1 re 
mbolism. He was drawn rather @o pr 
rankel, under wie he accepted 1 in 1 
on the téaching re of the Breslau seminag 
red himeelf in his latter ra to biblical st 


~ 


cornpleted in 1870, was phen pe paren 
eritical pita of the sources, and especiall 
Yon fae: liscov' ering: in the most unpronusl 
. mine of infor ation _ Moreover, the presentatie 
and the nate | ati bad warmth. Fle told thestor 
‘rom within, sii the large world as @ bad 
He spoke to all Israel and found a ust 
s the diverse peridde. He had his prejudi 
irig 5: but what Hees admired and. cs) 
was the unmistakable romanticisnn a 
the tale and the staying conviction: that Ww 
es succeeding the formation of me * ier d Je 
retained its national characters: Heit a 
‘he difference between Hess and his entie 
cig ae apr te 

formers was that.the former operated. with Hee 
championed by sects on TUL, while the latter: 
ioncencies in worue simce IN apoleon’ 1s: the ; 
nations, who made J cane emancipat ion, 
‘eet uirrerwdet of Jewish Tek jionalitys 4 itis PERS 
steadiastiv and anfin oebgee a kept. to prin | 


_— 
¥ 
+ 
om 
gy 


shu 1870), 4 athe wings ee laymnehias 
from Germany and Austria, but also. 
Switzerland, Belgium, E ngland, and Ai ? 
tn create 2 wor ld-e pe acin a4 cleari : 
reliiousa questions in Jewry: The or 
away, and atthe conclusion dissociat 


1877] RABBINICAL TRAINING SCHOOLS 681 


general tone of the assemblies and from the specific resolu- 
tions carried there. The presiding officer of both gatherings 
was the Berlin philosopher Moritz Lazarus (1824-1903), 
who throughout his life spent his best efforts to prove that 
fidelity to Judaism in no wise precludes identification with 
the culture of the environment. He recognized for himself 
and for other German Jews but one nationality to which 
they belonged, the German. On both occasions Geiger was 
the first vice-president. In the same year in which the Leip- 
_zig Synod was convened, the American reformers met in 
Philadelphia and carried similar doctrinal and practical 
resolutions. 

The need of an American institution for the training of 
rabbis had long been felt. While the eastern and western 
reformers continued at cross-purposes, the conservative 
forces forestalled them by creating in 1867 Maimonides Col- 
lege, which had a short existence of six years. Leeser, its head 
professor, was removed by death in the first academic year. 
But the college was fortunate to have on its faculty two 
-zealous scholars: Sabato Morais (1823-1897), who in 1851 
had succeeded Leeser at Mikveh Israel, and Marcus Jastrow 
(1829-1903), since 1866 rabbi at Rodeph Shalom. Shortly 
before his death, Jastrow completed a Dictionary of the 
Talmud in English, a model of painstaking labor and a credit 
to American Jewish scholarship. After the closing of Mai- 
monides College, Wise renewed his efforts to establish a 
rabbinical school. In 1875 the Hebrew Union College at Cin- 
‘cinnati was opened, with Wise as president; the chair of 
Talmud was worthily occupied from 1879 on by Moses 
Mielziner (1828-1903), who in 1894 published a valuable 
Introduction to the Talmud in English. 

In Germany, neither the progressives nor the orthodox 
were entirely satisfied with the Breslau seminary. Yet it 
served as the model for the rabbinical school at Budapest, 
which was set up in 1877. Among the first teachers in the 
Hungarian school were two graduates of the older institu- 
tion, Wilhelm Bacher (1850-1913) and David Kaufmann 
(1852-1899), both versatile scholars who enriched Jewish 


682 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN AMERICA AND IN EURO PE 


scholarship with lasting contributions. The School for J 
ish Learning (‘Hochschule fiir die Wissenschaft des J 
tums’), which was opened in Berlin in 1872 chiefly th 
the instrumentality of Ludwig Philippson, had among 
first teachers Geiger, the historian David Cassel (1818- 
1893), the critical student of the Talmud Israel Lewy (1847- 

1917), the profound thinker Heymann Steinthal (1823-18 09), 
It was intended that the institution should be strictly scho- 
lastic and that the teachers and students should be free te ) 
identify themselves with any expression of Judaism. Su a 
programme was unacceptable to the orthodox; a year J 
they created in the same city a seminary of their own, the 
to the efforts of Israel Hildesheimer (1820-1899). He was a 
man of modern culture and deep Jewish learning, who had | 
previously conducted a yeshibah on modern lines in’ Eise: 
stadt, Hungary; he associated with himself in the new ve 
ture the talmudist David Hoffmann (1843-1921), who sub- 
sequently succeeded to the principalship, the historian 
Adolph (Abraham) Berliner (1833-1915), the Arabist J. acob 
Barth (1851-1914). The aoe between the reformers and t os. 


Prussian government which enabled the orthodox to set 
their own congregations as independent corporations, = 


ea SA Side nies 


in A a 

PrER Xcu 
SIA AND RUMANIA 
: 4874) 


$ Mpon the Jews of the West, 
Bits achieved and the réliginus 
<a the very separation of arthe- 
bof political reforme in the frst 
s der 11, (1855-1881), during 
dere, ‘we they thought, on the eve 
ay neg ‘by an inner crisis, sitailar 
tra aod quite dissimilar in other 
Mm aonecriplion came to an end at 
‘ ie pe v t of the reign. The age-limit for 
pay: ssazae for Jews and Christians, though 
fs pve temained. If there was at all a 
PWacillation, it meant fusing Jews 
g caltara liites——-the attempt to bring 
phad been givén up 25 hopeless. 
me Rais, and privileges were granted 
(for the process. 
wae ot snag anipire were opened. for perma- 
eof the highest clase, graduates of 
iain. Wealth, education, and ekill 
Pi furtherance of the industrial devel- 
tevend as heipiul to certain parts of the 
acl | The Jewish capitalists supplied money 
‘fo bee ntti. of railroads, - beste pay 
mis were needed in the artay acd im civil Sife. 
Soap p swacie ig possible for Jews t be acenitied to. 
egal p e gad in rare causes even te « jdicied career, 
th — mass, without means to pay the hign mer- 
yenses or to afford costly etlucetian, remained 
xed ‘up Within the dense Pale, unable. to tlvence woo- 
ically. ye While a few hundred found theif way to secon- 
‘ 683 


ol 


4 
a 


scholarship with lasting contribs 


de inst nnnmntality of Ludwig 


~ <~uently succreded to the p 


688 THE REFORM MOVEMENT IN 4) 
igh Leaming CHochs schule far ¢ 


first teachers Geiger, the hist 
1393), che eritical student of the T 
1917); the ne profound thinker Hey 
It was buETS bei oO a 
‘; 


the =t re ated ink nthe game ecity a er 
ba put of kate ‘Hilde 


vba t aa dosiiictnl a yeah 1 
stadt, Hungary; he associated 1 
ture the tala dist. David Hofin 


wlph fAbraham) Berliner: (183. 
Bacth (1853-1914). The split bet 
orthoden grew ever wider; in 19764 
Prussian government which enables 
chelr own congregations as inde 


# 


1 tn cl ei 


CHAPTER XCII 
THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA 
(1855-1878) 


SEEMING peace settled upon the Jews of the West, 
| with political equality achieved and the religious 


conscience satisfied by the very separation of ortho- 
dox and progressives. The era of political reforms in the first 
ten years of the reign of Alexander IT. (1855-1881), during 
which the Jews in Russia were, as they thought, on the eve 
of better days, was accompanied by an inner crisis, similar 
in some respects to the western and quite dissimilar in other 
ways. For one thing, juvenile conscription came to an end at 
the very commencement of the reign. The age-limit for 
recruits was made the same for Jews and Christians, though 
some discriminations still remained. If there was at all a 
definite policy amid much vacillation, it meant fusing Jews 
and Russians along cultural lines—the attempt to bring 
about religious sameness had been given up as hopeless. 
The Jews were to be ‘Russified,’ and privileges were granted 
to those who were ready for the process. 

The inner provinces of the empire were opened for perma- 
nent residence to merchants of the highest class, graduates of 
universities, and mechanics. Wealth, education, and skill 
were welcome enough in furtherance of the industrial devel- 
opment of the country and as helpful to certain parts of the 


anilitary machine. The Jewish capitalists supplied money 


and material for the construction of railroads, Jewish physi- 
cians and surgeons were needed in the army and in civil life. 
The law of 1864 made it possible for Jews to be admitted to 
the legal profession and in rare cases even to a judicial career. 

But the great mass, without means to pay the high mer- 
‘chants’ licenses or to afford costly education, remained 
penned up within the dense Pale, unable to advance eco- 
nomically, While a few hundred found their. way to secon- 


683 


684 THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA [1863 


dary and higher educational institutions, hundreds ot thou- 
sands frequented the old-fashioned schools (heder and 
yeshibah) against which the government battled to no pur- 
pose until at length it left them in peace. Nor was the gov- 
ernment able to drive out the old-style rabbis; in the end 
the two rabbinical seminaries were transformed into teachers’ 
institutes to supply teachers for the Jewish crown schools. 

Just as at St. Petersburg the official circles were bent upon 
Russifying the Jews, so at Warsaw the Poles, now preparing 
another revolution (1860-1863), were obsessed with the idea 
of Polonizing them. Suddenly it dawned upon the Polish 
leaders that Jewish friendship ought to be cultivated, and 
their approaches met with a hearty response not merely 
from the group of intellectuals eager for assimilation, but 
from the orthodox as well. The venerable spiritual head of 
the Warsaw community, Berush Meisels (1800-1870), vied 
with his younger colleague Marcus Jastrow (p. 681), then 
preacher in a semi-reformed Warsaw synagogue, in espous- 
ing the Polish cause. When in 1861 several Poles and Jews 
were shot down by Cossacks during a street demonstration, 
both these rabbis marched behind the coffins alongside with 
the Catholic clergy. Both were sent to prison by the Russian 
viceroy, but were subsequently released. 

The concession which the czar was persuaded by Marquis 
Vielopolski to grant to the Poles provided for the removal of 
sundry Jewish disabilities. Nevertheless the revolution 
broke out in 1863 and was put down with severity. Many 
Jewish youths died in the battles or fell into the hands of the 
Russians as prisoners. Russia was now determined to obliter- 
ate every vestige of Polish autonomy. The whole of the 
western provinces was Russianized with vigor, and a_period 
of reaction set in over the empire. 

The Jews were made to feel the change in two ways. 
Because a number of Jews had grown rich in consequence of 
the industrial development of the country, the cry was 
raised that they were ‘exploiters,’ a menace to the real 
‘producers.’ Then a fresh onslaught was launched against 
the ‘kahals.’’ As a matter of fact, nothing remained but a 


Tm MUTAIS TRIAL 625 


| Hon. svatiggl nee, An Apostate, Jae *y 


Hiate exisietee. By gross 
te, he Made it appear 
* fx the exploitation of 

pewtelce was still secretly 

aes. tnat a part of a 
ae Jemination. The 
iemitwy the com- 


Hin bteck es gen Jewish par- 

vet bo ohaces with & —pre- 

tov Third th the city 

take sheitte to the post of 

‘tuphebing general 

Pa eataated. 3 Fs * by directing 

case of Jewish rec cate shinier vacasuecsments of 

-chest. shoold be cata ‘aid that those re- 

should be replaced by oie: fews, even if they Te i 
sous of their parents. Phe ritual murder legend: 


iam to the Greck is the diox Church; soon a 


vg convert he: eh eHeREty, hes remained jn 

with thedewsh scholere of his time and 

> for hirnself wren he foremest students of 

ate re. ry 

n was all ten Pate Bs « ied antes) by the ‘Karaite 

o Firkowide (75% 1374), who collected in ; 


: doit in the Orizeeni ae ary ef K.xeurte, Samari- r 

| Rabbanite ATC awl 4 il Kaneda le in his 
he cause of his cave ear) 6 Soo eh dud not scruple 
oe and inscriptiees a2 gs > give his own people 
ance of greater sititysles ~~ eraromarian Sim- 

or (1801- PAG4) Whewiee’ pee ov to implicit faith ie 

r Ace waite 

pe 


teey and highe * ilicasees oe ti 
miele bcqnediad the old- fashioned 
eyahibah) against which the a) 


ht at wi it lett yrs 
seam 

tay 
leacles : sich por: pice 


newt apy Baie met with a Re 
e group of intellectuata: 


the «fol al Wi hen a in 


were shot down by Cossacks dur 
; Wor 
noth these rabbis mare fied behind 


The concession eles the. 
‘ wlopolski to grantte the Pole: 
: sumac! Jewish disabilities. 


Rpodane ae prisoners, ; hee 
te every ‘vestige of Polish auty 


western p wovinces was “Russiz ! : 
of rew ine set in over thee 
: The te nw. were’ made to. fe 
Because a sumber of jews had 
the industrial development of 
raised that they were ‘exploit 
fm ‘producers.’ Thén a fresh onslaugh 
the ‘kahals.” As @& matter of sani 


7 


1878] THE KUTAIS TRIAL 685 


shadow of the old organization. However, an apostate, Jacob 
Brafman, seized upon the minutes of the kahal of Minsk, 
dating from the time of its legitimate existence. By gross 


’ misrepresentation and with wilful malice he made it appear 


that the Jews were banded together for the exploitation of 
the Gentile world, that the organization was still secretly 
kept up, and that the Paris ‘Alliance’ was but a part of a 
universal Jewish ‘kahal’ aiming at world domination. The 
official circles immediately set about to destroy the com- 
munal cohesion of the Jews (1870). 

A new municipal statute placed a check upon Jewish par- 
ticipation in town government. Even in places with a pre- 
ponderating Jewish population, only one third in the city 
councils could be Jews, and no Jew was eligible to the post of 
burgomaster. Similarly, the law of 1874, establishing general 
military service, discriminated against Jews by directing 
that in the case of Jewish recruits shorter measurements of 
stature and chest should be adopted, and that those re- 
jected as unfit should be replaced by other Jews, even if they 
were the only sons of their parents. The ritual murder legend 
was revived by Hippolyte Lutostanski, a convert from 
Roman Catholicism to the Greek Orthodox Church; soon a 
trial occurred in Kutais, a government in the Caucasus 
(1878). The accused, however, were acquitted, the evidence 
proving to be a flimsy web of inventions. On this occasion the 
Jewish side was sustained by the learned Daniel Chwolson 
(1819-1911), a convert to Christianity, who remained in 
literary contact with the Jewish scholars of his time and 
made a name for himself among the foremost students of 
Oriental literature. 5 

Chwolson was all too readily led astray by the Karaite 
scholar Abraham Firkovich (1786-1874), who collected in 
the Crimea and in the Orient a number of Karaite, Samari- 
tan, and Rabbanite manuscripts and old inscriptions. In his 
zeal for the cause of his own sect, Firkovich did not scruple 
to forge dates and inscriptions so as to give his own people 
the appearance of greater antiquity. The grammarian Sim- 
hah Pinsker (1801-1864) likewise put far too implicit faith 


686° THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA [1872 


in the finds of his Karaite friend. It remained for a younger 
scholar, Albert (Abraham) Harkavy (1839-1919), librarian 
at St. Petersburg, to discriminate between truth and fiction 
in the finds of Firkovich, and he made notable contributions 
in the fields of Jewish history and literature. All these schol- 
ars enjoyed the esteem of the exponents of Jewish learning 
in the West. So did also the bibliographer Isaac Benjacob 
(1801-1863) at Vilna. Eliezer Lipmann Silbermann (1819- 
1882), though born in Kénigsberg and settled in Lyck, 
Prussia, was of Russian descent; he founded in 1856 the first 
Hebrew weekly (Ha-Maggid, ‘The Intelligencer’) and was 
instrumental in organizing a society for the publication of 
old Hebrew works (Mekize Nirdamim, ‘The Awakeners of 
the Sleeping’). 

* The interest in Jewish learning differentiated all these men 
from the group of Jewish Russian intellectuals, who took the 
leap from the old into the new without any transition. The 
trend was towards Hebrew letters as a fine art and the break 
with rabbinism. In Russia the transformation did not express 
itself in the making of new prayer-books and in ritual 
reforms. No half-way stations pleased these stormers; the 
modern life beckoned from without, Israel must step into it, 
preferably in a Hebrew form, but if necessary in Russian. 

At best, the Jew was to be a Jew at home and a ‘man’ 
abroad. So sang in purest Hebrew verse Judah Loeb Gordon 
(1831-1892), who from 1872 on acted as secretary of the 
Society for the Spreading of Enlightenment among the Jews 
of Russia. The society was founded in 1863 by Baron:Joseph 
Giinzburg (1812-1878) and his son Horace (1833-1909), 
who succeeded his father in the presidency. The seat of the 
society was at St. Petersburg; but there was a branch at 
Odessa, which went still further in the direction of Russian- 
izing Jewish education in the interest of obtaining for the 
Jews in Russia full emancipation. 

The novel was introduced into Hebrew literature by Abra- 
ham Mapu (1808-1867), and he injected into it a purely 
secular tone. The younger Solomon Abramovich (1836- 
1917), or, as he was known by his pseudonym, ‘Mendele the 


1 


. 


$ML,UM AND SMOLEMERIN 687 


ed Paani! and short ans te the ree 
t Russian Pale. ; 


¢ but euperstition sant a early ejebih 
i st youth’; Perez Stateewkin (1842- 
aren huneelf as “one astray in Geass of life’ and 
ages oe Sie Betray periodical “Piw> EMawn’ (Ha- 
: *, t ‘dark’ ort hemdites teh came 


- than Lilienblumn; % ii Viewer wether he 
tn 1868, he Be: vent ee aetanertive 
hire che foity of ‘the we | bayeyt at Faget? ys “Pwer 


fc Fob the Messianic ‘hore, which te Wink was 
zel's Character as an ‘#orlart iy % george 
mene SOAs tie fisisted on the sof hats ae ue shee 
Tact without whieh Judaiste <nx <5 Se ave 
ibe A eaters he maintianed. “hit @& was 
ott ue dead to new eert cid towael 
&3 pel cal te 1842 at Vile cis Ge 9848 
efor the acy of religious mary ‘hak ony Kionad’. 
{ this movement for a deeper ueees cling 
a = ga tor the rabbinewe ae eat itself 
> fore roe Ween the taimudic ames: tb Kapha) at 
| 1 1925, Bs Pie toatitution was int gna — ie 


: cadet thousand jeive or srare were to 
ia, the Danubian stot roumediately bor- 
fed was in 1859 thar emai, teally 
\ the union of (ie ove pence 
which elected Alem or 

‘woder Tarkish suseraittey ome inaek 
is from remotest tinaes; bead far the 


Phat to. Neh: : tateeaetion, and, 


Ment of reiws be niet fhe 


few: $ OFF RUSSIA 


FC OL. £ OLer ere 
‘ 


ds of Pirkovi ch, aah he 
aa of Jewis! ; 1 Als 
jw ed the déateem of shana | 
, veut So did alsa: the pes 
i469)-at Vilnd, Evieger Tuy 
hog he Onn iad. KGnigeh 


+. Wes of Raw asian desee en 


Hebe uw works Apes kize Mia 


ed 2 


ou 9 of 


2%, 


piae 


7 
nL 


te half-wa ay stations : 


y itt a : Hebrew form 
“the dee Ww Was 


ij fs ties 
: * 
‘ 


the 2 Spe akc of 1 

i owed: “The society was found 

Ct aban * {1812 t~1878) and 

who x nonweded his father in t 

City wea ar St ‘Petersh : 

aa, Which went still further f 

seinig: | Jenin ex! uucation: in the. | 

. : 


> 


pow 


1868] LILIENBLUM AND SMOLENSKIN 687 


Bookseller,’ created the novel and short story in the popular 


dialect of the Jewish Russian Pale. 

To Moses Loeb Lilienblum (1843-1910) the ‘ways of the 
Talmud’ were nothing but superstition and his early Jewish 
education ‘a sin against youth’; Perez Smolenskin (1842- 
1885) pictured himself as ‘one astray in the ways of life’ and 
from the pages of the literary periodical ‘The Dawn’ (Ha- 
Shahar) he battled against ‘dark’ orthodoxy. Both came 
back—not to orthodoxy, but to Jewish nationalism, and 
Smolenskin sooner than Lilienblum; in Vienna, whither he 
transplanted himself in 1868, he gained the perspective 
which taught him the folly of ‘the wisdom of Berlin.’ Over 
against the western movement of reform he scorned the 
casting aside of the Messianic hope, which to him was 
expressive of Israel’s character as an ‘everlasting people.’ 
With the same force he insisted on the cultivation of the 
Hebrew language without which Judaism cannot exist, and 
against the ruthless destroyers he maintained that it was 
‘time to plant,’ to build up. 

Nor was orthodoxy quite dead to new stirrings. Israel 
Lipkin (died 1883) organized in 1842 at Vilna and in 1848 
at Kovno societies for the study of religious morals (‘Musar’). 
The influence of this movement for a deeper religious feeling 
among young students for the rabbinate impressed itself 
with specific force upon the talmudic school (yeshibah) at 
Slobodka (in 1925, the institution was in part transferred to 
Hebron, Palestine). 

About 1860, two hundred thousand Jews or more were to 
be found in Rumania, the Danubian state immediately bor- 
dering upon Russia. It was in 1859 that Rumania really 
became a state through the union of the two principalities, 
Moldavia and Wallachia, which elected Alexander Cuza as 
their common prince under Turkish suzerainty. Jews had 
dwelt in these parts from remotest times; but by far the 
greatest part of Rumanian Jewry descended from immi- 
grants from Poland, who commenced to arrive at the earliest 
in the first half of the seventeenth century. The stream 
continued uninterruptedly, especially after the partitions 


688 THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA [1866 


of Poland; Galicia contributed its quota; then Russia dur- 
ing the harsh rule of Nicholas I. The opening up of the 
ports of the Black Sea and of the lower Danube for inter- 
national commerce, in 1829, brought into the country richer 
Jews from abroad, Sephardim from the south and German- 
speaking Jews from the north. The great mass lived in the 
cities and villages under the same conditions as obtained 
among the Jews of Poland and the southwestern provinces 
of Russia, either as artisans and middlemen or as unskilled 
laborers and petty traders. 

In the Convention of Paris of 1858 there had been em- 
bodied a pledge, carelessly worded, that legislative steps 
would be taken by the principalities towards the political 
enfranchisement of the non-Christian population. Whatever 
designs prince Cuza entertained for a gradual emancipation 
of the Jews in Rumania, they were frustrated by his enforced 
abdication in 1866. Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 
was elected prince, and the National Assembly met to frame 
a new constitution. Crémieux, then on a tour to Turkey, 
stopped at Bucharest, where he conferred with the ministers 
of state and anumber of the deputies, and seemed to have 
carried the majority in favor of Jewish political rights. But 
the enemies of the Jews organized a street demonstration, 
during which a new synagogue, in course of construction, 
was demolished and an old synagogue invaded and dese- 
crated. Crémieux reported to Paris that in Rumania the 
liberal party, while loudly professing sympathies with the 
revolution of 1848, was, on religious and social questions, 
still committed to the ideas of the fifteenth or sixteenth 
century. . 

The chief of the ‘liberal’ cabinet, John Bratianu, in his 
fight with the conservative aristocracy, leaned for support 
mainly on the commercial and industrial middle classes, 
and these, constituting the majority in the chambers, were 
determined to keep down Jewish competition. Old laws were 
resuscitated, and large numbers of Jews were expelled from 
rural places in the districts of Jassy, Bacau, and other parts 
of Moldavia; those that fled to the cities were sent across 


1: 
“ 


* 


ESS OF BENLEY 689 


af It happened thet ~ oroup of Jews 
PEE hs be foreigners gia gre 
P. eee (rontées-glewtds refused 
@ Rumanian police poet wig into the 
fei indignation was areget abroad; 
@ treat Britain, a2% #eatianw re- 
> expulsions nevererahine sunuinued 
igi’ of song RIC CMM, i be Or 
TM Gatareie ministey. fee was 
tick in the es tal Qa 4 battles. 
; ih . luke Swarm fi to spel ey) We “iyi 
eet its persecution oh be eee bey 
ie Segiet: Hick. 
ete te interven: . ope se pee ey 


wr he barf. Wiven the Aner ook comedl-Riere 


tt ye. grand <cvies @ tee ee 
i aa mat Ceraryt igs t hi ae dvet try he 
at pudtecGhe the Jews & Tov ooua- The 
| “Univoracite sunt es me 


‘ a from Europe ak ee we 2 
myyuence of their tiie’; 2 Ege le 
feka temnake represen 2 crc) i ae Goawepke 
eG with Rissa ne os oe Boe aa awe 
Ts g to te auidonr ey er 9 tea B recor. 
Yr etracd boramitied to oer pW nay ee 
sighta 5 Srey jews oe, Ft trate? wee Se 
yates,’ theagh + si cen Nee oe eR 
iat though thes were noid aserralis ico te 
e gtaic, qactuttine Service bi iy eee. 
ge Terkcioke May of 1879-14748 Rae adel 
J achieved Taicpendencr rhe Tagers ok Saar 
ab eon Termey by grit wat ery ee 
Pather geeat Powers, and the 4 holuan ¢ 
ppatinned to ecttle thc Rssteten tombs: The 
at ive He legares in confer with ths peers aes ve 
es of the Powers with a view to righting! {lax kee tion 
th ir Rumanian coeeligiists. France rece Feet the 
dence of Rumania should be nade coniiitixeal upon 


#, 
w 


Pal 
” 
a 
ne 


| gee a 


me? 
4 rf ; TY 
ee | 7 gational comuMerce, in 182 ae o, bates 


Poe ews from abroad) Se han dim Pb 
e eae weaking fewe from the north. The gr great. 
7 cities and villages under the Same oc 
smong the Jews of Poland and the « 

tos i 


as artisans and 4 


In the Convention of Parts of : 
Ted a plecdes, ca relessly worded, : t 
id be taken by the Ripe 


fears: of ve 


ews in Sianisi ge aera 
lication in 1866. Charles of; 
¢ cleotae ~ mise and ae Na 


Wf state and a number of t the — . 
arried the majority in laos of Jew 
ie enernies of the Jews organize 
juving which @ new pili: it 
13 demolished and an. old s a 
“ated Crémicus ehese siren to 


yer 
% eat 

ae 

s4 

53. At 


iel (of the sibeal : ahha 
tainly nh. ye COM Mere jal and ee 
and theseyée nstituting the. major Fs 
determined te keep down. Jewish : 7 
ssuscits ted, and farce numbers 
at places in the dic stricts: of Jass 28 
Moldavia: those . that fled to 


1878] THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN 689 


the border as ‘vagabonds.’ It happened that a group of Jews 
of Galatz, who proved to be foreigners, were convoyed 
across the Danube. As the Turkish frontier guards refused 
to receive them, the Rumanian police cast them into the 
river (July, 1867). Great indignation was aroused abroad, 
especially in France and Great Britain, and Bratianu re- 
signed office (1868). The expulsions nevertheless continued 
under the conservative régime of his successors. In the years 
1871-1872, during the Catargiu ministry, there was a 
sequence of mob attacks on the Jews in a number of cities. 
The government was rather lukewarm in punishing the cul- 
prits, while it redoubled its persecution of the Jews by 
enacting fresh restrictive legislation. 

The prince was powerless to intervene, despite the assur- 
ances of sympathy he had given.the American consul, Ben- 
jamin F. Peixotto (1834-1890), grand master of the order 
B’nai B’rith, whom President Grant had appointed for the 
express purpose of protecting the Jews of Rumania. The 
Alliance Israélite Universelle summoned a gathering of 
representative Jews from Europe and America to Brussels 
(1872). As a consequence of their efforts the Powers in- 
structed their consuls to make representations to the Ruma- 
nian government. But with Russia as an open abetter and 
Austria, not wishing to be outdone by her rival Russia, 
friendly, Rumania stood committed to her policy of denying 
civil and political rights to her Jews. It insisted upon con- 
sidering them as ‘aliens,’ though they were subjects of no 
other country and though they were held amenable to all the 
duties within the state, including service in the army. 

In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 Rumania sided 
with Russia and achieved independence. The Treaty of San 
Stefano, forced upon Turkey by Russia, was viewed unfa- 
vorably by the other great Powers, and the Congress of 
Berlin was summoned to settle the Eastern Question. The 
‘Alliance’ sent its delegates to confer with the plenipoten- 
tiaries of the Powers with a view to righting the condition 
of their Rumanian coreligionists. France moved that the 
independence of Rumania should be made conditional upon 


690 THE JEWS OF RUSSIA AND RUMANIA [1879 , 


the granting of equality of rights to all her subjects irre- — 
spective of religious differences. England (through Disraeli), 
Germany (through Bismarck), Austria and Italy, all seconded — 
the motion; at last even Gorchakov, the Russian representa- — 
tive, joined in, although unwillingly. Thus the principle that — 
differences of religious beliefs cannot serve as a hindrance to 
the enjoyment of political rights was embodied in the Treaty — 
of Berlin for all the Balkan principalities. Unfortunately, the 
phrasing of the article left a technical loophole for the 
Rumanian government to hark back to the Rumanian law 
that the Jews were aliens and that their admissibility to 
citizenship rested with the legislature. Some eight hundred 
Jews, who had served in the late war, were naturalized in 
1879; in the sequel, individual Jews were naturalized by 
special acts of parliament. Yet, despite reminders from Eng- 
land and France, the bulk of the Jews of Rumania were 
denied citizenship under the legal fiction that they were 
‘aliens.’ 

The internal conditions were not calculated to improve 
under this constant stress of governmental hostility. Barring 
individual cases, the general cultural tone was not a high 
one. When Meir Loeb Malbim (1809-1879) accepted the post 
of chief rabbi at Bucharest in 1860, he found much simple 
piety, but also a tendency on the part of some to be derelict 
in religious observance. The intrigues of the laxer element 
brought about his imprisonment by the authorities, and he 
was released only on condition that he would leave the coun- 
try. It is true, Malbim did not remain long in his subsequent 
charges; he was far too exacting in his dealings with the lay 
heads. It was at Bucharest that he began his commentary 
on the Scriptures, characterized by a fine perception of the 
niceties of the Hebrew language and marking Malbim as 
second to Luzzatto among Jewish Bible students of the 
nineteenth century. 


| rER eo il 


| iets a turn was sihsg: we) by thee 
ae the home polities > > empire 
ashed the furies of da wwenized 

WS. Bismarck was few oc! fore. 
een way he brough’ ese the 
pMeexclusion of Anstits. sed Wi 
@@2 Prussia, was crowing 42-Ver 
= With the aid of the Sareea 
‘+ ee erenete on they i srhutte 


a: le peace with oané. The jew te 
my seal Liberal era was at aa ‘eal 


| | tic Baoiaiier by Feeantion: | 
oa Re ina} ew In 1878. the emmpesoyiweas 
eo with the waciatises 
. The crime served Bismarck, who wes: aaa 
2 the: ‘resergent forces of dem : 
¢ ting a change of policy, and the g 
tn BP ithesal Party went over to the 
itm eee ceneemvos sence 


P- RUSS 


st event Gori 


ae motion: atias 


$e. % - 
‘ aithoug! 


te a the » Balas Boe 
ing of the article left. a 
,aniean government to hat 
it the. Jews were evaliens 


itizenahip rested wit . the legis 


‘% 


Te We, W ho h ad served itt the late 
to bats sha individual 


aae wh 


nets 
anid ti: zenship ¥ rey t of 


5 
* 


one. When } Mi “ir 3 "Loeb M allio 
chief rab . 
immery, Hula 


“a lous ober The int 


é o” 


‘ 2 ‘ 
te 2% ace 


ha rxes; srhicciels 9 tao ABI nh 
reaadag Te Yo RAS at. Bucharest th 
wi Ai ‘ siesta * ena: . 


tyr te 


CHAPTER XCIII 
GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS 


(1878-1894) 


of the Jews in the Balkans, a turn was effected by the 
powerful chancellor in the home politics of the empire 
which, with full intent, unleashed the furies of an organized 
movement against the Jews. Bismarck was first and fore- 
most a Prussian; in his own way he brought about the 
unification of Germany by the exclusion of Austria, and Wil- 
liam I. (1861-1888), king of Prussia, was crowned at Ver- 
sailles: German emperor. With the aid of the National 
Liberals he led for seven years the onslaught on the Catholic 
Party (the ‘Kulturkampf’). He was no Liberal, however, and 
when Liberalism, having done its work, showed itself un- 
yielding on questions of military expenditure and imperial 
taxation, he quickly made peace with Rome. The ‘journey to 
Canossa’ had been taken; the Liberal era was at an end. 
For fifteen years there had been in existence a Social- 
Democratic party. It consisted of the Marxists, the followers 
of Karl Marx (1818-1883), who was a Jew by birth only, and 
the Working Men’s Association, founded by Ferdinand Las- . 
salle (1825-1864), a nominal Jew. In 1878 the emperor was 
twice shot,at by men remotely connected with the socialist- 
republican agitation. The crime served Bismarck, who was 
determined to crush the resurgent forces of democracy, as 
a pretext for inaugurating a change of policy, and the greater 
part of the National Liberal Party went over to the Opposi- 
tion. None attacked the Chancellor more fiercely than the 
Jew Eduard Lasker (1820-1884), a skilled parliamentarian 
who had helped to form the liberal party. The Jews were 
indebted to the Liberals for their emancipation, and were 
bound to liberal doctrine by their economic interests. Bis- 


691 


| the very year in which Bismarck championed the cause 


692 GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS [1881 


marck dropped the hint, which subservient creatures took 
up, to bring the Liberals to heel by striking at the Jews. 

The court-preacher Stécker at once formed a Christian 
Socialist Workingmen’s Union, in order to invest the Chan- 
cellor’s proposed social legislation with a Christian and 
monarchist character and thus take the wind out of democ- 
racy’s sails. Those that actually joined the new party were 
not the workingmen, but the middle class people, who 
responded to the pastor’s agitation against Jewish ‘domina- 
tion’ in business, the press, and politics. Thus was born the 
modern ‘Anti-Semitic’ movement, which aimed at the revo- 
cation of the political rights held by the Jews. The thing was 
old, but the name was new, and it was brought into vogue 
by an obscure publicist (1879-1880). Back of it was the 
assumption that ‘Semitic’ and ‘Aryan’ were racial terms and 
that of the two races the Semitic was the inferior—a con- 
ception most sharply advanced by the French scholar Ernest 
Renan in 1855, though subsequently (1883) he denied that 
the modern Jews were Semites or at all a distinct race. But 
the Anti-Semites proceeded along the lines of the theory 
that the Jews were an alien race of. which the European 
nations must rid themselves and which at all events they 
must subdue. “The Jews,’ wrote the historian Treitschke, 
‘are our misfortune.’ 

In 1881, a petition, signed by a large number of persons, 
was submitted to the Chancellor, recommending a number 
of discriminations against the Jews, which as a matter of 
fact the government had been quietly carrying out for some 
time. While the petition was still circulating in the country, 
seventy-six men, belonging to the highest scholarly, legisla- 
tive, administrative, and mercantile circles, issued a counter- 
declaration in which the agitation against the Jews was 
described as a national disgrace. But the passions had been 
aroused; Jews were attacked in the streets of Berlin; at 
Neustettin a new synagogue was burned down. However, 
the elections of 1881 brought into the Imperial Diet eight 
Jewish deputies, while of the Anti-Semites only Stécker 
obtained a seat. The movement had meanwhile spread into 


a x ey “AtakaNoeR eK PE 693 


18 led by von Schinerer; in Hungary 
Mames of farred, with the reeult. that upon 
ice en Christian girl mm. Tisza-Eszlar, 
eeeted on the charge of eitwal murder 
year Congress of German and Austro- 
pmerat Dresden and #aeeed! resolu- 
sof the principal stages af europe 
in it theasiires against the growing prepon- 
5 iat particular to exclude them trom the 
ie t fewish i imunigration from te 5g 
nate the exmeperor Alexander fF, ele! ae the 
¥ bonib throwers on the very eve of 
bole y of constitutional government. The 
wande Hil. (0881-1904), wes completely swayed 
Ta ; 5 tutor, Pobiedonostz” ¥, whom he appaiated 
3) - off vee the Moly Synod--a man who heleved 
t00 NX S$ Superior to western narliamentariam and 
cate through the Greek Orthodex Ctnirch 
sed on ail Russia. For the Jews this cynical 
welooed a-definite enough programme: a third 
rted, a third emigrate, and a third perieh. 
ay agivation of Germany commaninated 
pend here it led, beginning with Haster and 
othe euramer of 1581, to excesses, ‘pogroms’ 
@ call these, riots), agains! the jews through. 
eta wapie Phere 16 no question bet that the 
fecentrally organized, although # is net, knows 
i by lation: Ip is equally certain that the govesn- 
en hand in them acd that the guiding 
thad not as yet acquired that skui o/ whieh they later 
a a, « The Hote occurred altogether too shania-— 
- sty to have been spontaneous; they had geteraiiy the 
same t :. ’ First, there were foreboingas, veiled treats; 
altercation with one or the other of the jewish 
bitant aatstols gered as a signs!. Suddenly, there ap- 
d Seaiksot petty artisans and je\-crers, supported by 
| a a. the outlying districts, The Jewish quarter 
invaded, dwellings were demolishes, tones and burned 


ie) 


eeventy ae ‘men, 7: hee to th | 


the elecrign OF {58h brought inte 


* 


strates Jews — Rese in 


socialist Workingmen's Ui nion, in or 
ee ilo - re : it bi ian ay Ch i} pre ation 
ronarchist character and th 


racy sails, Those side « actully | 


or 
_ 
be a 
ove 


iness, 1 the p press, ands 


nation ob el ‘e polith ital eights held by the 
a, but the n arta’ wis NeW, an h 
an obscure publicist (1879+ 
te te a t ‘Semitic’ and shies 


he neodern Jews were i Oeindeee 
* AntSemites proceeded al 
he Tews we e an ali et ame 


w 


ree 


ia | 


must, subdue, he: Tews! wit 
are ie dae oo 
ia (881,a petition; late by ak 
as sibmitted: to the Chane -ollor, 
ic diapiminations against the’ 


fart the wove rament ha at been kis 


CAR, Ae ~liuinistrative, and mere 
ee ‘ion in which “the agite 


“2 


Sout t's @unew synagogue was 


iewiel; deouties, while Of. the An 4 


1881 | ALEXANDER III. 693 


Austria, where it was led by von Schénerer; in Hungary 
Istéczi fanned the flames of hatred, with the result that upon 
the disappearance of a Christian girl in Tisza-Eszlar, 
fifteen Jews were arrested on the charge of ritual murder 
(1882). In the same year a Congress of German and Austro- 
Hungarian Anti-Semites met at Dresden and passed resolu- 
tions urging the sovereigns of the principal states of Europe 
to take rigorous joint measures against the growing prepon- 
derance of the Jews, in particular to exclude them from the 
army and to forbid Jewish immigration from the east. 

On March 13, 1881, the emperor Alexander II. died as the 
victim of revolutionary bomb throwers on the very eve of 
granting a semblance of constitutional government. The 
new czar, Alexander III. (1881-1894), was completely swayed 
by his former tutor, Pobiedonostzev, whom he appointed 
presiding officer of the Holy Synod—a man who believed 
that autocracy was superior to western parliamentarism and 
that religious unity through the Greek Orthodox Church 
must be imposed on all Russia. For the Jews this cynical 
doctrinaire developed a definite enough programme: a third 
might be converted, a third emigrate, and a third perish. 

The Anti-Semitic agitation of Germany communicated 
itself to Russia, and here it led, beginning with Easter and 
continuing into the summer of 1881, to excesses, ‘pogroms’ 
(as the Russians call these riots), against the Jews through- 
out the southern provinces. There is no question but that the 
pogroms were centrally organized, although it is not known 
just how and by whom. It is equally certain that the govern- 
ment had no direct hand in them and that the guiding 
spirits had not as yet acquired that skill of which they later 
gave evidence. The riots occurred altogether too simulta- 
neously to have been spontaneous; they had generally the 
same type. First, there were forebodings, veiled threats; 
then an altercation with one or the other of the Jewish 
inhabitants, which served as a signal. Suddenly, there ap- 
peared a mob of petty artisans and laborers, supported by 
peasants from the outlying districts. The Jewish quarter 
was invaded, dwellings were demolished, looted, and burned 


? “ 
a 
ow 
3 


694 GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS [1881 


down, furniture was destroyed. The fleeing Jews were beaten, 
neither age nor sex being spared; many were wounded and 
killed. The police was either unwilling or powerless to inter- 
fere; the troops, called out too late, were passive. These 
scenes were repeated in a hundred localities during the year 
1881; among the larger centers it suffices to mention Elisavet- 
grad (April 27-28), Kiev (May 8-9), Odessa (May 15-17). 

The victims of the pogroms were for the most part people 
in modest circumstances. There was an immediate need to 
find for these unfortunates shelter and food, before there 
could be any thought of rehabilitation; relief committees at 
Kiev and other centers addressed themselves nobly to their 
huge. task. A veritable panic seized the Jews of southern 


Russia; by the end of the summer ten thousand fugitives 


reached the Galician town Brody. Spain, repentant of the 
act of 1492, generously offered to receive them; but, however 
kindly the government was, it was questionable how the 
Spanish populace would take to the strangers. 

Since 1869 there had been in progress a slow but stedeliy 
emigration of Russian Jews, regulated by the Paris ‘Alliance’ 
with the aid of a Kénigsberg committee. A small number 
were placed in Germany, the majority—four thousand 
annually—found their way to America. This was the begin- 
ning of the third wave of Jewish immigration into America, 
coming on the top of the early Portuguese and the more 
recent German. Stray wanderers from the East of E urope 
had made a home for themselves in the New World before 
1869—the Beth Hamidrash Hagadol, a congregation of 
Russian Jews in the city of New York, was formed in 1852. 
These waves of immigration, however, were insignificant as 
compared with the stream that from now on, year in and 
year out for two decades, poured through the open gates of 
the American continent. 

The ‘Alliance’ took care of the fleeing humanity as soon as 
it crossed the frontier, and especially at the ports of embarka- 
tion. Organizations in America were active in receiving and 
distributing the arrivals, and in finding employment for 
them. Michael Heilprin (1823-1888), born in Russian Poland 


. idk aa AGwariey 695 


ica, threw himself ‘nee and soul 
iiema Lazarus (t§4%-1887), an 
Sephatdic descent and a g/ved poet, 
a nt ue the new immigrate te a warm 
d literature, to @tiek che had 
dhe locked fof suiwieen in a 
y people: ‘Let inet fo Lara rise 
nef the Jew! 
: f made it appear ae Ab PPe: EQoeSSES 
Haawes-of popular indigneyer xesinst 
i iose lay in the Jews sen the 
im, Aynatiev, ordeced thei ghicndectal 
pete ae to the necessary macasres. 
jad of Kiev,-ae 2 ro 2ight een- 
Hee ng the ercesses in his own eenblerce, 
Christian was no magich fee the: 
or Jenn bande and that therelore every 
he d ; . the Jews to ave Rass. 
saorely advan ts at in — 


: beet = | ea jegeessions wis s bwing sat in 
poy nm Kees! WE<sa] the Poctalt easktal he 
183) 1, 4 in pine Giieon hundved jewish gel 
POV d ast tients -four lewn & wu! rotxst. The 
ale for Hawdas Jewry woe to earrontthe bs: 
25,08 a given dey. Janvary 20, Tees (oadeqaun 


public c ont ‘wag nutspoken i ip crutedionasiativn: ot 
sae ute sand jmexmpathy with the persecuted. 
ge held, at the Mansion Howes ia ondon under 


an a alts Mayor {Pebreey. 1, 1882) and 
;  presideenyy | of the poet Vletar Mago (May 


dig clergy, mew of letters aud sennee, eminent 
were pacaed which denounced Jew- 
page eqaaolagptn ipsa 


tds ww fatene the old poaniiceal genie 


re ured by sepresentuticce pf the Protes 


cnt ve aobicht funds: in ie can : 


a 


7 te ce al 
pe Desire 
* : yr 
tien ae i 
“fr 
¥ 
; 


PASS CHRERMAN ANTI-REMITYS Mi AND 


dows, furniture was destroy ad. The loging 


rt ie 1 he fr age Hor sex £ CINE. & Dar éd} many | 
: “ied. ihe police was sities sind Y 
; fere; the troops, sys wee! ae too late, 


1881:2 song th sarge centers 2 ikea mn 
, grad (Amr 27-28), Kiev (May 8-9), Or s 
ue . Che wietames of thea pogronis were’ for the 4 
Bee in) raotiess a ircumstances, ibis 


. ee CORN He aay he houg! ht ‘ok chal sath ; : ; 
. Kies ane other centers: addressed themselves H 


*- 


ue task, A ibinlsr oe jie seiz 


clesd the Gal Sola, town. n. Brody. << 
of 1492, veneroucly bf fered. to packs 
kindy the povery ment was, it. as. 
Spanish populace ¥ would take to the 
tes | Sing! 1369 { there bad. been aw 


ke 2 eee ae | i? > Votes a * 
CTS eat BRILL Hh a iss ian elias regi lated 
sy) 67a, -. * 


atc vt cir way tai his 
e of the third wave.of Jewish j : 


© 


soning om the LOD: of the early. Pe 
“tag | recent German, Stray wanderers) Om 
Big: nal made a home for themselves init 


aes | . isi¥enthe: Beth Hamidrash Ha 
eD | en Jews in the city of New’ 
ihese waves of immigration, howey 
Bhs compared with the: stream tha: 
oe year ont fort two decades; pai 
an 4 | a the Amer RR wee ete 


diribucing 4 the arrivals, ere in. fur i 
therm, Michael hi eilprin (1823-1888) 


a 
> 
. ry 
~% “% ¥ 
- 
~S o 
om ? ¥ 
& 
F 
f vas 
aa 
? 5 
hen 
f ts 
Len ' Ps , 
, 4 x i i iat ‘ J ‘ 
i ; Pe by ; he 
: ; heb ee ARE Poe hee De he ‘a i’ 


1882] IGNATIEV 695 


and since 1856 in America, threw himself heart and soul 
into the work of relief. Emma Lazarus (1849-1887), an 
American Jewess of Sephardic descent and a gifted poet, 
was moved by contact with the new immigrants to a warm 
interest in Jewish history and literature, to which she had 
previously been a stranger. She looked for salvation in a 
complete regeneration of her people: ‘Let but an Ezra rise 
anew, to lift the banner of the Jew!’ 

The Russian government made it appear as if the excesses 
were uncontrollable outbursts of popular indignation against 
the Jewish exploiters. The cause lay in the Jews, and the 
new minister of the interior, Ignatiev, ordered the provincial 
governors to submit reports as to the necessary measures. 
Drenteln, the governor-general of Kiev, as if to right him- 
self for culpably permitting the excesses in his own residence, 
held that the Christian population was no match for the 
mentally superior Jewish trader and that therefore every- 
thing should be done to induce the Jews to leave Russia. 
The milder Totleben, in Vilna, merely advised that the Jews 
should be restrained from settling in rural localities. The 
machinery for preparing new repressions was being set in 
motion, when a pogrom burst upon the Polish capital (De- 
cember 25-27, 1881), in which fifteen hundred Jewish dwel- 
lings were destroyed and twenty-four Jews wounded. The 
only protest possible for Russian Jewry was to assemble in 
the synagogues, on a given day, January 20, 1882, to abstain 
from food and drink, and to intone the old medieval peni- 
tential prayers (selihoth). 

Abroad, public opinion was outspoken in enn ereood of 
the brutal persecutors and in sympathy with the persecuted. 
Meetings were held, at the Mansion House in London under 
the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor (February 1, 1882) and 
at Paris under the presidency of the poet Victor Hugo (May 
31), which were attended by representatives of the Protes- 
tant and Catholic clergy, men of letters and science, eminent 
politicians. Resolutions were passed which denounced Jew- 
ish rightlessness in Russia as the cause of all the evil, and 
committees were formed to solicit funds in aid of the suf- 


696 GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS [1882 


_ferers. In the House of Commons, Gladstone, while per- 
sonally sympathizing with the unfortunate Jews of Russia, 
nevertheless declared that the British government could not 
interfere in the internal affairs of a friendly power and that 
any intervention would only serve to aggravate the evil. The 
government of the United States of America instructed its 
representative in St. Petersburg to make known its hope 
that the Imperial Government would find means to cause 
the persecution of ‘these unfortunate fellow-beings’ to cease. 

Jewish opinion in Russia was divided. To large circles the 
task of the moment seemed to be to systematize the emigra- 
tion which was going on in a hurried fashion. Yet, the leaders 
were fearful that to encourage emigration might be con- 
strued as disloyalty or lack of patriotism, and still others 
thought that it would be a concession to the policy of Igna- 
tiev who had announced that the western frontier was open 
to the Jews. 

While a meeting of Jewish notables was being held in St. 
Petersburg, a most cruel pogrom broke out on Easter Mon- 
day (April 10, 1882) at Balta, an important commercial 
center in Podolia. Twelve hundred and fifty dwellings and 
shops were demolished, there was much destruction and 
looting of property and wares; fifteen thousand Jews were 
beggared, forty killed or maimed, about one hundred and 
seventy wounded, more than twenty women violated, while 
many lost their minds from fright. The depression which 
settled upon Russian Jewry was augmented by the promul- 
gation in the month of May, 1882, of the “Temporary Rules’ 
(the ‘May Laws’), which confined the Jews to the towns and 
townships of the Pale and forbade their settling in the vil- 
lages. Ignatiev, the author of these laws, was relieved of his 
office; but his successor, the no less reactionary Dmitri 
Tolstoi, was relentless in carrying them out. 

Sporadic pogroms still continued, but on the whole they 
were quickly suppressed by the authorities; so much had 
the protests from the West accomplished. Still the govern- 
ment was bent upon creating fresh disabilities; the number 
of Jewish surgeons serving in the army was greatly reduced 


73 -EMANC FPATION . 697 


nical Reese! at Zhitomit was closed 
pentage of Jews (ten per cent. of all 
: ta the secondary schools and 
x ~ the Pritt, etud stitl less outside the 
. aT); jewish graduates of the 
ier as public Or private 
| Loire were being expelled 
, & ean they had been settled 
- ie peas ar. Fa ‘ag from the capitals. 
lod bt Piste. Peberual for five years to 

2 of the keies Me os eel and to propose 
ahs a exdwaiia’ ves in favor of cautious 
a es slr 40 52° es the reactionary 


> 
é 

Ly 
ra 


(eterinie. fi the atrium 
| judi tor » return to the 
2 ean i PGaNs & atte DeRUBTY 

rough. tr pe Pie der  1S2% 1299), cop of 
k ' p. BRE, peisigeet & Os eecharre, In fhoch tec 
febleow: Jewe: ta ad: dex givtnaizon im ‘vell- 

hs » POeE RS A watkomal retrent sprme- 
ns prelantiilz ee Tatas Nadie ety, iv the Hann, 
AS. ene fee. ae a gred sare rh vie & beth. 
‘apedar the poo Jubii ed yrama jews 
falty stakes. reed sen: wives at Kiar- 
‘of une $b Bae ee bor:  Theth faakob 
SP house af 3 Teet xe aed let us go Ey 
: te esnalitish prioitinaal watery in Pales- 
7 eet activ pastes ~— owe ix Rett, brat only 
pinta. HAY & it governess bee cabeevteeertst im the 
y hike, ae tee patter: aetthed in the 
: pony Hate: i). Cin (>, Horbinger ento 


ere pound 4 BF ip BEE FS araaet vee to the . 

yeaah Paty. Mer» -ag-dveglected soil; 
ity departed, cakind supe oa jeune educated but 
y goignists. The 3 Paiaeiwac wuvement made 
1 Russia from. yest tay avten ‘She “Lowers of Zion’ 


ly sympat ine wi ich pre: 

nevertheless declared that the Britishige 
interfere in the internal af flains-of a frie 
SRY IDCerh inte? Ww = sae Woe to ag z 


represe entative in ge Peterstiagh ae uke 
hat the Imperial Governments woul 
ate been z of “these - unfortunate fe 
ewish fee ion in Russia was divide: 
‘the moment seeined to be tos 
on wh on was going or-in a hurti 
were fearful re t fo encourage! 
tried! ishloyalty or lack of 
Tt aula be a ee ance ton tk 
anno uniced that the veste 


aes 


Serger mae 
a wh WHO fe 


1 Oe) Teer 
cL? Le Tews. 


mI 
4tTh +4 . 


‘While a lepine. of Jew ish 1 : 


day (April 10, 1882) at Balta; 
enter in: Podolia, Twelve hundr 
ahe ps. were demolis hed, pani 
tN of property and wares; B 
hbeygared, forty killed ‘or mais 
sexwenty wounded, more than t’ 
many lost their minds from fright 
sertled upon Russian Jewry was é 
eu peti the month of May, 1882; 
the ‘May Laws’), which confined t 

own — ied ~~ _ and be. e 


office: but hie successor, teers : 
Polstoif wa $ relentless j in carrying't 
. Sporadic Lies still continu 
were quick ee apen at ey the: 


the protes 


S 


1882] ‘SELF-EMANCIPATION’ 697 


(1882); the Jewish Technical School at Zhitomir was closed 
(1884); only a small percentage of Jews (ten per cent. of all 
the scholars) were admitted to the secondary schools and 
universities situated in the Pale, and still less outside the 
Pale and in the two capitals (1887); Jewish graduates of the 
law schools were not admitted to the bar as public or private 
attorneys (1889). All the while Jews were being expelled 
from villages in the Pale—even when they had been settled 
there before 1882—from the interior, and from the capitals. 
A commission, headed by Pahlen, labored for five years to 
study the conditions of the Jews in Russia and to propose 
new measures. Though a majority was in favor of cautious 
and gradual reforms, it was overborne by the reactionary 
powers in the government. 

Under the shock of the first pogroms, in the autumn 
of 1881, Lilienblum sounded the call for a return to the 
ancient land of the fathers, should it take a whole century 
to carry it through. In 1882, Leo Pinsker (1821-1891), son of 
Simhah Pinsker (p. 685), published a brochure, in which he 
admonished his fellow-Jews to look for salvation in ‘self- 
emancipation, in the creation of a national retreat some- 
where on the earth, preferably on the banks of the Jordan, 
but if necessary on those of the Mississippi. While the bro- 
chure was still under the press, a group of young Jews, 
specifically university students, formed themselves at Khar- 
kov as the circle of the BILU (abbreviation for: Beth Iaakob 
Leku Unelkah, ‘O house of Jacob, come ye, and let us go’). 
Their plan was to establish an agricultural colony in Pales- 
tine. A few hundred adherents were won in Russia, but only 
forty arrived in Jaffa. Half were given employment in the 
‘Alliance’ colony Mikveh Israel, and half were settled in the 
recently founded colony Rishon le-Zion (‘A Harbinger unto 
Zion’). 

The young pioneers could not accustom themselves to the 
climate and the hardships of tilling the long-neglected soil; 
the majority departed, making room for less educated but 
more hardy colonists. The Palestinian movement made 
strides in Russia from year to year. The ‘Lovers of Zion’ 


698 GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS [1885 — 


(Hobebe Zion), with centers in Odessa and Warsaw, were 


numerous enough in 1884 to send delegates to a meeting at — 


Kattowitz in Prussian Silesia; a memorial fund in honor of — 


the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of Moses Monte- BS 


flore was created for the support of the Palestinian colonies. 


The movement, though started by the intellectuals, enjoyed — 
the warm-hearted support of so orthodox a rabbi as Samuel — 
Mohilever (1824-1898) of Bielostok, who was instrumental 


in the founding of a number of colonies, among them 
Rehoboth. 

Vastly larger were the numbers of those who singly or in 
groups, but nevertheless by the thousands, crossed the 
Atlantic. Wherever they settled, they found their country- 
men who had preceded them. In every port of debarkation 
the refugees were aided by committees from among the older 
Jewish residents, and frequently enough high-minded Chris- 
tians expressed their sympathy by proffers of help. In these 
years of stress the religious strife. in Europe had abated; the 


reformers and the orthodox, while pursuing their parallel 


paths, unitedly responded to the call of the hour. 

In America, the religious division was still crystallizing. 
For a time it was thought that an organic union of all Ameri- 
can Israel might be effected. Maimonides College (p. 681) 
had been intended to serve a general need; in the same man- 
ner had been conceived the Hebrew Union College as well 
as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, founded 
in 1873. In 1885, the coming to America of Alexander Kohut 
(1842-1894) and his criticism of American Reform served 
as an impetus for the eastern and western reformers to come 


together. The meeting took place in Pittsburgh and a plat- | 


form was adopted in which the tenets of Reform were for- 
mulated. The chief moving spirit at this conference was 
Kaufmann Kohler (1843-1926), who had come to America 
in 1869 and, after ministering to congregations in Detroit 
and Chicago, succeeded his father-in-law Einhorn as rabbi 
of Temple Beth-El in New York City in 1879. The radical 
tone of the Pittsburgh platform shocked the conservatives 
and convinced them that the idea of one institution serving 


Mal) ‘ 


Ee ar ee Pee a ne ea 


~ es tate 


ee ae eS et ee 


ry ae AGAINST ANTI-SEMITISM 699 


oh a given up. Actor: ingly, $886, Sabato 
Mpliphia opened the fc ‘cada Theols gical 
e city af New York. Moraid held office as 
nen the faciilty) s%< chein ef Talmud was 
. In 188° tt i ccanpigned, See Talmudic 
A eight Sn a ig d sine: pees 

a Cpecerick 110. he wact wit hs father, the 


A reign Of shiver iors wad Gehvwed by 
€ yourg monarch aie eV Loe csi that 
sid 7 wong stent with hire o@ e® isginks fasting, 
| far aa thie jows were scenes fone there 
ae E z te rahe away’ Frat! (sen Shete taghos as 
we, the rewrtionary ehevieaiin:, co. the cet 
their discretion int huepece <> toma fee 
6 The Anti -Semisic: .ysceo. rds seas Lis 
lease Hockel agitated. a) cn? Se terardle, 

owritten attacks tis ta beizs rey si atte eek 
charges against MapIPOLe (iP icaoH Ee 
fadustrialints. -r Pepe Mere 4 2 Lertabpaeed oe < ei 4 
1g; 7 at Crosser ses, HOw undtenmun atten 
4 at Bochumy (1889) 


ber “ thern were seated inn {awe es: homing 


L wort ts of charges against sie Te es | iced: eee 
ris: sf in the schools, T4ac her is Berard | ‘ie 
aH pupils, saree whont there wyyt pararally 
4 teneveriens’ if the Gertitan pexbts me Vi iver ale, 


sed of he Gereputable tactics at tae Apt 


tat aie. the Reichstag, Heinrich Rachaet, Side, 
i+ of Mien eminent in colitios qavit.geitolare 


bia defewsive society against J ie Seitiont.. 
Xanten tla this society publ: ished & loenek by, the. 


| 


* 
f 

Tt, 

as 
ie 
- ee 

: a . 

é a re 
a 1 A , Fo or 


oa 
ero Wiviam L,i uw) een We it nlahaess ae sli 7 morta! 


ecene wa ae sufi site duntes Aga B brad 


peeriices published a ‘Catechigh, sem. - 


ane Fews, There were, of tettrar, large. 


item the jurist Gneist and thy Rake 


et 
= a 


: : <5 
A et ae tle a, Ree ee aan he ee hs : 
ot Ae Ata, RT MMER RY (CORE tf ; 
u Oh i eae he ee Ta an AND eaten LY LRA EN Sea ie PHS at ‘ae ee 


> ¥ 
ty ak 


ritz os 
hundre ni aiiniv vertary of the 
veatecd for che support of 


ee 


Vastly larger were ‘the oa 


nen who a hack | preceded them. 

refugee o were a ided by comuni 
hewish re esicfents, and frequently 
vans expressed their evimpathy ® 
years of stress the religious str 
formers and theorthodex, 
ae i me feta edi y dnpetengye tt 


ihe een jotencd sled fo serve a 
y had been conceived the 
ihe Unites of American Heb 


yy 


mes Ind 


z 
2 


ra "a aad, ahi ‘nintation’ 
| i Bor edenne’ hi 


of the Pi oir a é 
cred jt ced theni that t 


‘ 


1890] SOCIETIES AGAINST ANTI-SEMITISM 699 


_ both camps must be given up. Accordingly, in 1886, Sabato 
Morais of Philadelphia opened the Jewish Theological 
Seminary in the city of New York. Morais held office as 
non-resident head of the faculty; the chair of Talmud was 
occupied by Kohut. In 1889 Kohut completed his Talmudic 
Dictionary in eight volumes, a labor of sixteen years. 

In Germany Frederick III., who succeeded his father, the 
aged emperor William I., in 1888, was stricken with a mortal 
disease, and after a reign of three months was followed by 
William II. The young monarch early gave assurance that 
all religious confessions stood with him on an equal footing, 
which meant, so far as the Jews were concerned, that there 
would be no attempt to take away from them their rights as 
citizens. Of course, the reactionary elements in the govern- 
ment exercised their discretion in keeping the Jews from 
certain appointments. The Anti-Semitic propaganda was lit- 
tle checked. In Hesse Béckel agitated, at Berlin Ahlwardt; 
pamphlets were written attacking talmudic morality or 
trumping up charges against supposed dishonest transac- 
tions of Jewish industrialists. There were a number of Anti- 
_ Semitic factions, now at cross-purposes, now united; another 
Congress was held at Bochum (1889). 

At Xanten, the scene of Jewish suffering during the First 
Crusade (p. 363), the blood accusation was revived (1891). 
The Conservative Party made common cause with the Anti- 
Semites, and a number of them were seated in the Reichstag 
(1892). The Anti-Semites published a ‘Catechism,’ a com- 
pilation of all sorts of charges against the Jews, which was 
widely disseminated. In the schools, teachers digressed to 
harangue their pupils, among whom there were naturally 
Jews, against the ‘enemies’ of the German people—liberals, 
democrats, Catholics, and Jews. There were, of course, large 
circles ashamed of the disreputable tactics of the Anti- 
Semites. At the end of 1890, the jurist Gneist and the leader 
of the Opposition in the Reichstag, Heinrich Rickert, to- 
gether with a number of men eminent in politics and scholar- 
ship, founded a defensive society against Anti-Semitism. 
During the Xanten trial this society published a book by the 


700 GERMAN ANTI-SEMITISM AND RUSSIAN POGROMS [1891 : 


Berlin theologian Hermann L. Strack on the origin and his- _ 
tory of the ‘blood superstition’ among all peoples. In 1893, — 
the German Jews created an organization of their own, the — 
Central Society of German Citizens of the Jewish F aith, to — 
institute court proceedings against libelers of the Jewish — 
religion and to oppose vigorously curtailment of Jewish — 
political rights. 

In 1890, the Russian Home Office, now administered by _ 
Durnovo with Plehve as assistant, was preparing, in strict 4 
secrecy, new repressive measures against the Jews. How- — 
ever, the secret leaked out. A resolution of inquiry was — 
passed in the House of Representatives at Washington in q 
August; in December, a meeting of protest was held in the — 
Guildhall in London and a petition sent on to St. Peters- — 
burg. Russian Jews were leaving their homes in ever larger 
numbers; they were landing in American ports by the hun- 
dreds weekly. President Harrison took the ground, and made 
it known in diplomatic correspondence, that, apart from 
humanitarian considerations, the evil treatment of the Jews 
of Russia gave concern to other governments because of the 
problems created by mass immigration. Notwithstanding, — 
the Russian government carried out its project and expelled — 
thousands of Jews from Moscow, Kiev, and other cities of 
the interior (1891). 

Whatever thoughts there had been in the minds of western 
_ Jews that the Russian government might be prevailed upon 
to relent, it was now realized that nothing remained but to 
get the Jews out of Russia, So reasoned Baron Maurice de 
Hirsch (1831-1896). Accordingly, he caused to be incor- 
porated in London the Jewish Colonization Association (ca), 
which he endowed with a capital of two million pounds; at 
his death it received a further legacy of six million pounds. 
At the same time he established, under the laws of the state 
of New York, the Baron de Hirsch Fund, with an initial 
capital of two and a half million dollars, for the aid of Jew- 
ish immigrants from Russia and Rumania, and another fund 
of twelve million francs in Galicia for the relief of the Jews 
there. 


Son DE HIRSCH © 701 
phe that, within sible eve years: 
m exsld be transplanted fram Russia. 
‘desired greater apes. making for 
te of Russian Jewry te feet che time. 
milished; was, that we do 1894, six 
| i jn the Argentine sapettic, half 
Wires and half in cebiae. (Moise- 
eatin the snishenent in- 
. Haron realized iad Em texk was 
€ “eg on lope the vege his 


oy co “Cates bis aga’. 
et fame to the Oni Hiei 4 
B.Sren Britain ame pane Sihi-eczes, 
Mattie Li was an untauPeiet om 
"wham the S =pan ish, areas Mie. dat 


ree GCEEMAN ANTI-SEMI TtsM AND, 


Berlin theologian Hetyaann [.. Sermele 
tory of the ‘binee sea sie amo 


wetitute Saar proceedings: ¢ 
. 


religion aad to oppose. “ves ¥ 


Oe ane 8 
pevnical os de | 


cap oe su iiss 


dais Jews were leav 
ph they: 9 were landing 


reacts weekly. F af Hare 


—— 


: 
rr sie 
= ‘e ¢ Wr 

puta Ye Ls 


bia! i nanite ie 


a Oy * 
£S° 244 THacy 
ex A 3Stal 


chp inter rior { 1891). 


tebe CEO beeuiny. oscar 
of «=v amition franies in Gal 


A 


1894] BARON DE HIRSCH 701 


Baron de Hirsch thought that, within twenty-five years: 
some three million Jews could be transplanted from Russia. 
The Russian government desired greater speed making for 
expatriation of the bulk of Russian Jewry in half the time. 
What was really accomplished, was, that up to 1894, six 
thousand Jews were settled in the Argentine republic, half 
in the capital Buenos Aires and half in colonies (Moise- 
ville, Mauricio, Clara). Subsequently the settlement in- 
creased considerably. The Baron realized that the task was 
far more stupendous than he had imagined. He urged his 
Russian coreligionists to be patient, but the wave kept on 
rolling. Before the end of the century close upon a million 
Jews had left eastern Europe (Russia, Galicia, Rumania). 
The largest number by far came to the United States of 
America; the remainder to Great Britain and her colonies, 
and a small body to Palestine. It was an unparalleled exo- 
dus, incomparably greater than the Spanish, and the end 
was not yet when Alexander ITI. died in 1894. 


CHAPTER XCIV. 
ZIONISM 


(1894-1904) 


() N October 15, 1894, Captain Alfred Dreyfus (born — 


1859), an Alsatian Jew attached to the French gen- © 

eral staff, was arrested on the charge of having © 
furnished staff secrets to the German government. He was ; 
condemned by a court martial for high treason and sen- — 
tenced to life imprisonment in a fortress. On January 5, 5 
1895, he was publicly degraded on the Champ de Mars in — 
Paris; he protested his innocence, crying out: ‘Long live — 
France! Long live the army!’ The mob shouted madly: ~ 
‘Death to the traitor!’ q 

It was a cabal deftly contrived by the clerical-royalist 
enemies of the Third Republic, in league with the generals 
of the army. Drumont had in 1886 made himself the spokes- 
man of the Jesuits by inveighing in his brochure, ‘La France 
Juive,’ against the republic as being under Jewish domina- 
tion. From 1892 on he published a:sheet, ‘La Libre Parole,’ 
in which it was insinuated that Jewish army officers were 
guilty of treasonous acts. The charge against Dreyfus was 
based on a copy of a certain secret document (‘bordereau’) 
alleged to be in his handwriting. Thanks to the investiga- 
tions of Scheurer-Kestner and colonel Picquart, it was 
brought to light in 1897 that.the document was in reality the 
work of Esterhazy, a dissipated major in the French army 
and a spy in the pay of Germany. Dreyfus had meanwhile 
been conveyed to Devil’s Island near the Guiana coast; 
there he was kept under close surveillance and under horrible 
conditions intended to break down his spirit. 

The number of those at home convinced of his innocence 
grew daily; the novelist Zola arraigned the enemies of justice 
in an open letter addressed to the president of the republic 
(which became famous through the phrase constantly re- 


702 


oa APFALR a ee 


was divided into tweeays, Drey- 
of » Colonel Henry, ob the general 
ies to favien he gilt wpon she 
. brough: te bay, Re teak tis own 
itacles were cloced 49 Tae way of 
4 rites! fearing to Prewk with 
@eéath of. President. Paere 21899), 
bia wnistry with the aif of the 
vaght back. nd cate. Be was 
ey th Counc of War we Peansres ; 
xf eta § pardon. + me year Leees tog « i yeast 
~ presdict ard scinanpete fete 
Pa 840 and the Mortar outrage of 
éfeveo! Poss ic frem the Whaat 
EBrevius cas st the end of wie car's 
awitigh wages the berth. heat oh Zaivnnieis 
tee) Herzl LESth}- 48 Te Be shee 
wa 6! ure Peta isis ach Ot a Ly peratags 
a He fad been ne little con-- 
wi bie beseylesign of Fudan: om 
iad the cotct wher bE eeryticn 
1 vik @ the des: ead tier: at a basis 
ceed Peg ance i, ast — cour $ pees 
fat Revoburten. te icls keonhe he ee 
% _ prope tt th ver oy oe sak dee. 
t Deaeion, be was aa vlterad rch het 
preocuupbe:! bi then aghas: cared ta Some ea 
ther a: a8 essiadiaill ney on 3 rehire ewe 
a} one The 3 dasput the rextuaeaget aad if. 
te tiation. rer: 65 ie aes ae Te eae 
| Jews mitIgh Monet tis Id BORNE ete 
pArgentine a hat Tee, Fae ML ws. 
he wrote in Paria ie oe Sethe ae se BE sm 
kmew neither of Hess nor ot ery ay: 
le scheme, he thouglt, «+ se peerrare é 
mied sovereignty ove: «cries of tig wet 
t for ther just national ve? 9.05 UY 443 wake 


Teas; i he was x patie) dae : 
Maris, he: protested: his ine 
ran wees Long live the ha 
leath to the traitor!’ 9) 
Si was a cabal als 
mies of the Third Repul 
sf “pean “my. Drumont had in 
ae of the jesuits by inveig 
‘vive,’ against the repablie 
‘iin. From 1892 on he publi 
a which it was insinuated 5 
guilty of treasonous acts, ’ 
vased on a copy of a certai 
Seged to be ia bis handwr 
sons of Scheurer-Kestner 
ought to light.in 1897 tha 


work of Esterhazy, a dissip t 


sh a spy in the pay. of 
hoot apthit Ne to 2 Devil ods 


1900] THE DREYFUS AFFAIR 703 


peated,’ J’accuse’). Francewas divided into two camps, Drey- 
fusard and anti-Dreyfusard. Colonel Henry, of the general 
staff, committed fresh forgeries to fasten the guilt upon the 
hated Jewish captain; when brought to bay, he took his own 
life (1898). All sorts of obstacles were placed in the way of 
reopening the case, the government fearing to break with 
the nationalists. After the death of President Faure (1899), 
Waldeck-Rousseau formed a ministry with the aid of the 
socialists, and Dreyfuswas brought backand retried. He was 
once more condemned by the Council of War at Rennes; 
President Loubet granted a pardon. A year later the Court 
of Cassation quashed the verdict and pronounced Dreyfus 
innocent. . 

The Damascus libel of 1840 and the Mortara outrage of 
1858 had suggested to the Jews of Paris to form the Alliance 
Israélite Universelle; the Dreyfus case at the end of the cen- 
tury was in its very initial stages the birth-hour of Zionism. 
Theodore (Benjamin Zeeb) Herzl (1860-1904) was then 
residing in Paris as permanent correspondent of a Vienna 
daily, the ‘Neue Freie Presse.’ He had been but little con- 
cerned with Jewish matters; his knowledge of Judaism was 
meager. He attended the sessions of the court when Dreyfus 
was first tried and witnessed the degradation of the Jewish 
captain. It seemed to him that France had revoked the prin- 
ciples of her Great Revolution. He felt keenly the blow 
struck at the whole Jewish people in the person of one Jew. 
Suddenly, as if by inspiration, he was an altered man; the 
Jewish question preoccupied his thoughts, and it presented 
itself to him neither as an economic nor as a religious, but as 
a political and national one. The Jews, he reasoned, were a 
nation and one united nation. From this premise he drew the 
conclusion that the Jews must concentrate and form a state 
of their own—in the Argentine or in Palestine. Feverishly, as 
if in a trance, he wrote in Paris his ‘Jews’ State,’ at a time 
when he knew neither of Hess nor of Pinsker (1895). 

The whole scheme, he thought, was quite simple. Let the 
Jews be granted sovereignty over a section of the earth 
sufficient for their just national needs, and they will take 


704 ZIONISM [1895 


care of everything else. Negotiations for chartered territorial 
concession were to be carried on by an organization called e 
‘The Society of Jews,’ which would also work out the con- 
stitution—a democratic monarchy or an aristocratic repub- 
lic—for the future state. Another organization, ‘The Jewish 
Company,’ with its seat in London and under the protection = 
of the British Government, at the moment still free from the 3 
taint of Anti-Semitism, was to regulate the migration, & 
liquidate Jewish holdings in the lands of the dispersion, and 
build up the new community. The capital necessary for the é 
transaction he estimated at fifty million pounds to be raised ~ 
by popular subscription. 

Before making public his project, Herzl obtained an inter- | 
view with Baron de Hirsch; but neither by word of mouth ; 
nor by correspondence was he able to make an impression — 
upon the Jewish magnate. Herzl’s closest friends feared for 
his sanity; they mocked him by pointing to the example of — 
Sabbatai Zevi. ‘What was not bisa a then, can be done ~ 
now with our technical progress,’ was the rejoinder. Once F 
more, during the coming Passover at Vienna, the parallel 
with the seventeenth century visionary was brought home 
to him; but this time encouragingly, the resemblance being — 
in the magnetic personal charm which both possessed. The — 
man who recalled it was the eminent talmudist Meir Fried- ; 
mann (1831-1908), the colleague of the historian of talmudic _ 
literature, Isaac Hirsch Weiss (1815-1905), in the Vienna _ 
Beth ha-Midrash. 

There was one man in Paris who understood Herzl and 
before long was completely won over, the compatriot exile 
Max Nordau (1849-1923), a physician by profession, but 
then already a European celebrity as a critical writer. Herzl 
also corresponded with the chief rabbi of Vienna, Moritz 
Giidemann (1835-1918), a graduate of the Breslau seminary 
and a scholar of solid reputation, who had made noteworthy 
contributions in the field of Jewish cultural history. Giide- 
mann and Herzl met by appointment in Munich (August, 
1895). The rabbi listened and was apparently convinced: 
‘It may be that you are the one called by God.’ 


a aE aNTE-@e MITES £2 705 


Ovement i Avetria was then on the 
% on the «ve of the Jewish New 
P the tavrviey ef the tmonicipal elec- 
janton of Adi Semites and Clericals. 
ger, & webeereat AntiSemite, for 
i the emperoy  eaercena eometion the election, 
FAS cr paterit: revise tre Reger we years later 
ae’ 4 bin. ‘The Suk Semites adminis- 
- c own Ciao and os -vhe hurt of 
seaery Max tees’ coatd. 
pthe views er ike sas ive of the Viennese 
kath Senses as ss. evil that would 
ni wer organizing dn copper liberal party. . 
is aid 70 the Mrmceesel! efiorts of Joseph — 
25) to vewin his ect in parliament. Despite 
oes, derel loadwed ia Bloch the champion 
» whe had-refuted the atuacks on the 
Semitic Cathoke professor Rohling, and 
t agitators wpetading the notion that 
the practice of killing Christian chil- —- 
ideas, Givkewans was showing signs of : } 
7 Herat's netwesne; nevertheless, thanks 
by the vahbe. Herz) met Narcisse Leven 
7 viec-presdcor et the Paris _ Alliance. 
4 meres ; he aent Meral on to the chief 
' Kaho 11839-1905). At the rabbi's 
a rie | erent. whe aocentuared his French 
Joost orld Derenbowre (1844-1908), 
“Eerenbourg (1417-1895) ‘a nated 
5 cata himself seat? wilting enough . 
¥ se knew that the heading } rench Jews | 


va “Hest Ms go to London. There Isvael 
ote ie attracted attention by his 
Wei Rise vis che Maccabaeana, an asso- 


mot every ieee else. hen tions 3 for “he 


Or Jews, "which h would also wor 


the future state, . Ancien organi ua 
iv) ith its seat in: London, andou 


‘ 


the British G covernmeltt, at tt e Moment call 


* 


Ea. nent of AntipSemitisin,. was to qieeE 
Rohs wg e Jewish holdings in the lands of 
- it ouihd up | the 1 new community. The capi 
es rareaction he estimated at ee itite) 
yee me BU OGE Tipton, a a 
Helore-making public his project, E 
with Baron de Hi ipac we | 

y correspondence wa 
on fhe Ff Jewish maprate. "Healt: i ; 
me itty they mnie ke < bigeos sdk cing: 


F 7 re e x a * 
5. iy Go Zevi. 


ed 


“> 


ne hog hei tec chica progress 


ch aed seventec cai ceo 
iy no - ty tine pate: 


“ (831~ 908 e the colleague! 
pe wie he Hirsch Weige qT 
ii ha~Midrash, i 
here was one man in haa 

morose tong was completely wor, ove 
. Niax Nordag {1849-1923}, a phy: . 

‘hen already a European celebrity 
ae ahs » Corres sponded with the clan 
or idemann (1835-191 8), a grad tate 
x and & scholar of solid reputation, wi 
i eonteintone: » in the field of Jew 
iy: | mann ace Here) amet by appoin 
Ne #98). : he rabbi. listened and iw: 
cay : ‘Cimey be that you arethe oneal 


iF, 
" ae PA Ds 2c 
: a Pah a 
k ity Re Re 
‘ t at y=. 
a ¢ Te ATT hh 
Wo 7 1) Fe _ 
-s , ier Ay | ‘ 
’ : Lee aS 
: oid ; an 
Po Ng ak a 
fy 0: a3 
Ss 


* zat 
Sa es 
ia Vx 


1895] THE VIENNA ANTI-SEMITES 70 


Cre 


The Anti-Semitic movement in Austria was then on the 
ascendant; in September, on the eve of the Jewish New 
Year, Herzl witnessed the carrying of the municipal elec- 
tions in Vienna by the union of Anti-Semites and Clericals. 
The council chose Lueger, a vehement Anti-Semite, for 
burgomaster; the emperor declined to sanction the election, 
but Lueger was repeatedly reélected, and two years later 
the government accepted him. The Anti-Semites adminis- 
tered the city to their own satisfaction and to the hurt of 
the Jewish inhabitants in every way they could. 

Herz! did not share the views or the tactics of the Viennese 
Jews, who regarded Anti-Semitism as an evil that would 
pass away and were organizing an opposition liberal party. . 
Still he lent his aid to the unsuccessful efforts of Joseph 
Bloch (1850-1925) to rewin his seat in parliament. Despite 
profound differences, Herzl honored in Bloch the champion 
of the Jewish cause, who had refuted the attacks on the 
Talmud by the Anti-Semitic Catholic professor Rohling, and 
had confounded other agitators spreading the notion that 
the Jews were given to the practice of killing Christian chil- 
dren for ritual purposes. Giidemann was showing signs of 
lukewarmness towards Herzl’s scheme; nevertheless, thanks 
to an introduction by the rabbi, Herzl met Narcisse Leven 
(1833-1915), then vice-president of the Paris Alliance. 
Leven was not to be moved; he sent Herzl on to the chief 
rabbi of France, Zadoc Kahn (1839-1905). At the rabbi’s 
house Herzl again mtet Leven, who accentuated his French 
patriotism; so did also Hartwig Derenbourg (1844-1908), 
like his father Joseph Derenbourg (1811-1895) a noted 
Oriental scholar. The rabbi himself seemed willing enough 
to follow Herzl, but he knew that the leading French Jews 
would remain hostile. 

Nordau counseled Herzl to go to London. There Israel 
Zangwill (1864-1926), who had attracted attention by his 
ghetto stories, introduced him to the Maccabaeans, an asso- 
ciation of Jewish intellectuals founded in 1892. Herzl spoke; 
but English patriotism was put forward as an objection by 
his audience. Herzl came in contact with a number of rep- 


706 ZIONISM (1807 


resentative Jews. Colonel Albert Goldsmid (1846-1904), P 
chief of the English branch of the ‘Lovers of Zion,’ had been _ 
born the son of baptized Jewish parents and then returned — 
to Judaism; he was naturally sympathetic to Herzl’s scheme, 
but was prevented by his official position from lending a 4 


hand: Sir Samuel Montague, subsequently Lord Swaythling ~ 


(1832-1911), kept an open ear. The chief rabbi, Hermann ~ 
Adler, thought the project should be laid first before the — 
Russo-Jewish Committee of London. q 

In the spring of 1896 the ‘Jews’ State’ was issued from 
the press. In Jewish circles of Vienna the feeling was that the — 
whole thing might be but a jest. On the other hand, the q 
appeal struck home in student associations and among the ; 
Jews of the East. People announced that they were ready 
to emigrate; in Bulgaria Herzl was acclaimed as the Messiah. 
A leader of Galician Hasidim offered to turn into the move- 
ment millions of his followers through Poland. It was taken 


for granted that the call was for Zion and for no other terri- _ 


tory; the more Herzl came into contact with those who stood 
closest to the masses, the more he grew himself to be a 
Zionist. He regretted that he was unable to count upon the 
support of those in commanding positions, and so go straight- 
way to the sultan of Turkey and offer a sum to help the 
Ottoman government over its financial difficulties in return 
for concessions in Palestine. As it was, all he could doin the ~ 
summer of 1896 was to present himself in Constantinople to 
several high officials. 

To meet the attacks of the Anti-Zionists—Giidemann had 
come.out with a pamphlet against National Judaism in the 
name of the Jewish religion—Herzl started in June, 1897, 
largely with his own funds, the Zionist weekly, ‘Die Welt.’ 
Already he was making preparations for a Zionist Congress 
to meet in Munich. However, in consequence of a declara- 
tion of protest, signed by the rabbi of Munich and four other 
colleagues on behalf of the Association of German Rabbis 
(July, 1897), the Congress met in Basel in the last three 
days of August. 


. ¢ sacosv CONGRESS | 707 
| ak Jewish Cotigreme summoned to 


se 


of Jewish natonsiity or the need 


h i things were fates for granted | 


Bt who Were: att cases It re- 


senile was Bes! iy athe ‘Basel 
graph of whic s@ee “Zionism 


Stine.” Thus ee Jxgped out 
d dtvelf as a polivical wewement 
achieved only thd af eetitical 
E inglititions were RE oye PoN- 
f treated: the Jewish <semial 
Jewteh Nationa? Fuori (190" Ye ea 
it Orgatization on salar rite. és the 
pa da whekel’ (twenty: Pre, come’ ax 
: An ‘gertive prop: Lg jake chisel. 


ong re (08 the slog i wes Cth For 
sa t Himaniee, no that the he Age grt <4 
ny i aitieacs in Bansie formed s wrt iaevery 
§ out of the torus of theme one te the 
move this’ Ain Se already showed that among 
4 -enieley veeruited from the olf. Layers 
. re intit fhe Charter had been Stained 


wt sed to What they called. ‘infiltration,’ 


pas ‘of FeWich educatim slong national 
division; the orthodox ieared a jeiexerd- 
in tineiedex! However, Moses Gakeek horn 


a 455 uae oe P 


il labor would ta no wise un at the 


eiodiune ‘by Hechler, naga to the 
pat Vienna, to aioe duke »sagumnaat id 


@ fewish people e Minty and | 


: of shekel payers #3 + whe 


h vase S there were differences. The athe. 


p le stine ‘Gheastd: be. continued: thw strict 


belween socinityt and bourgecis: 


si } London hakam, made solemn dtctara-. 


6 eS $tonts Me 


. AL. 


“sentative Jews. Colonel Atheees 
ish branch of the ‘Le 
baptized Jewish paren 
to fuisism; he wae naturally symipe 
but wag prevented by his official : 
hand. Sir samuel Montague, subseg 
L835 don] I9T1), kept 2 an open. eu The: 
thought. the project. should: e bal 
sido Sai ish Committee of London.” / i 
fo th e spting of 1896 the ‘Jews Stat 
‘he press. In Jewish circles of Vienna 
mei thing might be ‘but a a 
oeal struck home ft studen ta 
yews of the Mast. Peaple annow 
an wer in Bulgaria Heral me 
& Mader of Galician Hasidirt 
nent milfions of his fo lowers throw 
‘or granted that the Gall was for Zion 
mory; the more Herzl came into €or 
‘sest to the masses, the more 
wnist. He regretted that he was ut 
eapport of th ose in commanding post 
“way to the sultan of Turkey ; : 


age oral ee heehee 6 its 


Sil ok ate Beene 
TEMG OF Va ALS 


Pas) 


cervera at high official, 


cut ee a pamper io 
eal = of Se Jewish seligion 


pet: iy bei was ma king biel 
ro eet ba Munic ch, However, 
corr hy jwotest, sie ey iG I 


thivs sapst 


\7 
% 


1898] THE SECOND CONGRESS 707 


It was by no means an all-Jewish Congress summoned to 
debate the very existence of Jewish nationality or the need 
for a Jewish state. These two things were taken for granted 
by the two hundred delegates who were all Zionists. It re- 
mained to define Zionism and to create the organization for 
bringing it into effect. A platform was adopted—the ‘Basel 
‘ Programme’—the first paragraph of which read: ‘Zionism 
aims at establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and 
legally assured home in Palestine.’ Thus Zionism stepped out 
into the open, announcing itself as a political movement 
with a definite object to be achieved only through political 
negotiations. Two financial institutions were at once con- 
templated and before long created: the Jewish Colonial 
Trust (1899) and the Jewish National Fund (1901). To bea 
member of the Zionist organization one subscribed to the 
Basel Programme and paid a ‘shekel’ (twenty-five cents) as 
an annual contribution. An active propaganda was devel- 
oped to augment the number of shekel payers and to win 
adherents among the masses. 

At the Second Congress (1898) the slogan went forth for 
the conquest of the communities, so that the management of 
the congregations, which in Europe formed a unit in every 
city, should pass out of the hands of those hostile to the 
movement. But this Congress already showed that among 
the Zionists themselves there were differences. The dele- 
gates from the East, chiefly recruited from the old Lovers 
of Zion, demanded that until the Charter had been obtained 
colonization in Palestine should be continued; the strict 
‘politicals’ were opposed to what they called ‘infiltration.’ 
Then a rift was preparing between socialist and bourgeois 
Zionists. The question of Jewish education along national 
lines created further division; the orthodox feared a jeopard- 
izing of the religious interests. However, Moses Gaster (born 
1856), the learned London haham, made solemn declara- 
tion that the cultural as ugitee in no wise eek Hea the 
sphere of religion. 

Herzl had been feodaced by I Hechler, rap cet to the 
British embassy at Vienna, to grand duke Frederick of 


708 ZIONISM [1901 


Baden. From the beginning this universally esteemed prince 
evinced adeep interest in Zionism; thanks to his good offices, 
Herzl was admitted to an audience at Constantinople (Octo- 
ber 18) with the German emperor then on his way to Pales- 
tine, and once more in the imperial camp before Jerusalem 
(November 2). Though William II. said neither Yes nor No 


to the Zionist project, it meant something that a monarch 


interested in near-Eastern developments gave it a hearing. 
Zionism was now a’ question with which European politics 
must reckon. 

Nor were Herzl’s audiences with the sultan Abd-ul-Hamid 
II. (1876-1909) in May, 1901, and with the grand vizir in 
July, 1902, fruitful of results. All that Turkey was willing to 
grant was that individual Jews might settle in various parts 
of the Ottoman empire, but by no means as compact bodies. 
When therefore the English government began to take notice 
of the Zionist movement and made an offer of the district of 
El-Arish in the Sinaitic peninsula, Herzl’s imagination was 
stirred by the project. He was warned, however, not to con- 
sider the colony as a ‘jumping-off-station’ or attempt a raid 
into the sultan’s territory after the manner of Jameson in 
the Transvaal. Lord Cromer, the British agent in Cairo, was 
favorable; an expedition was dispatched to look over the 
tract. In the end the Egyptian government realized that too 
much Nile water would have to be drawn off for purposes of 
irrigation, and the project fell through. 

The Zionist leader had staked his private fortune, his 
time, his energy, every ounce of his bodily strength on the 
movement of his creation; then already the cardiac affection 
had developed which was to cut off his career prematurely. 
The number of societies had grown and spread over all the 
continents of the world; the enthusiasm manifested itself in 
a revival of literature and art and in the upbuilding of a 
manly spirit through the cultivation of physical exercise in 
gymnastic societies. At the fifth Congress a radical socialistic 
faction was formed; but it was offset by the constitution of 
the orthodox party, the Mizrahi, under the leadership of 


Isaac Jacob Reines (1839-1915), head of a talmudical school ° 


ay ail worked together, wader the spell of 
eth ic personality and the tas zeal of his 


siaageed chaltenjed attention by his 
, his biting scorn fae Phe opponents 
denunination of meigent Anti- 
Qf ritual rnucier tricis two bad been 
at Polina in Bohemia (3909) and at 
{In Galicia, thanks &¢ Petiah eco- 
Wa vstion Jews were heptip » atate of 
t's ,a Anti-Seart:: League. erganiszed 
dua apron Mahans to atta ie end strat to 
Si) eee so Jews unbeaten aunt Chest em force 
M the tountry. tx Russia. Meow 'e vane minister 
1908 wan Made it #ikiee si0 he wookd 
gi whick er cee ty head, in 
ig of 4903, tin * Bex So SR ped wer ied 
y pogrom of Rieivien oa the prove 


which cast into the shawn 09 oarcous anti- 
a Ruredia. was ek. Sewell A 
avian, Krushevan, has o>. 897 been 

Jewish campaign in & ees: cup edited 
tidized: by the governess i+ agitation 
: “sgpon the discovery «ft es | beeie of 
phy in the year 1904, 3, 1 s renles of the 
mn province. It was iste: osoired tt tke 
c bogs own relations SS atgtee, a, 
Krushetar fastened «ty cyae apes the 
© { t Recent a * sanipigele was sthteagse eerrt. 


KISHINEY 709 | 


weir F ai Gear Os AR TIR ork aie As OB MeN hale 


é ( J ee | 


SPM Ce ft 


yy 


{ 
= 
At Or) Ua 2). Though 3 VV ik iam Ih, sald 


‘as om A question: with whic 


ws 


€eary 


W + ye aa, 

iavt-1 900) in ; May, "1901, pris w 
482, fruitful of results. All that’ ‘ur 

i was that t individiral J Jews abies: ay em 


rash in the phils fs wa, Heed . 
uivpet be | the sabe or Fie was Ware hov W 
it ‘jum ping-off-sta 


TCE, es the end the ats pai on 
Nile water would have to be d 

‘ation, and the project fell th x 
k 7 we Zionist leader. Ke 
: , a, iis energy, every ounce of | 


vy Nason of h is sy ee th ihe: 


p reviwal of amc, iN Ss art 
it £1 ag the culvat 


1903] KISHINEV 709 


at Lida. Still they all worked together, under the spell of 
Herzl’s magnetic personality and the sustaining zeal of his 
indefatigable co-workers. 

At every Congress, Nordau challenged attention by his 
eloquence and grim humor, his biting scorn for the opponents 
of Zionism, his scathing denunciation of rampant Anti- 
Semitism. To the record of ritual murder trials two had been 
added but recently, at Polna in Bohemia (1899) and at 
Konitz in Prussia (1900). In Galicia, thanks to Polish eco- 
nomic oppression, half a million Jews were kept in a state of 
pauperism. In Rumania, an Anti-Semitic League, organized 
in 1895 and using any means to attain its end, strove to 
render the situation of the Jews unbearable and thus to force 
them out of the country. In Russia, Plehve became minister 
of the interior in 1902 and made it known that he would 
drown the socialist revolution, which had raised its head, in 
Jewish blood. In the spring of 1903, the whole civilized world 
was shocked by the bloody pogrom of Kishinev, in the prov- 
ince of Bessarabia. 

This massacre, which cast into the shade all previous anti- 
Jewish excesses in Russia, was thoroughly organized. A 
Russianized Moldavian, Krushevan, had since 1897 been 
conducting an anti-Jewish campaign in a newspaper edited 
by him and subsidized by the government. The agitation 
grew more virulent upon the discovery of the dead body of 
a Christian boy, early in the year 1903, in a townlet of the 
neighboring Kherson province. It was later proved that the 
murderers were the boy’s own relatives. Without awaiting 
an investigation, Krushevan fastened the crime upon the 
Jews. The plot to let loose a pogrom was hatched in secret, 
with Krushevan, the vice-governor Ustrugov, and an officer 
from the St. Petersburg Department of Police as leading 
spirits. Printed broadsides were distributed which spoke of 
an imperial ukase sanctioning a bloody judgment on the 
Jews during the three days of Easter; in public inns and tea- 
rooms men conversed openly on the preparing pogrom. 

On Easter Sunday, which was the last day of Passover, 
at noon, amid the tolling of church bells, numerous bands 


710 ZIONISM 


throughout the city commenced to demolish Jewish dwel- 
lings and shops. Street gamins preceded and broke the win- 
dows; then the adults entered and cast wares and furniture 
into the street for the mob to destroy on the spot or to plun- 
der. In the evening the murderous work began; bestialities 
were committed the like of which had been unknown in the 
earlier pogroms. From their hiding-places in cellars and gar- 
rets the Jews were dragged forth and tortured to death. 
Many mortally wounded were denied the finishing stroke 
and left to perish in their agony; in not a few cases nails were 
driven into the skull or eyes gouged out. Babes were thrown 
from the higher stories to the street pavement; the bodies of 
women were mutilated; young maidens and older matrons 
were dishonored. The drunken mob invaded the synagogues; 
the sacred scrolls were torn into shreds, trampled under foot 
and defiled. In one sanctuary, the aged beadle, wrapped in 
his prayer shawl, defended with his body the holy Ark until 
he was struck down. Jews who attempted to beat off the 
attackers with clubs were quickly disarmed by the police; 
but the mob was unmolested. 

The slaughter continued on Monday; on the third day at 
last word was received from St. Petersburg to order the 
troops out, and the pogrom ceased. The Jewish victims 


counted forty-five dead, eighty-six with heavy and five hun- | 


dred with light wounds; fifteen hundred houses and shops 
were destroyed or looted. All over Europe and America the 
world stood aghast. The Christian conscience was aroused, 
and platforms and pulpits rang with denunciation of the 
horror. In Russia, the novelist Leo Tolstoi arraigned the 
government as the chief culprit, and named the crime of 
Kishinev a direct outcome of its propaganda of falsehood and 
violence. The Jews of Russia had a mingled feeling of 
wrath and shame—wrath against the tormentors and shame 
for the victims who sold their lives cheaply without resist- 
ance. This feeling was voiced in matchless Hebrew diction 
by the poet Hayim Nahman Bialik (born 1873). In his 
‘Tale of the Slaughter’ he portrayed his people’s agony, 


;, DEATH OF HERZL bbe 711 


a, dumb submission of the victims and 
Findignation of Heaven. 
Himself to beard the lion in his den. In 
: he arrived : in Se, Petesthargand had 
av ostensibly to ask for e aithdrawal 
‘suppression at the Ziotet societies in 
| duce the Russian government to use 
inople in fevor of Zieebe ce: . Plehve 
Sot diplainativ engagenaetets Ve was 
mt activity so long a 4E Bact to do 
fae fewish centey in Palestge sod mass 
: ay bat if the movement Waveirwk to 
; ppropagancds : within Rivas, peal 
peersive of Russian natinte Sereests. 
Congress, which bh. was held) ps Siewert at 
Mt, Merci had 2 surprise bewaier. the 
Mai secretary of a stretch. teat ba 
at Alrica for purposes of pean sore 
. fa " re ip ternat aay: 


om pap Pine opposition mat te 
mt the lender to drop tae Pe 

the next Congress. Herzl was gun ies 

| the aurhority of the Congretie, ee rove 

6 ion ‘as the ailimete goa o4 

5 hangin sheites in the Bae il rhe 

= he ronewiett marae sh ee: 


oX elalen Mite he 
birding: ‘Catholic Cpgorition | | 


‘Meroughout the city com inetd 
‘hees aod shops, Street gamine p 
éiow's: chen the adults entered an 
nto the street for the mob to dest 
der, In the evening the murder 
were committed the like of whi 
eariier pogroms, From: their hid 
ts’ the. Jews were dragged fe th 
Ma amy? mortally wounded were 
ead leftto perish in their agony sin Hot te? 
deiven into the ekull or.eyes gouged uti 
imam the higher stories to the: | 
women were mutilated; young. 
were dishonored. The drunken 7 
the sacred scrolls were torn i 
aad defiled. Ju one sanctuat v, th 
tus prayer shawl, defended with: 
he was struck down. Jews: wi 
attackers with clubs were quic 
bat the mob was unmolested. 9 >” 
Shave dirpaiids contindelt on 


were sap a or ‘looted, \ 
world stood aghast. The Chr 
wid pa te an heya 


Me, “This feeling was voiced | +] 
by te poet Hayim, abo 
‘Tale ui tthe Saher Ree 


a 


Sa ee 


1904] DEATH OF HERZL sa 


scourging the craven, dumb submission of the victims and 
calling forth the very indignation of Heaven. 

Herzl took it upon himself to beard the lion in his den. In 
the beginning of August he arrived in St. Petersburg and had 
an interview with Plehve, ostensibly to ask for a withdrawal 
of the contemplated suppression of the Zionist societies in 
Russia, in reality to induce the Russian government to use 
its influence at Constantinople in favor of Zionism. Plehve 
temporized on the score of diplomatic engagements. He was 
willing to tolerate Zionist activity so long as it had to do 
with the creation of a Jewish center in Palestine and mass 
emigration from Russia; but if the movement undertook to 
make nationalist Jewish propaganda within Russia, it would 
be strictly checked as subversive of Russian national interests. 

At the Sixth Zionist Congress, which was held in Basel at 
the end of August, 1903, Herzl had a surprise in store: the 
offer by the British colonial secretary of a stretch of land in 
Uganda in British East Africa for purposes of Jewish colo- 
nization under a charter of complete internal autonomy. 
After stormy debates the project was put to a vote; of the 
five hundred delegates, one hundred and eighty-five voted 
No and demonstrated their opposition to the majority by 
withdrawing from the hall. Upon their return home, the 
Russian delegates who made up the opposition met in Khar- 
kov and sent an ultimatum to the leader to drop the Uganda 
plan in advance of the next Congress. Herzl was grieved by 
this infringement on the authority of the Congress. To prove 
his sincere devotion to Zion as the ultimate goal—Uganda 
was only to serve as a temporary shelter in the face of the 
pressing need of the hour—he renewed negotiations with the 
Turkish government. In the spring of 1904 he had an audi- 
ence with Pope Pius X. (1903-1914). Here he struck a blank 
wall of uncompromising Catholic opposition to Jewish pos- 
session of Palestine. Peace was patched up between the 
leader and the opposition at a meeting in the month of April; 
but Herzl’s system was undermined. The malady from which 
he suffered grew worse daily; on July 3 (Tammuz 20), 1904, 
the creator of political Zionism was no more. 


CHAPTER XCV 


THE ‘BLACK HUNDREDS’ AND THE RUSSIAN 
REVOLUTION 
(1905-1912) 


HE death of the Zionist leader did not halt the 
_ progress of the movement. David Wolffsohn (1856— 
1914), originally from Russia but long resident in 
Germany where he engaged in mercantile pursuits, suc- 
ceeded as president. He managed well enough the adminis- 
trative machinery and was not without skill in holding 
together the warring factions. It was beyond his power to 
prevent the secession of the Territorialists, who abandoned 
all hope of obtaining Palestine. In all it was a minority that 
followed Zangwill when he started in 1905 the Jewish 
Territorial Organization, though adherents were won out- 
side of the Zionist ranks. This organization, called 1ro by 
abbreviation, dispatched commissions to spy out a land suit- 
able for colonization, now to Cyrenaica in Northwest Africa 
(1908), now to Mesopotamia (1909); but the project did not 
prove feasible. Then, abandoning the charter idea and the 
scheme of an autonomous colony altogether, the ITO inter- 
ested itself in the plan of Jacob H. Schiff (p. 720) to divert 
American immigration from the Atlantic seaboard to the 
interior with Galveston, Texas, as port of entry. 
Wolffsohn, seconded by Nordau and other early associates 
of the deceased leader, was a believer in political action as a 
prerequisite for Palestinian colonization. Yet, before long, 
in consequence of the Turkish revolution in 1908 and the 
nationalist Young Turk régime, the prospects of coming to 
terms in that quarter became almost hopeless. Wolffsohn 
then receded from Herzl’s position and spoke of the future 
Palestinian settlement as a national home rather than a 
state. The Russian and German Zionists at last forced the 
issue in 1911, when Otto Warburg (born 1859), a botanist 
of distinction, was made chairman of the executive com- 


712 


a 
a 


i 


ate wAAM ARG ie TMA UDA ; 713 


Hioti OA & Gad ecale became the pro- 
Tiotiak otters. Thus, in addition 
y teeters oS mamtained by the 
34 ay, Ve yherwiid thorn 1845), 
gettlements Wet ie oedt up between 1902 
the funds of (fe San Organization. In 
ebrev ‘high school wor i: dest ay haffla and a school 
ts and crafts (Bexoic « Goedagiem. Tn 7909, a 


res owt A wien Tel Aviv, 


k Piers tvecsl @ moat censo- 
) berg they: (86>. beaver known by 
. ‘Meant DISH 2. he hee ste"), Trench- 
d out the Wakes a be ~rotern formula. 
Baijeehick mene Bt. oes “3 Pee Le full meas- 


vd d which was Hiewick qaccothee. Nor was 
“ with the eustero tare ren »  Meosdem which 
me with Posen Pr ae ep evil, 
pepe | must De Piles a appatuals a 
be of ene mera + bes am were a 


“ wie } Loci age ot wes. re werve asa 
b-eeitaare, 3 cositer freen which 


edt, pot by mease af gevelu- 
Py evolution, in sere ¢ to 


bartuvits aia oeiag jews through 


te ee epee in Paleatioe 


fae BLACK HUNDREDS’ 


a a i ta 
A REVO 


| sey he Zio onist £ teadee dh ae 
: ovement pg olf 


™ 


ye fea sible. eee shane it 
ame of an autonomous colon 
‘cial the plan of Jacob H. 
Agnarioan immigration. from 


‘ 


‘ + A tin el EF 
tering with Cave esto 91 ee ee 


” 
the deca me leader, was a believe 
gee . prerequisite for Palestiniag co 
x we consequence of the Turk: 


nationalt cu Young Turk régime 
. nee Peale became 


¥ 
| 


Lussian 2 joa Ceri 
sue in q Sil, when Oreo W arbu 
ction, | was ssmade chairma 


AHAD HAAM AND BEN-JEHUDA 713 


mittee, and colonization on a small scale became the pro- 
gramme for Palestinian Zionist activity. Thus, in addition 
to the colonies previously founded and maintained by the 
generosity of Baron Edmond de Rothschild (born 1845), 
twenty-nine new settlements were opened up between 1902 
and 1914 with the funds of the Zionist Organization. In 
1906, a Hebrew high school was started at Jaffa and a school 
for the arts and crafts (Bezalel) at Jerusalem. In 1909, a 
beginning was made with the wholly Jewish town Tel Aviv, 
close by Jaffa. 

From the outset, political Zionism found a most censo- 
rious critic in Asher Ginzberg (born 1856), better known by 
his pen-name Ahad Haam (‘One of the People’). Trench- 
antly he pointed out the weakness of the western formula- 
tion of Zionism, which meant but a craving for the full meas- 
ure of social and political activity denied to the Jews through 
Anti-Semitism, and which was therefore negative. Nor was 
he entirely satisfied with the eastern kind of Zionism which 
primarily was concerned with remedying the economic evil. 
To Ahad Haam Zionism must be positive and spiritual; a 
Jews’ State would be of small moment unless it were a 
Jewish State; material comfort was a secondary considera- 
tion. The Palestinian settlement should be grounded in a 
gathering not so much of the dispersed people as of the 
scattered energies of the Jewish people. It was to serve asa 
place of refuge for the Jewish culture, a center from which 
the influence would radiate to the Dispersion. In Palestine 
Judaism would be regenerated, not by means of revolu- 
tionary reforms, but by steady evolution, in adjustment to 
the very exigencies of the new life. 

A part of this spiritual renascence was realized in the sys- 
tem of Palestinian education established by Zionist agencies 
and in the living Hebrew speech developed in the homes and 
schools. None labored more valiantly and stubbornly for the 
revival of spoken Hebrew than Eliezer Ben-Jehuda (1858- 
1922). From the time he settled in Palestine (1882) he in- 
sisted by example and propaganda that Hebrew should be 
the language of conversation for old and young. He steadily 


714 THE ‘BLACK HUNDREDS’ [1905 F 


occupied himself with the coinage of new words in order to © e 
enlarge the Hebrew vocabulary in accordance with modern ~ 
-needs. More important was his publication, begun in 1910, * 
of a Hebrew Thesaurus, through which he effected a veri- — 


table gathering of the dispersed wealth of the Hebrew lan- 
guage from all corners of the vast literature throughout the 
ages. 


Ahad Haam was a pure Zionist in that he denied the feasi- 4 


bility of the Jews constituting themselves as national groups 
in the lands of the Dispersion. The theory of national auton- 
omy, characterizing Jewishcommunal life before the era of 
emancipation and now to be restored, found a sponsor in the 
publicist and historian, Simon Dubnow (born 1860). An 
attempt to translate the theory into practice was made in 
Russia in the year 1905, when in consequence of the Russian 
débacle in the war with Japan revolution broke out. The 
czar’announced his intention to summon persons elected by 
the population to share’in the drafting and discussing of 
legislation, at the same time commanding the ministers to 
invite suggestions from public bodies or private persons. In 
April, Jewish communal leaders of all parties met in Vilna 
and formed a Union for the attainment of full rights for the 
Jewish people in Russia. The programme included not only 
civil and political, but also national rights, the latter mean- 
ing freedom of national and cultural self-government in all 
its manifestations, with wide communal autonomy and the 
right for the Jews to use their own language and to organize 
their own schools. An executive committee, with its seat in 
St. Petersburg, was made up of twenty-two members elected 
by the Union. 

The reactionary forces in Russia determined to defend 
their vested interests by perfecting an organization, that of 
the ‘Genuine Russians,’ with provincial branches named 
“Black Hundreds.’ They met the cry, ‘Down with Absolu- 
tism’ with the counter-cry, ‘Down with the Constitution and 
with the Jews.’ In the Jews they saw the abetters of con- 
stitutional reforms. In the Easter season of 1905, bloody 
pogroms were instituted in Bielostok and Zhitomir. This 


Or POCROM 718 
ted the e attackers rm ruifully, waving organ- 
r self-defense. Alice: the Riteaiaih defeat’ i 
st a {May 27-28), the more the jews 
| galnio of the Constitutional Democrats 
hag oh Democrats, and the Sveiatist Revol 
Mere the excesses engineered bye the 
| E Stimmer and autumn, there was a 
i Px bean more than fifty localities, Thi: 
wi § hope to intimidate the radicabebeinwea ts 
® majority of seats in the first Kuys. 
i Duma, was held by liberals 
Dale avin were returned, df why 
mse? fos with the Caciets. While the gi 3 
; fet a pogroms, with a repet tion 2 
ities, was enacted in Biclostes 7 i Pupe 
Ag an interpellation, the minister of the 
defended the government. He wa 
al Geputy Prince Urusov, bien 
ev and assistant minister of the interior, 


* te that the appeals to riot had been res 
Juma ix the central Police Depart 
rugele + nae ta Own : pone at ea 
( e; Lelinry : bai & Was disaol vet july 2th . 
ad neritic. dvived phe eraperor_ 
nlutonary etter ss ut jewry by mak- 
Nic ine : widtarrd (a Soave Jewish dis- 
00 1. By Get perio tation of the electoral 
intim Jat cat pia RE pedis fre: » the quartets of the 
ag aparece Sac igang the mer 
he é Derik watt tlt more ew f-the third 
of Jena: degutice awe dow to 
Fb tw. 
ake re 
52 ae, 
Re AMP 
ig ea ns 2 Ose a a 
a a. “se 4, a t= Re hex Ps ore : 


2 - 
weit wit 
£ Vit 


aa Ceenatel pratesi which ; ‘ 
ithering of the di isperser wealth of 


vo from all corners of the vast i 


Wd faam Was 
hey of the ews coca themsely 

che lands of the Dispersion. The the 
very, characterizing jewish communal life be 
ian ae RE and now te be a . 
ayblicist and. historian, os 


ctempt to translate the | 


- 


<tingia in the dpi 196 5 wh ren in 


pan 
bs * 
y 4 

A 3 Be nd 


rislation, at eet same time. cue 
rte suggestions from public a 
ae vant, Jewish communal leaders 
Hone U inion oe the a 


ght fot thie Jews ste thes oa 
a att own schools. An hee c 
ret algae r ah asf 


» 


gir vested, teen “ aghin 
the ‘Genuine Russians,’ with 4 
: Black Hundreds.’ Thev met. 
Vat a | bisa” Se the counter-cry, ‘Dow 
Rete Bia» , with the Jews,’ Inj the Jews the 
: eros hoead reforms: In the East 
poyrocee were instituted in Biek 


Ps 


oh tanta Be bi 


wh 
1 


1906] THE BIELOSTOK POGROM 715 


time the Jews resisted the attackers manfully, having organ- 
ized themselves for self-defense. After the Russian defeat in 
the battle of Tsushima (May 27-28), the more the Jews 
were active in the parties of the Constitutional Democrats 
(Cadets), the Socialist Democrats, and the Socialist Revolu 
tionaries, the greater were the excesses engineered by th. 
Black Hundreds. In the summer and autumn, there was a 
veritable orgy of pogroms in more than fifty localities. Thu: 
did the reactionaries hope to intimidate the radical element: 
Nevertheless the majority of seats in the first Russi 
parliament, the Imperial Duma, was held by liberals 
radicals. Twelve Jewish deputies were returned, of wh 
eight associated themselves with the Cadets. While the Dum. 
was sitting, one of the bloodiest pogroms, with a repetition of 
the Kishinev bestialities, was enacted in Bielostok (June 
14-15, 1906). Following an interpellation, the minister of the 
interior Stolypin feebly defended the government. He was 
answered by the liberal deputy Prince Urusov, formerly 
governor of Kishinev and assistant minister of the interior, 
who revealed the secret that the appeals to riot had been 
printed at government expense in the central Police Depart- 
ment at St. Petersburg. _ , 
_ The Jews had been given the franchise; beyond that their 
disabilities remained in force. The Jewish deputies de- 
manded that an end should be made to the legal enslave- 
ment of the Jews. But the Duma was far too occupied with 
its unsuccessful struggle to enlarge its own powers at the 
expense-of the throne; before long it was dissolved (July 21). 
Stolypin, now master of the situation, advised the emperor 
to pacify the non-revolutionary elements of Jewry by mak- 
ing concessions; but Nicholas preferred to leave Jewish dis- 
abilities as they stood. By deft manipulation of the electoral 
law and by intimidation at the polls from the quarters:of the 
Black‘Hundreds, Stolypin succeeded in modifying the:mem- 
bership: of the second Duma and still more so of-the third 
(1907). The number of Jewish deputies dwindled down to 
three and at last to two. | 


716 THE ‘BLACK HUNDREDS’ [1913 


For the next seven years black reaction was supreme in 
the highest governing circles; the throne was in perfect 
solidarity with the Union of Genuine Russians which con- 
stituted a ‘second government.’ The Jewish deputies in the 
Duma rightly protested that their people were experiencing 
greater harshness than even under the cruel régime of Plehve. 
The freedom of movement, guaranteed by the constitution, 
was declared inapplicable to the Jews who must remain ~ 
penned up in the Pale. In the spring of 1910, twelve hundred 
Jewish families were expelled from Kiev. The ‘numerus 
clausus’ for Jewish students in the higher schools was rein- 
troduced. In 1911, this ruling was extended to apply also to 
pupils presenting themselves for final examinations after 
private preparation outside school (externs). 

The height of persecution was reached in the Beilis trial 
(1911-1913). The body of a murdered Christian boy in Kiev 
was found in the vicinity of a brick-kiln owned by a Jew.. 
The Black Hundred immediately raised the cry of ritual 
murder; Mendel Beilis, a laborer employed in the kiln, was 
arrested. While the government had not yet made up its” 
mind about the character of the murder, Stolypin, who ac- 
companied the czar to Kiev, was assassinated. The assassin 
was a young revolutionary whose grandfather, a Jewish 
writer, had joined the Greek Orthodox Church. Then the 
minister of justice ordered the prosecution of Beilis, though 
the preliminary investigation failed to produce any evidence 
against him or any other Jew. As a matter of fact, it was 
known that the actual murderer belonged to a criminal gang 
of thieves. For two years a wild anti-Jewish campaign was 
carried on, in society, on the streets, in the press, and in the 
Imperial Duma. 

Protests by Christian theologians i in Europe and ete: 
and even by sober-minded and honest Russians, failed of 
their effect on a government bent upon convicting, in the 
person of Beilis, the entire Jewish people. Nevertheless, 
Beilis was acquitted, though the judges had been carefully 
selected from among the Genuine Russians and the jury con- 
sisted of ignorant persons who believed in the ritual murder 


LL DIVISIONS EN AUSTRIA | 77 
rit vented its spleen on the liberal- 
yO lawyers of che St. Pet sictalinee’ 


a on the charge of agitating 
ia one pet before the seamen 


lution a #005 had its reperiinsions in 
> was reformed so as to promt racial 
rs of each PACE Were Lo YORE iT! hee ies 


hese aise me Wicks it — in Views hiv ex- 
fe rein Seacia! at, henoe Ati ie 
| , would ae wrpport oe muarkiews, le 
jew rs found iisieeivs beeween the 4 zqarhe 
, d in Gativia tatwein the Poles aud Gitsneee~ 
: ot chk ‘ie iseu ences they cite th a 
. eartads Gayesec i. in Goalem and Bak- 
wher the tides of she Jews spoke thew 
: y shonded Ihave ret. formant thet own ge. 
p Wits NO RSET Asner, te Tews fume 
p Jewish deyntices fran (iitivia and Bekewbas 
meh anna Teawiah t hah,’ vide tore athens 
4 shared Baits hk acai 
vat 40 the jecal featician Oley tee Hester, 
eons 7 7S ees idayth asieriis 225k: ptt: tise mace bat 
liv refused tc eevee size 2 hard meter. de 
Patt of the joes, ewer: <1 Coatele auth Pak 
a named in the regivtery Beas crv cles leh le aa ore 
‘ ae gape. During the padlarcenca:y elpettee af 191! 
aAMe tO : lash between the assim la toeaeadt Site, Sen 
na - In ae alician tows itera arg Jewish 
were. att: hed ube elice of the pape eggs 


sega rien» aga enly one of bi pbobyio 
eile pi The Pidech pepe both eer and 


ih THE ‘BLACK 4H 
For the ext seven years black read 
x] woverning circles; the throne. 


solicturity with the Union of Genuine Russi 3 
tented a. ‘second avidin ernment.’ The Jewish « 


wipils presen 


surcer: Mernlel nana a laborer emplgy 


vas found in. the vicinity of a: ‘brick-kiln 


a viehtly. pre d that their people were 
ov harshness than evi sn under the cruel ‘végi 
vied: m7 of meres oe by: the 


wa 7 e Ne 


s bo ae od a Ye 


vw 


he Black Hui dred immediately raised 


prested. While the go 


und 2 ah ine € “‘haracter of the aoteded Sto 


mnpanied the czar to Kiev, was assassi 


he 


Was a young 1 revolutionary whose gra fe 


writer, had joined the Greek Orthodo: ie 
minister of justice ordered the prosecu 
the preliminary investigation bigs: p 


&- 


Mees} per ichh Duma. 


2 es, 


. 


wieeteal Lom among ‘ab e (ye auine F u 


» 


sfienwn that the act flat Mus dere bel ny 


, : a 
eyes od Orr. in Hit ty. on es “tree 


e ratests by Christian’ Thectowtal 
4 even by eober-minded and hon 
tale: ies on a government bent 
woo of Beilis, the oe 


‘of dgwerant persons who hel 


1911] NATIONAL DIVISIONS IN AUSTRIA 717 


legend. The government vented its spleen on the liberal- 
minded public men who had joined in protesting against 
the hideous libel. Twenty-two lawyers of the St. Petersburg 
Bar Association were convicted on the charge of agitating 
against the government, one month before the outbreak of 
the World War. 

The Russian revolution of 1905 had its repercussions in 
Austria. The franchise was reformed so as to protect racial 
minorities; the members of each race were to vote in separate 
‘compartments’ for their own national representatives in 
parliament. Altogether eight nationalities were recognized 
according to language: Germans, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, 
and so forth. For the Jews to accept membership in one or 
the other of these nationalities it meant, in Vienna for ex- 
ample, to vote for the Christian Socialist, hence Anti-Semitic, 
candidates, if they would not support the Socialists. In 
Bohemia, the Jews found themselves between the Czechs 
and Germans, and in Galicia between the Poles and Ruthe- 
nians, so that whichever of the two races they chose to go 
with, the other was certain to resent it. In Galicia and Buk- 
owina, moreover, where the mass of the Jews spoke their 
own dialect, they should have really formed their own group. 
However, there was no unanimity among the Jews them- 
- selves; only four Jewish deputies from Galicia and Bukowina 
constituted themselves as the ‘Jewish Club,’ while ten others 
adhered to the German and Polish parties. 

In the elections to the local Galician Diet, the Poles, 
whether of the conservative and nationalist or the socialist 
party, categorically refused to recognize a ‘third nation.’ In 
1910, almost half of the Jewish voters in Galicia and Buk- 
owina named in the registers their own dialect as their na- 
tional language. During the parliamentary election of 1911 
it came to a clash between the assimilationists and the Jew- 
ish nationalists. In the Galician town Drohobicz Jewish 
Laborers attacked the office of the successful candidate, 
Léwenstein, who had been elected on the Polish ticket. The 
Jewish Club ceased to exist, only one of its members having 
been reélected. The Polish deputies, both in parliament and 


718 THE ‘BLACK HUNDREDS’ [1912 


in the local Diet, were careful not to go too far in their — 


animosity against the Jews in order not to alienate their 


Jewish supporters. Nothing, however, prevented the Poles 


from crowding out the Jewish petty traders by the estab- 
lishment of rural codperative stores and by withholding the 
lease of salt-mines and breweries from Jews. The economic 
condition of Galician Jewry grew worse daily. 

The same situation developed in Russian Poland from the 
time of the organization of the National Democratic party 
and its entry into the Duma under the leadership of Dmow- 
ski. Besides the small body of ‘Poles of the Mosaic Faith,’ 
there were the mass of the politically undeveloped Hasidim, 
and the Zionists and nationalists who clamored for recogni- 
tion of Jewish national rights. These the Poles to a man 
refused to countenance, maintaining that there could not 
be two nations on the Vistula. Under the cloak of Polish 
nationalism, an economic boycott was instituted in 1909- 
1910 against the Jews; the slogan went forth, ‘Do not buy 
from Jews!’ The antagonism became acute during the elec- 


tions of 1912 to the fourth Duma. Although the Jews of © 


Warsaw. numbered two hundred thousand souls, they were 
ready, in order not to provoke the Poles, to support any 
Polish candidate who was not an Anti-Semite. Instead, the 


Polish electoral committee named as its candidate an out- * 


and-out Anti-Semite, the National Democrat Kucharzewski. 
The Jews, still bent upon respecting Polish susceptibilities, 
refrained from putting forward a candidate of their own and 
voted for the socialist Jagello, who was elected. The result 


was that the bitterness of the Poles was increased and that — 


the economic boycott was carried out with the utmost 
severity. 


Pre ae eS a, 


a, = 


S@ tern which events tear * Russia, be- 
i had precipitated Armiher exodus: 
ve Year and 1914. Ane ia iyeneived 
fe milkon jewish oripigreck 1.0m 
3 e Mnimicration, pine it: bing 
na it the United States  .* oetica ; 


} congestion af ihe newaanwrrs at 
Whether the Fast Pec io London of the 

York, and their previominance ja péu- 
ght about legislative weipetered oooh 

ah began as eariy “ws 1902 aond Pee 

lation: in 1905 « ew was ene 
on of alien pa: ApS. 

} te restrict spire ir 


BAD) to two 7) 8) and en ia 


wy to Faskey: diesel 

0 of immigeation. Frege nis, 
rg both in the Scnate amd lathe 
; embodying A literacy tee tor 
t of eres ‘tes 6h ‘eharan tes 


ee 


¥ a soe certificate of 
ye i Presiens Taft sewn te bil 


datit from without or fades wrthin. 


“+ fiers  Eeayees ) 
hii | eo Ae) aes 


L 


-awaneae again iia Jews in corde 


re 


oniition of Galician a sews ry grew we 
he samme situation developed in Ru 
:¢ of the organization of th f 


» A 
e een Beer hear ae a 
‘ > Ol a 


\ 
iat 


oie nists oes hattocstol wh 
thon of Jewish ‘national rights. Th 
«fused io countenance, maintamamy 
@ two nations on the V fistula, 1 x 
anoutaliegn m, an economic boyoont 
iO < 7 the Lpseiaiee’ 


pons ee 912 | to ‘ie fou , 
Varsaw. numbered two hundred 
y. in order. not to provoke # 
jish candidate who was'not: 
Polish electoral commit tee name 
w«l-out Anti-Semite, the Nati 

: Jews, still bent upon te 
fe rained from putting forward 
2 voted for the socialist Jagello, 
. vas that the bitterness of the 
acm dmonie! boycott was { A 


CHAPTER XCVI 
THE EXODUS TO AMERICA 
(1905-1914) 


\HE untoward turn which events took in Russia, be- 

ginning with 1905, had precipitated another exodus. 

Between that year and 1914, America alone received 
about three-quarters of a million Jewish immigrants from 
Russia. The effect of this mass immigration, whether in Eng- 
land and its dependencies or in the United States of America, 
was twofold, as one looked at it from without or from within: 
On the external side, the congestion of the new-comers at 
one particular spot, whether the East End in London or the 
East Side in New York, and their predominance in par- 
ticular trades brought about legislative counter-measures. 
In England, the agitation began as early as 1902 and took 
the form of anti-alien legislation; in 1905 a law was passed: 
in restraint of the immigration of alien paupers. 

In America, the movement to restrict immigration like- 
wise gained momentum. The head-tax was raised from fifty 
cents for every immigrant (1882) to two (1903) and then to 
four dollars (1906). In 1906, President Roosevelt appointed 
to membership in his Cabinet Oscar S. Straus (1850-1926) as 
secretary of commerce and labor. Straus had served pre- 
viously as minister and ambassador to Turkey; the new office 
carried with it the supervision of immigration. From 1906 
to 1913 bills were brought in, both in the Senate and in the 
House of Representatives, embodying a literacy test’ for 
immigrants and the requirement of certificates of character 
issued in the home country. The latter provision would have 
militated against the admission of Jews from Russia and 
Rumania, since in those countries it was exceedingly ‘diffi: 
cult, ifnot altogether impossible, for the Jews to procure such 
certificates. The bill, as finally passed by the two Houses 
of the Congress, dropped the certificate of character clause; 
but the literacy test remained. President Taft vetoed the bill 


719 


720 THE' EXODUS TO AMERICA em 


(February 14, 1913); when reintroduced in the new Congress, 
it was similarly vetoed by President Wilson (July 28, 1914). 

The fight for liberal immigration laws was carried on, in 
conjunction with other Jewish organizations, chiefly by the 
American Jewish Committee, called into existence in 1906. 
The first chairman of this representative body was Mayer 
Sulzberger (1843-1923) of Philadelphia, distinguished as a 
- jurist, erudite man of letters, a lover of Jewish literature, 
author of papers and learned monographs on the ancient 
polity of the Hebrews, easily the foremost Jewish layman in 
America. Among his principal associates were Louis Mar- 
shall (born 1856) of New York City, who succeeded to the 
chairmanship in 1912, and Cyrus Adler (born 1863), then of 
the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. Prominent 
in the formation of ‘the Committee was Jacob H. Schiff 
(1847-1920), chief of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb 
& Co., acknowledged head of American Jewry, universally 
beloved for his varied and vast philanthropic gifts, far- 
sighted in counsel, warmly attached to the cause of his peo- 


ple at home and abroad. Of this princely Jew it may be truly | : 


said that nothing Jewish was alien to him; he stood above 
the parties and worked for peace within the household of 
Israel and for just treatment of his people wheresoever their 
rights were denied or infringed upon. Oscar S. Straus and 
the versatile Joseph Jacobs (1854-1916), previously secre- 
tary of the Russo-Jewish Committee in England, lent valua- 
ble aid in the formation of the American Jewish Committee. 

This Committee brought to a head the question of the 
admission of Jewish citizens from America to Russia in 
accordance with the terms of the treaty of 1832. The sub- 
ject had occupied the attention of the Department of State 
for forty years, during which time every diplomatic expedi- 
ent was tried to counter the evasive answers of the czar’s 
government. President Taft was reluctant to go to extremes; 
at a luncheon tendered at the White House on February 15, 
1911, to representatives of the American Jewish Committee. 
the Union of American Hebrew Congregations,,and the 
Independent Order B’nai B’rith, the president announced 


why i =» re 
A car a 
a) : yee 

? 


Pie 
‘ i ae ' 
ation OF TRE AXY WITMRUMRIA C721 


ament could do nothing. The Jewish delega- 
ee apirit. ‘We are stil i in extie (galuth),’ 
way. Schiff answerect: “Titis means a 
Gr, was impressed by the arguments | 
Ste discrimination against a class of » 
LPigerleet con was passed mthe House of 
i e bx aR eons tion of Ws taeatys and 
ne penal ae EE ‘i the treaty. 
3, Abe abeogation wernt Hitacitees 
. teal had rex! isol theusaingdaa ¢ of jae 


sep sell re ida The. rene beers 
elves te the strange language and ensiome- 
Re realty the elders more slowly. fat Heer 
| 2 districts aod among the obder penetra 
ek peneclh wi Ket Up,iAt rece jved an acteek- 
& veralalary, while Slavic Sere 
e. ced every javge. city newspapers we the 
niiale it, with an enormous circula- 
migra! exeates! their own theaters and plac 
; The ¢ native Jews strove to speed the proces: 
- + Aaericanizing’ the foreigner, while the 
gt ar vee the Coarcuntnity at large an intenser Jew- 
. ¢ vebignms erlucation of the children of 
wa oomducted according to the tradi- 
s Phediers) or public schools (Tplvnud 
oe mastering the Hebrew taggin. The. 
r of se fireign population were served ty 
(am. imine, remained strangers to the 
pe en pees of time when thes rain: 
| ding whe seca | 
Fadi whit hicks 


x 7  Segercra! to be in ‘hes anita bah 
= ae the ae ape 


- : oa THE-BXODUS 


7 q 3) Rp thee 
iPenrmary 14,2973). 8 fasaai 


wt 


at + WAR Sits 4 t" ly’ ret 
‘he heht tor banal | ims gration | . 
fenjunciion with other Jew 


7 Aaa Jews sh ( Shares - called into 


fret chairman of this 


sauteteorger (1843-1923) of Philadelph ia, 
verve, erudite man of letters, a andl | 


ay of papers and, esis mano | 
| ' ty of the Hebrews 
feerica. Among bic pr 
Get nial (born 1856) of tinal Yorn Cityyy , 
Kea ‘ spas p in 191 2, and Mtl 


sach-ancan ahi ve the x 
b 7 


« : * 
., acknowlede ed h 


% 
—— 
Ws 
£ 
f 
«aS 
jen 
» 
CG 
~ 

2 
bing 
pues 
= 

4 
~ 
~ 
ped 

- 
~~ 
a 
wm 
~er 
oy 
Bt 
om 
ae 


uzhted im counsel, warmly 


eke, were aprhartnl or > ieee 
rhe meirene™ ik * oe aus 


ya “a 
, Petts a 
er RNA of 


mocordance with ‘an ne “at t 
wert had occupied the attention i 
sean jew fo fees year $, paring mich tin 


ite) heb qnadeiedii at the We 
Oi, BO tepresentatives of the An 
the Uday of American Hebr 
Indogects tent Order B nai B'rith, 


1913] ABROGATION OF TREATY WITH RUSSIA . 721 


that the government could do nothing. The Jewish delega- 
tion left depressed in spirit. ‘We are still in exile (galuth),’ 
said one of the company. Schiff answered: “This means a 
fight.’ Congress, however, was impressed by the arguments 
showing Russia’s deliberate discrimination against a class of 
American citizens. A resolution was passed in the House of 
Representatives calling for an abrogation of the treaty, and 
before the Senate had taken action, President Taft gave 
notice to Russia of the proposed termination of.the treaty. 
On January 1, 1913, the abrogation went into effect. 

The translation of so many hundreds of thousands of East- 
European Jews to England and America was necessarily 
productive of an internal transformation of Jewish life, both 
among immigrants and old-time residents. The new-comers 
adjusted themselves to the strange language and customs— 
the children quite rapidly, the elders more slowly. But even 
where, as in congested districts and among the older genera- 
tion, the imported speech was kept up, it received an admix- 
ture from the English vocabulary, while Slavic elements 
went into disuse. In every large city newspapers in the 
spoken dialect were published, with an enormous circula- 
tion; the immigrants created their own theaters and places 
of amusement. The native Jews strove to speed the process 
of ‘Anglicizing’ or ‘Americanizing’ the foreigner, while the 
latter brought into the community at large an intenser Jew- 
ish atmosphere. The religious education of the children of 
foreign-born parents was conducted according to the tradi- 
tional manner, in private (heders) or public schools (Talmud 
Torahs), with stress on mastering the Hebrew tongue. The 
religious needs of the foreign population were served by 
imported rabbis, who, of course, remained strangers to the 
English speech. It was a question of time when these min- 
isters would prove unequal to the task of guiding the second 
generation, which was English-speaking. 

In England, orthodoxy appeared to be in the saddle. Both 
the Portuguese (Gaster) and the Ashkenazic (Hermann 
Adler, 1839-1911) chief rabbis led their communities along 
traditional lines. Of the two, Gaster, being a Rumanian by 


722 THE EXODUS TO AMERICA 


birth, stood nearer to the foreign Jew in sentiment. Adler, 
while helpful in every way, was looked upon by the immi- 
grants as the representative of officialdom with its ‘Anglican’ 
cast. Aside from the reform congregations of moderate scope 
from the middle of the nineteenth century, there was devel- 
oped a radical movement under the leadership of Claude G. 
Montefiore (born 1858), the exponent of a Judaism stripped 
of all its national implications, who in 1901 founded the Jew- 
ish Religious Union. This organization established in 1910 
the Liberal Jewish Synagogue, which remained outside the 
jurisdiction of the ‘United Synagogue.’ The headship of the 
chief rabbi was equally repudiated in the East End bythe 
organization of the ‘Upholders of the Law’ (Mahazike ha- 
Dath); in 1898 they opened a large synagogue in Spital- 
fields. Jews’ College, opened in 1856, graduated in the course 
of its existence many an able minister. It had a notable 
_scholar as principal in the person of Michael Friedlander 
(1833-1910), whose place was worthily filled by his successor 
Adolf Biichler (born 1867). But the influence of the College 
was slow to reach the foreign population. Outside Jews’ Col- 
lege, Jewish scholarship was brilliantly cultivated by the 
‘readers’ in Rabbinic Hebrew at the two universities: at 


Oxford by Adolf Neubauer (1831-1907), from 1868 on sub- 


librarian in the Bodleian Library; at Cambridge, succes- 
sively, by Solomon Schiller-Szinessy (1820-1890), Solomon 
Schechter (1850-1915), and Israel Abrahams (1858-1925). 
Schechter was born in Rumania. After pursuing studies in 
Vienna, under the guidance of Friedmann (p. 704), and in 
Berlin under Israel Lewy (p.682) and other scholars, he was 
invited to London in 1882 by Claude G. Montefiore; in 1890 
he received his Cambridge appointment. Before he departed 
from England, he had established for himself an interna- 
tional reputation through the identification of a leaf of the 
Hebrew Ben Sira which reached Cambridge (1896), and 
subsequently through the find of the hoard of ancient manu- 
script fragments in the store-room of a Cairo synagogue 
(Genizah; 1897). Schechter was singularly prepared to take 
the lead in sifting and editing the numerous treatises and 


1 


4 
f 


Pe egal ealian 723. 


history. 

rate 4 scholar as Scien was, he 

y eitbdraw hiraself cloisteaily into the j 
dge. Out of the prodigious store of his 

ng he had peeieth ng to tell te seagate 


ait ans delightful He wae ae casterr 
ed the West; he abhoreed mene 


aie of re ee by canes ¢ els Site 
| of the ‘true worth of the Torsh He 
;het borrowed, for 
. dQo5 ro , ofadcaled 
he afiffaity of lewis By y opabh 
eof Israel ‘catholic’ Israel-—rather thebs 
mn, for the revival of Jewish nationalism | 
iment to the inherited religious values. 
e Schechter unfolded forcefully in popular 
3, in learned theal: ygical publications, in 
5 hing; and in his converse with laymen. He 
a] ch wider ‘field for his activity in the United 
here, in a 1902, he took over the direction of the New 
ing school for rabbis founded by Morais ancl new 
7: she Jewish Theological Seminary of Amerca, 
jlaced on a scurvler financial basis throng) 
fund contributed by Schiff and other. far- 
hho realized that, ag the immigrate became 
i they mst be supplied with English-speaking 
im a spirit of respect fer the orthodox 
the tew-coniers. The older orthodox or con- 
Sengregetions, likewise, availed themselves of the 
ot ih graduates of the New York: wrnitiary, while 
Hsia s, or Temples, Sam hit wijinters — 
Sei ti school Rohler wae vieescy 0 the eresi- 
e SHebrew Vivir College te 42 pct aerved 
i 1921. Freed blasted Cab irhpiasrtak duties. te had 


grants as tl he repr esentative ‘of "tlm 


\ cast. 7 ide iro ETL 


AA (ehore Bin 1858), atin exponent: ) 
f al) ifs nationalir nplicati ions, whoin 1901 


isl’ Keligions Union. This otganization esi 
} Liberal Jewish Synagogue, which mé 


: c liction of the ‘U eat Synaseate 
av organization of de U fehl 


Math): in 1898 hoband: ened a large syn 
ae PS we “ i. Baik .% wpthos re x pide ewegicgied | in i 5 aes eke 
Baise Stay ois vexistence many?an able ¢ 


sPhinlas as ain pal in ‘the: person Lk 
cr8. 833-19 910 vhose place was worthily fi . 


was slow ave reac ne ae Tor oreigr eileen 
aes fewish stholarship was b 
readers’ in ‘Rabbinic Hebrew at 
Cnford by Adolt Neubatier: (18; | 
librarian in the Bodleian Library; 
sively; vids is lomon Schiller-Szin 
Schechter 1856-1915), and Israel 
Schabtiee ter was born in n Rumartia, 
ienna, under the guidance of Fi 
Bertin ea Israel Lewy (p, 682): 
invited to London‘in 1882 by Clat 
he received big Cambridge appoi 
irom England, he hadc_establishe 
tion rt: ir — wash the: = 4 


ry Sy 


Whe is agpininbk in hi stone-rO8 ; 

(Genizah-: 1897), Schechter was sin} 
$ - i * . oa SL Pree. fa 

the fead in sifting and editing the 


1902] SOLOMON SCHECHTER 723 


documents, through which a flood of light was shed upon 
obscure chapters of Jewish history. 

Painstaking and accurate a scholar as Schechter was, he 
was far too human to withdraw himself cloistrally into the 
domain of pure knowledge. Out of the prodigious store of his 
information and reading he had something to tell to English- 
speaking Jewry, and he told it in a style all his own, scintil- 
lating with wit, brilliantly delightful. He was an eastern 
Hasid transplanted to the West; he abhorred middle-class 
religious smugness no less than official formalism. The show 
of religion was for him no substitute for genuine piety, nor 
the subversive estimates of Judaism by modern Christian 
scholars a measure of the true. worth of the Torah. He 
pleaded for a liberalism which was Jewish, not borrowed, for 
a ministry well-prepared, for an orientation consummately 
thought out, for the historical continuity of Jewish life, for 
fealty to the whole of Israel—‘catholic’ Israel—rather than 
to provincial Judaism, for the revival of Jewish nationalism 
in complete attachment to the inherited religious values. 

This programme Schechter unfolded forcefully in popular 
essays and addresses, in learned theological publications, in 
his academic teaching, and in his converse with laymen. He 
found a much wider field for his activity in the United 
States, where, in 1902, he took over the direction of the New 
York training school for rabbis founded by Morais and now 
reorganized as the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. 
The school was placed on a sounder financial basis through 
an endowment fund contributed by Schiff and other far- 
sighted men who realized that, as the immigrants became 
‘Americanized,’ they must be supplied with English-speaking 
rabbis, trained in a spirit of respect for the orthodox 
traditions of the new-comers. The older orthodox or con- 
servative congregations, likewise, availed themselves of the 
services of the graduates of the New York seminary, while 
the reform synagogues, or Temples, took their ministers 
from the Cincinnati school. Kohler was elected to the presi- 
dency of the Hebrew Union College in 1903 and served 
actively until 1921. Freed from ministerial duties, he had 


4 
3 
4 

ys 


124 THE EXODUS TO AMERICA [1908 


the leisure to prepare a text-book of systematic Jewish 
Theology, which appeared both in German and in English. 

The two wings of American Jewry were represented in the 
preparation of the Jewish Encyclopaedia, which was com- 
pleted in 1905. Another literary achievement, under the 
joint auspices of the Jewish Publication Society of America 
(organized in 1888) and the Central Conference of American 
Rabbis (instituted in 1889), was the new English version of 
the Scriptures, projected in 1892 and completed in 1917, the 
publication being made possible chiefly through the gen- 
erosity of Jacob H. Schiff. A third institution of Jewish 
learning, the Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate 
Learning, was opened at Philadelphia in 1908, with Cyrus 
Adler as president. This institution was unique in that it 
was a strictly graduate school leading to the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy and open to students without distinc- 
tion as to creed, color, or sex. The college was founded in 
accordance with the provisions of the last willand testament 
of Moses Aaron Dropsie (1821-1905) of Philadelphia. 

Jewish literary efforts were furthered in Germany through 
the establishment of a Society for the Promotion of Jewish 
Learning (‘Gesellschaft zur Férderung der Wissenschaft des 
Judentums’) in 1902. This organization took in hand the 
preparation of a series of works, learned in substance but 
popular in form, comprising the whole range of Jewish 
knowledge. The Union of German Jews, effected in 1904, 
was to serve defensive purposes against the infringement of 
Jewish rights, though organized Anti-Semitism seemed to be 
losing ground in German politics. The Relief Society of Ger- 
man Jews (‘Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden’), called into 
being in 1901, developed a useful activity in helping East- 
ern Jews. In common with the Jewish National Fund and 
public-spirited Jews of Russia and America, the German 
society interested itself in the creation of a technical school 
at Haifa. But when the building wasapproaching completion, 
a difference of opinion developed as to the language of 
instruction—German or Hebrew. The institution was finally 
opened in 1924 under entirely different conditions. 


Le ae eae ee 


ee ee ee | 


ancis Fepdigand, heir 
7 nah his wife wefe dasassi- 
+. in the hetief that “<er- 
wn the plot, sertit an wits: 
id, because Serbia. would sot 
ae ofciais on her own sou bor 
the Seratevo crime, deciaret 
| w 28), That was the spark 
“meen the Central Powers 3 
with Turkey as cher ee 


— =. 


Pee — J ar 
i the Allied and Asse- 


+ 
os es ; ere ht 
Rarclan i, Russia, anc = . 
4 a 
os : 4 s Ye 
tre { tiit ry ar 5 and od fg + ¥ 


bebind the Hines. Jewish sol- Tifa 
toh distinctions] tn the <2 
‘a there Were jews ah geerals. heir’ = 
onan | ‘per 1865) served-on 
maanded the Australian . 
abitity and energy. On the . . 
ye ermany the Kaiser, ler an Mae 
sertin © ante, ras that he 


ng the cate ack eit who were Ran Gaia 
ewish socialist deputy. Ludwig ioe 
i Jewish extraction, . weote the pod 
vad. Baeeeshenyr: in. isto, the 


Mae i€i9ure KF prepare aot 
Theology, which appeared be | 
4 > 
The (ve wings of American Jewry bis 
Pers eee sa the Je = Ene } 


sae oe 


ips | cariada in 1889), was the 
Scriptures, projected In hee rie 
Gtication being made possi 
ruts a Ja coh Hy Schiff, a ‘third inet 
earning, the Dropsie) College ‘for Hek 
pope: vas opened at Philadelphia in 
Wier as ips This Biber: 


Ehilas he a che open to 
ion ae to creed, color, or SEX. 8] 
lance with the prov ‘sions. of t 


Jewish itera we efforts were hart 
ie eatablishment of a Society: for’ 
Learning (' at gee] biti haft Zur Férde 
dentums') in 1902. This orgariaal 
selene a! a Series of Ww thie AO 
wnpitiat He form, comprisin g the who 
moor lec > Lhe: Union of Geni A. hs 
Was te serve defensive purposes 1 a 
jewish rights, though organized Ant 
aang gro sine in German polit 
CHilfeverein der. deuts 
tata gn L907, developed a usefal 
“re Jews. En -common wath the | 
pbic-epinited: Jews: of Russia 
scooiety interested itse if in the er 
ofa, But when the building wasi 
» <Lifecdinge fap opinion ras | 


_ 
- 
¥ 


mane fews 


CHAPTER XCVII 
THE WORLD WAR 
(1914-1918) 


N June 28, 1914, archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir 

to the Habsburg throne, and his wife were assassi- 

nated at Serajevo. Austria, in the belief that Ser- 
bian officials had been involved in the plot, sent an ultima- 
tum to Serbia (July 23), and, because Serbia would not 
permit the presence of Austrian officials on her own soil for 
the purpose of investigating the Serajevo crime, declared 
war on the southern Slav state (July 28). That was the spark 
which kindled the World War, between the Central Powers 
—Germany and Austria-Hungary, with Turkey as their 
principal ally on the one side—and the Allied and Asso- 
ciated Powers—France, Belgium, England, Russia, and 
their supporters on the other side. 

The Jews everywhere answered the call to arms and en- 
listed in every patriotic effort behind the lines. Jewish sol- 
diers fought bravely and earned high distinctions; in the 
French and Beigian commands there were Jewish generals. 
Lieutenant-general Sir John Monash (born 1865) served on 
several fronts and at the last commanded the Australian 
corps in France with conspicuous ability and energy. On the 
eve of the declaration of war by Germany the Kaiser, in an 
address from the balcony of the Berlin Castle, said that he 
knew no longer any parties among his people and that there 
were only Germans. Among the early volunteers who were 
killed in action was the Jewish socialist deputy Ludwig 
Frank. Ernest Lissauer, of Jewish extraction, wrote the 
‘hymn of hate’ against England. Nevertheless, in 1916, the 
German Anti-Semites raised the cry that the Jews were 
shirking active service at the front—a falsehood disproved 
by the large number of Jewish casualties in battle. The 


phe 


726 THE WORLD WAR 


ministry of war ordered a special ‘Jews’ Census’ to ascertain 
the number of Jews doing service at the front and behind 
the lines. 

Foreign Jews in enemy countries, so long as they were 
mere transients, shared but the plight of their compatriots 
in being turned out or interned. The trouble with the Jews, 


however, was that, because of the exodus from Galicia and — 


Russia, large numbers of them had been resident abroad 
and, not being naturalized, were now expelled as enemy 
nationals. Thus a numerous colony of Galician Jews were 
ordered by the Belgian government to leave Antwerp. Jamal 
Pasha, the commander of the Turkish forces in Palestine, 
was particularly severe with the Jewish residents of the Holy 
Land, who for the most part were Russian-born. Unwilling 
to serve in the Ottoman army, they left of their own accord 
or were forcibly banished. Equally difficult was the situation 
for the Russian Jews in England; at first they were threat- 
ened with deportation to Russia in order that they might 
fulfil their military duty in their stepmotherly home from 
which they had fled. Then they were invited to serve in the 
British army, naturalization being offered to soldiers after 
active service of three months’ duration, provided they had 
been resident in His Majesty’s dominions for a period of five 
years, including twelve months in the United Kingdom. ~ 

_The greatest measure of suffering befell the Jews on both 
sides of the eastern front. With the advance of the Russian 
army over the western frontier, the Jewish population, in 
fear of the Cossacks, took flight. The invasion of East Prussia 
was of short duration. The Russians were more successful in 
Galicia; by March, 1915, they had taken Lemberg, Jaroslav, 
Przemysl and penetrated to the Carpathians. What with 
evacuations, ordered by the Austrian command, and panicky 
flight before the Russian ‘steam roller,’ the number of ref- 
ugees grew enormously until it comprised half of the Jewish 
population. of Galicia. It became-necessary to: provide con- 
centration camps for this mass of humanity, since the hous- 
ing facilities in the cities were inadequate. The ‘Polish’ Jews, 
though Austrian citizens, were none too welcome in Anti- 


* 
Fc ol ntl ami mE SR cial em ae) 


ian ok Din ews 727 
fed Goon us ee to be 


eh er awing of 1925. came back 
a ore aatetead Sivshaiatibta to their 
ee Qomehin wet qver % the 
gle Ge Dandhian kiegdos: was 
ea with whoo Bat var @ hed 
oa Reagiat wing, Meanwiits tbe 
oop Mosima Tsao, 
Biietss a ck: Wepiere Frabvin ’ 
He iat die Massie, Seetore wert 
sey. Foe fase Bs8 Pee 
A aetee: toy gett qatar wer: 
* heck Sea, bei 
3 Witney az pas hed ee: ithe 2 
BORRHRR ce. te ene imi | ; 
Wee ogee eat ict “ tcembaebras? . | 
beeen «ieee luge Be ree 


Gro aie. I TBR sienadl iene the. ane 
i i a 03s jrtex r sodas: fe 2 
iat Lit See Rages are, eles 
“tad = pine rr ager 4534 Use: fons: Syquaty 
| x “ Sie vise: right ay Lertay oto % 
I: Nees 0 8. es adh ee nae cared | Keys 
a Palas ee Che fiseers Thee: whe ) eo gs 3 
‘ ste heen. st Bess worse. Seay the ty o 
iansavice. ‘abe Gre, Sommer oo eee ae 
ate said iow rane vant pliner eo Ne 


oe 


¥ De aot Me) la, Ye ne 
a aCe I ; ‘ 
My bok, 
’ 
ny Pa 
at ae be 74 YT Ve 
E WORLD WAR 
4 wt ~ 
s} vV GALE 
i is ia) »f 
3 mer ty 
sf ; 
i ¥ a 7 er’ T ouasrd - 7 ey, YELr 
Y Se ie © s Cw SS itl Gpperke ¥y 


rth : Cite thrnec out OT 


C r, Wa 
la a bay ~ 7 
ROt DRNe natura abs were now: expel 
a rey 
thonas. LMMUS a numerct 


ordered by the Belptan government to Jeave 
i aoa, th 8 COM wider f ) 


particularly seve re wi h the «Jewish res Ne 


s 


were torcibly banished 
for ‘the sas hia Jews in 
“i wath a ortation to + Reales in agai 
ulti, their military rd ke ti their stepmott 
ich A 1en pape were invil 


mY 
<> 
% 
BP 
Siar 
Pres. 
4 
ake 
te 
_— 
be 
a 
i 


os ine greatest measure of { eufeeiags 
rn ; 4 pric } 
, 


‘ sides of the eastern front. With: the ad 
, arn apes the western frontier, 
re, ot sth €& Cossacks 3, took fi ight, Thei 
vas of short ee The Russian 
alicia; by March, 1975, they had te 
Przemvsl and pene etrared to the Carpal 
evacuations, ordered bythe Austrk 
fight before the Russian ‘steam. 
gees grew enormously unt : 
population of Galicia, It became-t 
entration camps for this mass of h 
tg facilities inthe eit ies were — 
Pita hs: A vate’ “Itiz 
By Sa a teres ae . Be Stk. 4 


THE PLIGHT OF THE JEWS 727 


Semitic Vienna and were looked upon as ‘foreigners’ to be 
gotten rid of as soon as possible. : 

_. The Russians, driven out in the spring of 1915, came back 
under Brussilov a year later and added Bukowina to their 
conquests, with the result that Rumania went over to the 
Allies; but by the end of 1916 the Danubian kingdom was 
under the heels of the Teutons, with whom Bulgaria had 
made common cause from the beginning. Meanwhile the 
German and Austrian armies had overrun Russian Poland, 
Lithuania (Grodno, Vilna), Courland, and western Volhynia; 
there were counter-movements by the Russians, sectors were 
lost and recaptured by the enemy. The passing and repas- 
sing of the belligerent armies over the entire eastern war- 
zone, from the Gulf of Riga to the Black Sea, brought untold 
sufferings to non-combatants. Densely populated as this 
whole area was with Jews, community after community was 
reduced to ruin. There were losses through bombardment, 
famine, and disease; the conqueror exacted huge indemnities 
and imposed forced labor. | 

Still greater was the moral indignity heaped upon the 
Jews by their own government. Though Jewish soldiers did 
their duty nobly in the ranks of the Russian army, the Rus- 
sian military command discriminated against the Jews from 
the beginning of hostilities, as if they might betray military 
secrets to the invaders, and tens of thousands were uprooted 
and deported to the interior behind the lines. Those who 
remained were forced to deliver hostages answerable for the 
good behavior of the Jewish population. When the enemy 
retreated and the Russians came back, the none too friendly 
Poles did their worst to slander the Jews. Though innocent, 
their very speech, which was akin to the German, engen- 
dered suspicion however unfounded. 

During the German occupation of Russian provinces the 
German Jews formed an ‘Eastern Committee’ to safeguard. 
Jewish rights in the occupied territory and to relieve Jewish 
suffering. The Galician refugees were cared for by welfare 
organizations in the Austrian capital. Relief committees 
were called into existence in neutral countries—in Denmark, 


728 THE WORLD WAR [1917 


in Holland, and in Switzerland. In Petrograd, as St. Peters- 


burg was now called, a Central Committee was in operation 


for the purpose of relieving distress among the deported — 


Jews in the interior provinces. 

The efforts of all these agencies were far surpassed by the 
activity of the American Relief Committees, organized at 
the very outset of the War and before long creating the Joint 
Distribution Committee as a common disbursing agency. 
American Jewry stood united in the face of the unparalleled 
call of the hour. With unexampled generosity millions upon 
millions of dollars were contributed; just as magnificent was 


the speedy and efficient manner in which relief reached suf- 


fering Jews, individuals and communities, in Europe, Asia, 
and Africa. The first cry came from Palestine, both from the 
old settlers who had lived by pious gifts (Halukkah) from 
abroad now no longer forthcoming, and from the newer 
colonists dependent for support upon the Zionist administra- 
tion which had collapsed. The government of the United 
States lent every possible aid to the execution of the humani- 
tarian endeavor. Even after the entry of America into the 
War, when no communications could be had with the Jewish 


committees in enemy countries, the Department of State — 


arranged for the transmission of funds by the ‘Joint’ through 
the ambassadors of neutral Countries. 

Six hundred of the Palestinian refugees in Egypt formed 
themselves into the ‘Zion Mule Corps’; after a brief training 
they embarked in April, 1915, for the Dardanelles. There 
they fought through the whole of the ill-fated Gallipoli cam- 
paign, under the command of a soldier most sympathetically 
disposed towards the Jews and Zionism, Colonel John Henry 
Patterson. Of the valiant Jewish contingent six were killed, 
fifty-five were wounded, and three obtained military honors. 
These Jews shared with the stout-hearted Australians and 
New-Zealanders (Anzac) in the feat of the difficult evacua- 
tion of the Gallipoli peninsula from November, 1915, to 
January, 1916. The Jewish unit was disbanded, subse- 
quently to supply the nucleus out of which was formed the 
Jewish Legion for service in Palestine. 


satiate ita Li deme a Maat 


fs —? A ooo ee ee 
awe’ Pee iy. i hae Lore 


Pee ee ee, Clee Ae 


tHe RUSSIAN REVO AT HON 799 


V0n th 8 of, 1917 heid out a gloomy prospect for 
e s. Germany’ a sulanarine campaign was at 
it; searing Febriary’no jess then @ hundred and 
wir vessels were sunk. ‘ic raids from Gennan Zep-— 
ie henone: frequent i France and begiind, with 
| ae Tifeand property to nen-cembatants, 
tat of America. exasperated by the errors of 
weaince the sinking of the Lavinia (May 
| d more fecently by Berlin’s clugmy eorts to : 
0 - ry sywith Mexico and Japan, af eet severed 
Hiowta- gith Germany (February 3%, 117), 
on-off war followed on Apri! 4,, 
Panoles on the side of the Alites: [oieeveit as 
adhesion of many states in Centra! aoe ena | 
of the tiny republic of Libena, of Sige am / 
‘brake down the Teuton wast-resohane 
being, imtil the prese: ice of the Sungytan 
force could make jtseli felt on the weer 
: Leased to be a factor in the east. he Pobre 
on bad broken out in Petrograd; on March 
. was forced to abdicate. Prince Lvov headext fons: 
jonial government, still bent ape promenuting 
5 of the Allies. On July 22, Kerenstiy, ain 
et revolutionist, succc otal as hoped wf ster, 
ut he was powerless in the face of the comm 
tion of the army. Moreover, hie was, tates) 
Councils. (goviets’) of Workivggaiees. act 
ie demented peace at all costs. The tid wil 
ment brought the repeal of rate Toran ; 
y waa free. 
und in greater need of f: iendly snarndlenta. 
atever quarter and of available manqsomer fer 
Qn ecakcmddaly apart than in teeta; 2 
ees of 1917, In December, 1916, the es: 
a reorganized, with David Liowd Gedege as Bi 
Ne ne War Council, appalled by the fous in he ekg 
{ growingly apprehensive of the eqihiaten = 
age for military avec in the bos. c nortan A? 


~, 


~ 


a) 


a ry iP f U 
eek: Seamer inc! 
MED oes © pie ey ae Ue Poeartaes ; : 


[25 THE WORLD wae 
fy } MARC, in Cvitteeriedek In Petiogr 
burg was now called, a Centrait 
for the purpése of bres: disor 
lews in the interior provinces. 
‘he efforts of all these agencies were ie 
i tivity of the American Relief, Gommait 
Yery Outset of the V War and before: long 
| eae - jas chine 
red Aisaas ‘The iret ory Ci ume from’ 


committees 
; 


arranged 


‘ne ambassadors of neutral Countries.” 
Six hundred. of the Palestinian 


RS 
CeHEY 


cave 


a 


Me oe | 
A iy 


Newbie eal tie vo arp 


y fought through the whske ot: 1 


apaene I — a ive and! ee 
atte 


Jewish | egio on. oe service im Palest 


se he 


sa the transmission of + andes 
ns selves | into the ‘Zion ped alt 


n, under the command of asold 


$s; 
i =. 
<. 
- 
‘$< 
oo 
= 
PBs: 
we Se 
. & 
=3 
eet 
-m @ 
(et 
a 
a 
ae 
ee =e 
| en 
2S: 
pei’ 


. the ie oeninail 


1917] THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 729 


The early months of 1917 held out a gloomy prospect for 
the Allied Powers. Germany’s submarine campaign was at 
its height; during February no less than a hundred and 
thirty-four vessels were sunk. Air raids from German Zep- 
pelins had become frequent in France and England, with 
considerable loss of life and property to non-combatants. 
The United States of America, exasperated by the horrors of 
submarine warfare since the sinking of the Lusitania (May 
7, 1915) and more recently by Berlin’s clumsy efforts to 
embroil the country with Mexico and Japan, at last severed 
diplomatic relations with Germany (February 3, 1917); 
formal! declaration of war followed on April 6. 

The entry of America on the side of the Allies, followed as 
it was by the adhesion of many states in Central and South 
America, and of the tiny republic of Liberia, of Siam and 
China, ultimately broke down the Teuton war-machine. 
But for the time being, until the presence of the American 
expeditionary force could make itself felt on the western 
front, Russia had ceased to be a factor in the east. In Febru- 
ary, 1917, revolution had broken out in Petrograd; on March 
15, Nicholas II. was forced to abdicate. Prince Lvov headed 
a liberal provisional government, still bent upon prosecuting 
the war on the side of the Allies. On July 22, Kerensky, min- 
ister of war and social revolutionist, succeeded as head of the 
government, but he was powerless in the face of the com- 
plete disorganization of the army. Moreover, he was raised 
to power by the Councils (‘soviets’) of Workingmen and 
Soldiers and these demanded peace at all costs. The end of 
the czarist government brought the repeal of anti-Jewish 
laws; Russian Jewry was free. 

Never was England in greater need of friendly manifesta- 
tions from whatever quarter and of available man-power for 
her campaigns on fronts so widely apart than in the autumn 
of 1916 and the spring of 1917. In December, 1916, the 
Cabinet had been reorganized, with David Lloyd George as 
premier. The War Council, appalled by the losses in the 
Somme battle and growingly apprehensive of the submarine 
peril, was eager for military success in the theater of war on 


730 THE WORLD WAR [1917 


the border between Africa and Asia, where General Murray 
was confronting the enemy with a force altogether inade- 
quate. The strategic importance of tiny Palestine was known 


to the Turks and their German mentors. The British general — 


equally reasoned that, if he were to defend Egypt and the 
Suez Canal, the artery of communication with the British 


oversea dominions, he must, in view of the scant man-power — 


he had, shorten the line by advancing to El-Arish and to the 
Palestinian frontier. Both these objectives were reached by 
the beginning of 1917; twice, formidable attacks were made 
upon Gaza (March-April), but the Turks succeeded in beat- 
ing them off. In June, General pet hy took over the Egyp- 
tian command. 

While preparations were being made for pushing the Pales- 
tinian campaign in the autumn, the British Government, 
which in Herzl’s lifetime had had dealings with the Zionists, 
was moving in the direction of a pronouncement of its policy 
in Palestine in a manner satisfactory to Zionist ambitions. 
There was much work to be done: the sympathies of the 
governments of France and Italy were readily obtained. The 
Conjoint Committee of the Board of Deputies of British Jews 
and the Anglo-Jewish Association were distinctly unsym- 
pathetic. The leading representatives of Zionism in England, 
Chaim Weizmann (born 1874) and Nahum Sokolow (born 
1860), carried on negotiations with the government. They 
were in constant communication with Louis D. Brandeis 
_(born 1856) in America, head of the Provisional Executive 
Committee for General Zionist Affairs. 

The formula acceptable to both the British government 
and the Zionist organization was repeatedly recast. On 
November 2, 1917, Lord Rothschild was the recipient of a 
letter addressed by the secretary of state for foreign affairs, 
Arthur James Balfour, embodying a declaration of sympathy 
with Jewish Zionist aspirations as approved by the Cabinet. 
The declaration which Lord Rothschild was bidden to bring 
to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation—the Balfour 
Declaration as it was called—read: ‘His Majesty’s Govern- 
“ment view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a 


ST ee ee ee Re, a ee, 


Vis fi 


pl 8 ENTRY PIO JE RUSALEM 134 


e the achi evement of E this elect | it 
@ that nothing shal be done which 
Janel ecicpsteng page of exe ling non- 


inany air country,’ ; 
¢ British trocps had captured Beershela ; 
a Pand jaffa on the oth. Ow Devera- 
soe teh jerusalem and the city aur: 
in th Genera! Allenby made hiv formal 
City.In fess than a year's time the Turk- 
out of Palestine. Signal servines in the 
7 ‘of ferus alem were renders) by 
formed in England through the 
at Veda Jabetinaky (born 1880), an exile 
and a: Seveted Zitwiat, who early in the War 
- : letlow- Jews & vigorous propaganda om 
Subsequently. the Jewish contingent was 
s fhom the United States of America, On 
8, the “Judeans! dislodged the Turks from 
posiucns at the Weir esk-Shert Ford; it was to 
: place. tht the Jordan river bed was dried 
at at Joshua ted the tarwelites into the Promised 
rch, , 1998, a Bewiet Comunission, headed by 
d fate Londet tow Palestine to act a8 an advie 
British: @uthorities in ail matters affecting 
<sithag the pathos! heave. On June 14, the first: 
3 in the Weersied area was held at Juffa. 
reatohe uk tei] on mount Seupta, the 
| ing the secleat Temple area, for: rhe 


x) et ee WORLD WA 


the border berween Africa arid Asia, wht 
was confrunting the enemy with ate 

quate. The strategic impertance of tint P 
to the Turks and their German mento 
equally reasoned that, if he were te kc 
Sescig anal, the artery ed c comm 


dominions, hem 


had, shorten the pi by 

etinian {ron tel 
is begin ning of et : twice oy aa 
son Garza. Sina April}, but th 


=. ing them off. In Jun ey i Settee an : 


} tian cornmanc. 


RA 


‘ While preparations W vere belie ny 
‘ fintian meee in ne autumn 
which in Herzl’s lifet ime had hi 
Was moving in the direction of 4 prone 
- f Palestine ina eee Bers oe 


og ER: i nN 


governments bt {Fre ance ha ral 


p i onjoint Co mumittes of ae Son ar 
; and the ) a waa 


Chaim Weizn ann ives Prehe. 
1860), carried on negotiations: w 
were in constant 
(born 1856) in America, aed lot 


Z + oramittee Sek Gene vies Zionist 


Fi 
&. 
ik RN pines OF neantanen 

yeriber 2, 1917, Lord Rath 


etter addressed i hy the secretary @ 
\thar James Balfour, embodyin 


vith Jewish Zionist aspirations a 
“eclaration which Lord Roe 
tis The knowledge of the Zionis 


| ‘ov ctaration as itwas called--ready 
f ment View with favour the establi 


1918] ALLENBY’S ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM Lak 


national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best 
endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it 
being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which 
may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non- 
Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political 
status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.’ 

On October 31 the British troops had captured Beersheba; 
Gaza fell on November 7 and Jaffa on the 16th. On Decem- 
ber 9 the Turkish troops left Jerusalem and the city sur- 
rendered; on the 11th General Allenby made his formal 
entry into the Holy City. In less than a year’s time the Turk- 
ish forces were driven out of Palestine. Signal services in the 
campaign after the surrender of Jerusalem were rendered by 
several Jewish battalions, formed in England through the 
earnest efforts of Vladimir Jabotinsky (born 1880), an exile 
from Russia and a devoted Zionist, who early in the War 
started among his fellow-Jews a vigorous propaganda on 
behalf of England. Subsequently, the Jewish contingent was 
enlarged by recruits from the United States of America. On 
September 22, 1918, the ‘Judeans’ dislodged the Turks from 
their strong positions at the Umm esh-Shert Ford; it was to 
both sides of this place that the Jordan river bed was dried 
up at the time that Joshua led the Israelites into the Promised 
Land. In March, 1918, a Zionist Commission, headed by 
Weizmann, had left London for Palestine to act as an advi- 
sory body to the British authorities in all matters affecting 
the establishment of the national home. On June 14, the first 
Conference of Jews in the liberated area was held at Jaffa. 
On July 24, the corner-stone was laid on mount Scopus, the 
northern hill overlooking the ancient Temple area, for the 
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. 


CHAPTER XG 
MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE PALESTINIAN MANDATE 


(1918-1925) 


P A HE success of the Palestinian campaign was espe- 
cially gratifying to the Allies by reason of the devel- 
opments in Russia, On November 7, 1917, the 

Kerensky government was ousted by the ‘Bolshevik’ or 

‘Majority’ socialists—the name dated from the split at the 

London Congress of Socialists, 1903—under the leadership 

of Nikolai Lenin and Leon Trotsky (born 1877), the latter a 

Jew by birth. An armistice with the Central Powers was 

arranged on December 15; the formal treaty of Brest Litovsk 

followed March 3, 1918. A separate treaty had been con- 
cluded with the Central Powers by the Ukraine, which at 
the time of the Bolshevik seizure of power had proclaimed its 
independence; in effect the Ukrainian country was treated 
by Germany as annexed territory. At the end of March 

General Foch, commander-in-chief of all the Allied forces, 

began to halt Germany’s last drive on the western front. In 

July followed the Allied counter-offensive, in which the 

Americans played a notable part. By the end of October the 

military power of Germany was broken and, at the request of 

the military authorities, the civilian ministers sued for peace 
upon the terms previously laid down by President Wilson. 

On November 11, 1918, the armistice was signed; the World 

War was ended. 

The day before the Kaiser had fled to Holland. A repub- 
lican form of government was set up in the empire and in its 
parts. The Progressist Hugo Preuss (died 1925), professor of 
law and a leader in the Jewish community of Berlin, became 
imperial minister of the interior and later drafted the Weimar 
constitution of the new republic; the socialist Max Hirsch 
was made conjoint president of the Prussian republic. In 
Bavaria, Kurt Eisner (1867-1919), a communist Jew, 


732 


~~J 


‘pier GR RAINE 33 
he wos agassimated. In Hun- 
ter ancxiet of che Russian, 
iow, Béla Kuan {born 
ol boy the ert of the 
ixerrean Avstria, the 
he Piindienesicaieh and Mora- 
fepitic, with the liberal- 
while the Serbs, 

ca Yas es, thee jago-Slav kragdom. 
sai “4 feng ad EGy atg f be early period 
. tien’ of ve Viiieio-Siere kk state, But it was 
| Basal “tet, éstases, 1h. More then one 


. Cadel vt Poo the Poles in their 
C ont af the: 2 Prigaten. “jarsran, and Russian 
. Henry 2 sae tugn $256), former 
| United Meats de “Pashe, wae delegated 
. tre heend-4 Rete sss of Preasrigation ; 
ssion, weiter Sie Seo i Revensel (2456 4926}, 
; hy the Dey. weer s went 
oper aes Ge tir wer esie ance by the: 
THe phich Wie oe oe SER aR. the: puRS wy? 
| January a. sie Peon teraene the het. 
| t Russian ated Rieti iis. cores, the new 
« by the “Bact feet ho cies ape vive “White? 
p ‘now *6. sere thas SERRA aeraaely, Under 
ptlura governess: tun etuee thirty thou. 
murdered it ire ite, eont crud seventy-two 
mall I towns. All the siibiehl o te older Russian: 
pei mepented: The ce were cortured and” 
ore they were lefe to. des, + Siva agony; many 
apices cdi (Adeien were butchered 
| Tg ee ipped naked and - 
fake sone the atmcities, pers 
* Sappontvest Prnaingd ines idiers 


gelesen in- effect the Uh 


Mavaria, 


- 7 “er oe * me 


\FIE success of a lei 
ally gratilying "Al 


dea y “gover nment. was ouste 
M AjOr aby sO piegie Gores name, 
Londen Congres: a 
of NikolatLenin cad Te 
Jew by se Aw. armistice 9 
arranged on December 15; the f 
latlowedl March 3, 1918, A’ se 
chided w al bh the Central Powers . 
the time of the Bolshevik seizur 


by Germany as annexed ter 
General Foch, commander 

began io halt Germany 's last: dre 
Ase ry ay Aiied cou t 


the military peta choctie 
upon the terms previously ‘aid 
Qn November 11, tila the 
War was ended, | hee 

The day. before the : Kaineh 
licen form of government was s 
parts, The e Progressist Hugo Pre 
law and a Jeader in the Jewish @ 
capes minis ter of the oasis 


ees reps 


1919] POGROMS IN THE UKRAINE 733 


headed the government, until he was assassinated. In Hun- 
gary a Soviet government, after the model of the Russian, 
was set up by another communist Jew, Béla Kun (born 
1886), and just as quickly terminated with the aid of the 
Rumanians (August 1, 1919). In German Austria, the 
emperor Charles was dethroned; the Bohemians and Mora- 
vians set up the Czecho-Slovak republic, with the liberal- 
minded Thomas Masaryk as president, while the Serbs, 
Croats, and Slovenes united to form the Jugo-Slav kingdom. 

The Jews experienced some trouble during the early period 
of the consolidation of the Czecho-Slovak state. But it was 
nothing in comparison with the excesses, in more than one 
hundred and fifty localities, committed by the Poles in their 
new state, carved out of the Prussian, Austrian, and Russian 


’ Polish provinces. Henry Morgenthau (born 1856), former 


ambassador of the United States in Turkey, was delegated 
by President Wilson to head a commission of investigation ; 
a similar commission, under Sir Stuart Samuel (1856-1926), 
was dispatched by the British government. 

But even these persecutions pale into insignificance by the 
side of the pogroms which were enacted against the Jews in 
the Ukraine. On January 3, 1919, Petlura became the het- 
man of the united Russian and Ruthenian republics; the new 
state was attacked by the ‘Red’ Bolshevists and the ‘White’ 
Anti-Bolshevists, now in turn, now simultaneously. Under 


- the eyes of the Petlura government, no less than thirty thou- 


sand Jews were murdered in three hundred and seventy-two 
cities and small towns. All the horrors of the older Russian 
pogroms were repeated. The victims were tortured and 
maimed, before they were left to die in their agony; many 
were forced to dig their own graves; children were butchered 
in the sight of their parents; women were stripped naked and 
violated in public. Graver still were the atrocities per- 
petrated by Denikin’s ‘white’ volunteer troops; the soldiers 
were openly incited to exterminate the Jews; every pogrom 
was hailed with delight by the bourgeois circles. The Jews 
had their self-defense organizations, but they were posenlers 


against the fury of the soldiery. 


734 MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE PALESTINIAN MANDATE [1918-20 = 


Meanwhile the plenipotentiaries of the allied and asso- — 


ciated Powers had assembled in Paris (December, 1918) to 1 
draft the peace treaties upon the basis of President Wilson’s 


terms. The Jews of Europe and America looked to this Con- — 
ference for the righting of old wrongs, as for example in — 
Rumania, and for safeguarding Jewish rights in the new — 
states now formed or forming with the sanction of the Allies ; 
and the League of Nations—the creation of the American — 
president’s diplomacy. Committees of Jewish delegates met — 
at Paris to present suitable memorials to the Conference. 
Those of eastern Europe and America formed a Joint Com- — 
mittee, presided over temporarily by Julian W. Mack (born 
1866) Kosa then permenenthy by Louis Marshall, beth-efNew 
York! Among the representatives of English Jewry, who 
worked jointly with those of the ‘Alliance,’ were Lucien — 
Wolf (born 1857) and Claude G. Montefiore. The result 
was that clauses were incorporated in the peace treaties which, 
over and above equal rights of citizenship, accorded to all 
minorities, differing from the majority of the population in 
race, language, and religion, the freedom to perpetuate these 
possessions by effective institutions. 

The question of Palestine was settled in principle at the 
San Remo Conference (April 25, 1920). The mandate over 
the country was assigned to Great Britain on the conditions 
laid down in the Balfour Declaration. The country was still 
under military government; the highest and lowest officers 
for the most part were distinctly hostile to Jewish aspira- 
tions. On April 4 and 5, anti-Jewish riots by Arab mobs in 
Jerusalem led to the killing of five and the wounding of two 
hundred and eleven Jews. Jabotinsky, who was at the head 
of the Jewish self-defense, was arrested and sentenced to a 
long term of imprisonment. On July 1, the military rule gave 
way to a civil government. Sir Herbert Louis Samuel (born 
1870), a devoted Jew and an experienced statesman, having 
served as postmaster general and home secretary in the 
British Cabinet, entered upon his duties as the first High 
Commissioner of Palestine under the mandate. His first 
official act was to grant a general amnesty, by virtue of which 


FEKETE ZION 735 


pa woond cmeciment declared 

BuAge on 2 par «itt Eoglish and 

hee Pek? ike text ot the document of 

oa ald ‘the exct-af (02 it was con- 

me Lengue of Nigtigan. 

her weet of the eu Mees the recon- 
id; and cules. at the great © 


tite brethren &it iy tke 

“ Seal nobly art AX. ex iy the 
Bet expended Sy. nal 
ee: a | 


see ae : te asct nation R! = (ee , Sts Pe 
a ce eee . het 
| wikis the states, <a a anegeh 

h, PEG ¥ embodied im nine eat niss ui 


‘ Beice. like Bulow st gor! 
Wie fet prove their tight w ; 
f acces? similariy. Esthania, mi era, 
ited to membership in the é 
. 4 aigatar to those dictated re 
# erxi-nid; but they lidoewiae Soxep 
Ewualnority rights. Soviet: Rawls” 
Mle wt the League of Nations, fr bs. 
ae. but in view of the cone 
RE Private trade, the Deng! ball 


ihe | 926 Maworiry RIGHTS ANDTHE PALES 


} Mean iwh ile 

abe ped Powers had | asserabled in 
Bins: The Ten ws af of Burope and'A f 
i ference for the rigt 

_, Rumania, and for saf fovuarainiel 
sta tes how formed or forming wi 
‘ and x e League of Nations—the 
: dent's diplomacy. Commit 


: at Parle to present suitable men 
jae : Those of eastern Europe and y, 

| ire mittee, ecsided Lover tepatee 
E ; : =O" e% . 3 F t ‘ 
oe iOOO} Bere T hem bere cee 
Re se ie eck; “Among tt! ig, re “i i" 

: i 2 PF 2 oe 

Gd nds * Wworkea 3 tht? Wit pst °C 
ee ee i tor n 18 $5 57) ae Claude 


Fae over and how sepuial righte He 
Cae minorities, differing from, the mi 
a its Tae, I pane and religion; 


Sabon: ywossessions by effective insti 
Bah Kaas 
it The e quertion of babes pa 
See re As nde military gowernme ent) 
yr 
en eae eek 


ws 
fon xt 

ene Fetes ob a cue epeahat 
eo ae tg70 '},a devoted Jew and an € 
vars ek - served as postmaster . general 
British Cabinet, entered upon | 
“eae em missioner “of Palestine unc 


ahi Chal act was to rgrant agenierah se 
yg?) *er 


1923] RECONSTRUCTION 735 


Jabotinsky was released. A second enactment declared 
Hebrew as an official language on a par with English and 
Arabic. In the autumn of 1922 the text of the document of 
the mandate was drafted; at the end of 1923 it was con- 
firmed by the council of the League of Nations. 

The chief problem arising out of the war was the recon- 
struction, economic, communal, and cultural, of the great 
masses of Jewry in the war area. The burden of coming to 
the rescue of their unfortunate brethren fell to the Jews of 
America, who again responded nobly and quickly. By the 
spring of 1925 the ‘Joint’ had expended in war relief and 
reconstruction over sixty million dollars. The mental bal- 
ance, so rudely disturbed by the unprecedented struggle, 
was less easy to restore. The sword was sheathed, but even 
that not altogether; there was fighting between neighboring 
states for the adjustment of frontiers or because of incom- 
patible interests. Resentments and national hatreds could 
not at once be laid to rest; within the states, races clashed, 
and minority rights, grudgingly embodied in the constitu- 
tions, remained largely on paper. 

The old offender, Rumania, was quick to disfranchise Jew- 
ish inhabitants of her new provinces, like Bukowina and 
Bessarabia, because they could not prove their right to 
domicile before 1918. Poland acted similarly. Esthonia, 
Latvia, and Lithuania were admitted to membership in the 
League of Nations on terms similar to those dictated to 
Poland and other states new and old; but they likewise kept 
their faith badly as regards minority rights. Soviet Russia 
remained without the pale of the League of Nations. It is 
true, pogroms were not tolerated; but in view of the com- 
munistic policy of restricting private trade, the Jews, so 
prevailingly middlemen, experienced great economic dis- 
tress. Still harsher was the communist proscription of relig- 
ious teaching to minors, and the instruction in the govern- 
ment schools inculcated in the rising generation anti- 
religious doctrines. Thus, though the Jews were free in 
Russia, Judaism was fettered. 


736 MINORITY RIGHTS AND THE PALESTINIAN MANDATE [1924 


A recrudescence of Anti-Semitism manifested itself in — 
other countries. In Hungary, the ‘Awakening Magyars’ 
brought about the restriction of Jewish students in the high — 
schools and universities (‘numerus clausus’). In Germany _ 
and Austria the Anti-Semites, with the swastika as their s 
badge (‘Hakenkreuzler’), were leagued with the reactionary 
monarchists in leading a new crusade against the Jews, — 
charging them with bringing on the war and then defeat, 
with treason, profiteering, and what not. Walter Rathenau y: 
(1867-1922), the Jew, minister of reconstruction and later 3 
foreign minister in Germany, was murdered in cold blood. 7 
The wave spread to England and America; the first publica- 
tion of the ‘Tewish Peril’ or ‘The Protocols of the Elders of — 
Zion’ saw the light in London (1920) and was speedily : 
republished in Boston. It was soon proved to be a transla- — 
tion of a work produced in 1905 in the circles of the Black — 
Hundreds in Russia; this work, in turn, wasa clumsy plagiar- _ 
ism of a nineteenth century French political attack on — 
Napoleon III. The American ‘Ku Klux Klan’ was organized — 
for the defense of Protestant Americanism against Catholics _ 
and Jews. On May 27, 1924, President Coolidge signed the — 
Johnson-Lodge bill which restricted immigration to two per 7 
cent. for each nationality resident in the United States on — 
the basis of the census of 1890. While in the two preceding 
years the average annual immigration of Jews was about — 
fifty thousand, the number was now cut down to ten thou- — 
sand annually. 

During the five years of his administration of Palestine, — 
which terminated in June, 1925, Sir Herbert Samuel strove — 
conscientiously to carry out the terms of the mandate inter- — 
preted in the British “White Paper’ of June, 1922. This docu- ~ 
ment reaffirmed the policy of the government to have the — 
Jewish national home founded in Palestine, though not in — 
the sense that ‘Palestine should become Jewish as England ~ 
is English,’ and to permit immigration to the extent of the — ; 
economic capacity of the country to absorb the new arrivals. — 
On May 2, 1921, there had been a repetition of anti jewish e 
riots, this time in Jaffa; forty Jews were killed and two hun- 4 


wy ae 
a3 p 1 
ie i Bes 


i 


Rew URTVE RS IT¥ OF TERUS 7Y eM FS 


‘tbe ar. i, th 4 Pr alestintan govern- 
+ gurct al ie to he ict ve Arahs im 
; ‘And resign ad ther yes to the 


& 


an, 


Re Verne 1s accep Pveit- 
> . 


s a ¢ — 


Rv Tetewn: re 
3 ‘ .* 

aren, 1VZ5, x 

Sa aR Py fi at?% 


gc ior the qoisisiclnd 
» niexns te daile e the RE WORE TE < 
7 :, % 7 We 
Hern -isv WALTIAL ED Reet... 4 


; 


Te Aviy grew rap rT 


— 


; ; b 4 ~~ e a i > f ‘v3 be = 
45 es \s i! ras 2 a > + ee th 7 « 
¥ 3 . 
that sh wie ifnman fre jew 
\ - ¥ 
Tier) atte have. Howmver, Cie 
Bryne li ie ae Pees 


: he 


= 


gbhe and every Jewish heartin 
Silt pride. AN the attrilming af the 
diced. Tis Palestinian Jew was tres 


. ine wes daid by the creation of the 
ity ot Bemsesem iu: Aprik 1, 1925, it was 
@ Batiow in the presence of a die 
‘pepronen tatives of learned. sovtetios 
ents ress of the High ‘eR 
the Heli & ponediction: “Dihessad te 
s alive to reach sbie day! 


—" 

Fi 
oy 
a 
& 

\ 
“and 
Poa 


HE PALEST INIAN < MANDAM 
cence of Ant-Semittemt miscifodeae ity . 
tH ary, Die — | 
, er] 1 of JewRRs 
numerys: has 
tT es wit 1 e 


kenkreuzk were leagued “ww . 

in leading & new @rigade agaist th 

i bonging on The Wale ag then 

ites pc and what not. Walter sa r 

lew, minister of Teconsthaetion ames 

Estar, int dina arian itl rdered 3 in ‘colt 
spread to Ragland and Ameriea; thee 
jewish Peril’ or ‘The Protecets of the 

saw “the Gene in Lendo a {19% dei and Ete: 


of a nineteenth cenpary Frc pees: att 
iT] merICal Wu iKlax Kha was OF 
-déeferse of Pr isis Am ae icanisn i n against 


ch resin eae ‘mmigeation 
ach natignahty resident ie the United | 


e census of 1890, Pee: hile in, the two ‘pr 
’ 
i Ta ue Tt 
71y } - he hi ing : Pe it ¢ ‘a 
minated in | ie. +9 25, Sir “ Heshert Sa 


‘in the Brtislr “White eg per’ of Funes 1922," 
reafhimed. the es ot of the government a 
national home ieee sn: in Palestine, tho 
ease that ‘Palestine should become: Jewish ai 
ig igration chi 


CUTTS LEC) £4 PReVTHAEE my mu 


1925] OPENING OF THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM 737 


dred wounded. But in the sequel, the Palestinian govern- 
ment was firmly established and able to hold the Arabs in 
check. Not that the Arabs had resigned themselves to the 
British policy. In league with the Christian opponents of 
Zionism, they organized a Council which set itself resolutely 
against codperating with the government in accepting mem- 
bership in the Advisory Legislative Council. 

There was a steady increase in Jewish immigration; from 
the beginning of the British occupation to March, 1925, some 
sixty thousand Jews had entered the country. The Zionist 
Organization and other agencies working for the upbuilding 
of Palestine supplied the means to settle the new-comers as 
colonists or to find for them industrial employment. The 
wholly Jewish municipality of Tel Aviv grew rapidly, har- 
boring a population of thirty thousand souls. The Zionists, 
it is true, believed that they had not obtained from the Jew- 
ish High Commissioner all they liked to have. However, the 
moral prestige of a Jew governing Palestine in the name of 
Great Britain was incalculable, and every Jewish heart in the 
Land of Israel was filled with pride. All the attributes of the 
national home were realized. The Palestinian Jew was free 
politically, free to speak his own language, free to bring up 
his children in Jewish schools. The foundation for Jewish 
cultural revival in Palestine was laid by the creation of the 
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. On April 1, 1925, it was 
formally opened by Lord Balfour in the presence of a dis- 
tinguished assembly of representatives of learned societies 
and of foreign governments. The address of the High Com- 
missioner closed with the Hebrew benediction: ‘Blessed be 
He who hath kept us alive to reach this day!’ 


THE END 


< 


e > 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
GENERAL WORKS 


H[einrich] Graetz, Geschichte der Juden von den Altesten Zeiten bis auf 
die Gegenwart [that is, to 1848]. 11 volumes (2 and 3 are double 
volumes). In the last edition (1900-1909) volumes 1; 2, 1; 3, 1 
and 2; 10 and 11 have been revised by M. Brann; 4 by S. Horovitz; 
5 by S. Eppenstein; 7 by J. Guttmann. 


The Hebrew translation of the foregoing work by S. P. Rabinowitz 
qainsn wn ty od Ssaw nvm ove Sxnw op 127) in 9 volumes 
(1-4 of the original being reduced to 2 volumes; the last volume 
by vIvV1 .& .» reproduces faithfully all the learned by-work of the 
original (footnotes, additional Notes at the end of each volume) 
and contains additional material on the history of the Jews in Russia 
and Poland. Of particular value are the corrections and notes by 
A. Harkavy, of which the revisers of the German edition have 
made good use. The tenth volume is a translation of Martin 
Philippson’s work referred to below (p. 750). 


The English translation of Graetz’s work (History of the Jews from the 
earliest times to the present day, 5 volumes + Index volume, 1891- 
95) goes down to 1870, but is based on the earlier unrevised Ger- 
man editions and lacks the footnotes and the additional Notes. 


Articles in the Jewish Encyclopaedia. 


The New York Public Library. List of works relating to the history and 
condition of the Jews in various countries, 1914. 


BOOK I 
WORKS DEALING WITH THE BIBLICAL PERIOD 


J{ulius] Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte. 7th edition, 
1914. Concludes with the end of the Jewish commonwealth in the 
year.70 of the Christian era. [The position, which is that of advanced 

biblical criticism, fails to do justice to the trustworthiness of the 
sacred tradition. | 

Rudolf] Kittel, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, I (Sth edition, 1923), II 
(5th edition, 1922). Concludes with the destruction of the Judean 
state in 586 before the Christian era. [The work is characterized by 
sober judgment and respect for tradition. The first volume in par- 
ticular is rich in up-to-date information on recent archaeological 
discoveries. ] 


SPECIAL WORKS 
(in the order of the chapters of the present work) 


CHAPTER I 
William Wright, Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic 


‘Languages, 1890; chapter i: The term Semitic; diffusion and origi- 
nal home of the Semites. Fink 


Theodor Néldeke, ‘Semitic Languages,’ Encycl. Brit., 11th edition. 


Fritz Hommel, Ethnologie und Geographie des alten Orients, 1926, 
p. 80 [revokes earlier opinion and concedes the problem of the origi- 
nal home of Semites or Indo-Europeans to be insoluble]. 


739 


740 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


George Adam Smith, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 9th 
edition, 1902. 


F [rants] Buhl, Geographie des alten Palastina, 1896. 

Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria, 5th edition, 1912. 

Isaiah Press, nomIn A101 Sxaw pax, 1921. 

—, Draw pas dv meaner, 1925. 

L. B. Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine, 1902. 

H. Vincent, Canaan d’aprés |’exploration récente, 1907. 

oar Die vorgeschichtliche Kultur Palastinas und Phéniziens, 


q 


Franz Bohl, Kanaander und Hebraer, 1911. 

Samuel Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels, 1903. 

J. Garstang, The Land of the Hittites, 1910. 

D. G. Hogarth. ‘Hittites,’ Encycl. Brit., 11th edition. 

Eduard Meyer, Reich und Kultur der Chetiter, 1914. 

R. A. S. Macalister, The Philistines, 1913. 

James Henry Breasted, A History of Egypt from the earliest times to 
the Persian conquest, 2d edition, 1919. 

W. M. Flinders Petrie, Egypt and Israel, 1911. 

Eduard Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme, 1906 [some of 
the conclusions are highly hypothetical]. 


Eduard Sachsse, Die Bedeutung des Namens Israel, 1910. ; 


R. A. S. Macalister, A History of Civilization in Palestine, 1912. 


W. Carleton Wood, ‘The Religion of Canaan from the earliest times to 
the Hebrew on eay Journal of Biblical Literature, 35 (1916), 
1-133; 163-279. 


Carl Niebuhr, The Tell el Amarna Period, 1901. 
Wilhelm Spiegelberg, Der Aufenthalt Israels in Aegypten, 1904. 


S[amuel] R[olles] Driver, The Book of Exodus, 1911, p. xxx-xlii. (Cam- 
bridge Bible for Schools and Colleges). 


¢ 


CHAPTERS III-IV 
George F. Moore, Judges, International Critical Commentary, 1895. 


CHAPTER III 
Sellin-Watzinger, Jericho, 1913: die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen, 
p. Lil ff. 
CHAPTER VII 


G. A. Smith, Jerusalem: the topography, economics and history from 
the earliest times to A. D. 70, 2 volumes, 1908. 


CHAPTER X 
Albrecht Alt, Israel und Aegypten, 1911. 


CHAPTER XIII 
A. T. Olmstead, History of Assyria, 1923. 


= 


: 
| 


mi 


CHAPTER II 
Hugo Gressmann, Mose und seine Zeit, 1913. 
; 
4 
: 


r 
* 
t 
] 
1 
; 
E 
* 
: 


“RIBLIOG RAPHY "44 
-! CHAPTER XVI 
ad , Kultargeschichre larnels, 1919, : 


 biblischen Altertiimer, 2d edition, 1925.. 
er, The Polity of the Ancient Hebrews, 1912, 
. sof Labor in aimee tsrsel, ‘1985. 


i, ose Israel, new edition, 185, 
‘lars eglereanes 1894. : ‘ 


: CHAPTER KV 

es én Hosea, 1894. 
- m8, pasiheitee Bible for Schools and ¢ ‘ptleges, + ae 
‘Cambridge Bible, ete., 168 


CHAPTER KViit 


Prophecies of Teaiah, Sth ecitinm, 188%, . 
his life and times, 2d edition, 1492, 


i  CHAPUER XIX 
, Micale Geith conmmentary), 1958 

citarree xx = 
und ecine Zeit, LO0.. 


CHAPTER XXU 


», The Simatikane, 1907, | 4 


‘ » RAPER XAIV 
«Light from ligyptian Papyri, 1908. Soe Pat 


re « Papyrusiusd ven Klephantine, 1912, 
| ‘The Book of Bathes ta the Light of History, PUKE, | a 


. Une commuriauté Judéo-Aramécane & Shatuotinc: ey aa 
aux Vie ct Ve gatt Judto J.-C., WAS, * “ ae 


Re CHAPTERS XXV-XEXI (exxut) ie baste 
soe: Tenge ed i 

3 ene ee 1, 1008. (ee : | : ae a 
aruern, TI-IV, 1924-25 ae 

Bane nr Thins a gox aniedelg fhm 


4 
ide I be ot ; ? 


Geschichte moe 98 Alexander dem Consdane TEP 3 eae 


ee er ‘ 
hacdekear ya patito ari 


lenin Pine if +m 
gS ES. FR" we, T i a a Lae 


is Vincent, Canaan d'apres y exp norte pee 
awl ate, ‘Die vorgeachic htliche bets 5 patie 


S43 ey 

3 ‘ee rt 
ax Boh), Kanaanker und ahiiad ois, 
sare Out I Das Gesetz Hammurab 

ts 


>arstang, The L one of tame Hittites, 19 

LY. G. flogarth . “Aitti  Eneyel, Brit., 1 iy 
.Sduard Meyer, Reich: on Kultur der Chetiter, 1914, v3 

it. A. S. Macalister, The Philistines, AMS. ee ; 

james Henry Breasted, A History of Egypt ft 

the Persian conquest, 2d edition, 7 

x W ar i i Hnders i *etrie, Eeypt and Irae ‘49 ‘G SS lee 
ie iduard Meyer, Die Tsrachnen nod ihre achbarsta 
a the cone lysions are highly hypotheti fhe 
Eduard Sachsse, “ ie Bedeutung des N mens Israel, 

R. A.S. Macalister, as History of Civilization in Pa 
a W. Carleton Wood, “Phe Religion of Canaan fr 
& | the Hebrew conquest,’ Journal of Biblical 
es 1-153; 163-279, 
: 9 bs : ; 5 

(-arl Niebuhr, The Tell el Aiadena Period, 1901. 

Vi Fatsaien ) Spiegelberg, Der A ufenthalt Israels 

Sam His as Dy Roll es) Driver, Let Book of 


re 


Camarge F. Moore, Judges, International 


ars Seitin Watzinger, : Jericho, ‘1913: di 


pts 1. 


. A. Soolth, Terusalem: the topogra 
tise warltest times to A. DB. bi avo 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 741 


CHAPTER XVI 


Alfred Bertholet, Kulturgeschichte Israels, 1919. 


Paul Volz, Die biblischen Altertiimer, 2d edition, 1925. 

Mayer Sulzberger, The Polity of the Ancient Hebrews, 1912. 

——.,, The Status of Labor in Ancient Israel, 1923. 

es Bees Geschichte der Alttestamentlichen Religion, 2d edition, 


W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel, new edition, 1895. 

C. H. Cornill, Der israelitiche Prophetismus, 1894. 

P. Kleinert, Die Profeten Israels in sozialer Beziehung, 1905. 
G. Ch. Aalders, De profeten des Ouden Verbonds, 1919. 


CHAPTER XVII 
J. J. P. Valeton, Amos en Hosea, 1894. 
S. R. Driver, Amos, Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, 1898. 
T. K. Cheyne, Hosea, Cambridge Bible, etc., 1889. 


CHAPTER XVIII 
Cheyne, The Prophecies of Isaiah, 5th edition, 1895. 
Driver, Isaiah: his life and times, 2d edition, 1893. 


CHAPTER XIX 
Max L. Margolis, Micah (with commentary), 1908. 


a. 1K. 
SEA 


CHAPTER XX 
Wilhelm Erbt, Jeremia und seine Zeit, 1902. 


CHAPTER XXII 
Erich Klamroth, Die jiidischen Exulanten in Babylonien, 1912. 


CHAPTER XXIII 
Eduard Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judentums, 1896. 
James Alan Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907. 


CHAPTER XXIV 
C. H. H. Wright, Light from Egyptian Papyri, 1908. 
Eduard Meyer, Der Papyrusfund von Elephantine, 1912. 
Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, 1923. 
Hedwig Anneler, Zur Geschichte der Juden in Elephantine, 1912. 


A. van Hoonacker, Une communauté Judéo-Araméenne a Elephantine, 
en Egypte, aux Ve et Ve siécles avant J.-C., 1915. 


CHAPTERS XXV-XXXII (XXXII) 

Emil Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 
I (5th edition, 1920); II (4th edition, 1907); III (4th edition, 1909); 
Index (4th edition, 1911). 

Eduard Meyer, Ursprung und Anfange des Christentums, IT, 1921. 

Joseph Klausner, m>xnwy maven, II-IV, 1924-25. 

Jloseph] Derenbourg, Essai sur l'histoire et la géographie de la Palestine 
d’aprés le Talmud et les autres sources rabbiniques, I, 1867. 

A. Schlatter, Geschichte Israels von Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian, 
2nd edition, 1906. 


(42 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTERS XXIX-XXX 
Walter Otto, Herodes, 1913. 
August Bludau, Juden und Judenverfolgungen im alten Alexandria, — 
1906. 


on ied 


H. I[dris] Bell, Juden und Griechen im rémischen Alexandria, 1926. 


Jean Juster, Les Juifs dans l’empire romain. Leur condition juridique, — 
économique et sociale. I-II. Paris, 1914. 


as 


Sea Pee ayaa St 


CHAPTERS XXXIII-XXXIV 


I[saak]/H[irsch] Weiss, »w717) 117 7, Zur Geschichte der jiidischen — 
Tradition, II, 1876. [Hebrew. ] 


Wilhelm Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten, I, 2d edition, 1903; II, 1890. . 
Aaron Hyman, Toldoth Tannaim ve ’Amoraim, I-III, 1910. [Hebrew.] _ 


Isaac Halevy, Doroth Harischonim. Die Geschichte und Literatur — 
Israels. Ic vom Ende der Hasmonaerzeit bis zur Einsetzung der — 
romischen Landpfleger, 1906; Ie von der Zerstérung des Tempels — 
bis zum Abschluss der Mischnah, 1918; II von der Beendigung 
der Mischnah bis zum Abschlusse des Talmuds, 1901. [Hebrew. — 
Contains valuable criticisms of his predecessors. His own construc- 
tions are frequently unacceptable. } 


Samuel Krauss, Synagogale Altertiimer, 1922. 


Ismar Elbogen, Der jiidische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen 4 
Entwicklung, 2d edition, 1924. 


M. Weinberg, ‘Die Organisation der jiidischen Ortsgemeinden in der a 


talmudischen Zeit,’ Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft ~ 
des Judentums, 41 (1897), 588-604; 639-660; 673-691. i 


CHAPTERS XXXV-XXXVII 
Weiss, as above, ITI, 1883. 


Wilhelm Bacher, Die Agada der Palistinensischen Amorier, I, 1892: rk 
1896; III, 1899. Die Agada der Babylonischen Amoraer, 2d edition, — 


1913. 
BOOK II 
CHAPTERS XXXVI-XXXVII 
S{alomon] Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500, I-II, 1902-8. 
Felix Lazarus, Die Haupter der Vertriebenen, 1890. 


N{ehemias] Briill, ‘Die Entstehung des Babylonischen Talmuds als ; 
Schriftwerk,’ in his Jahrbiicher, II (1876), 1-123. 


Emanuel Deutsch, The Talmud, 1896. 

Arséne Darmesteter, The Talmud, 1897. 

S[olomon] Schechter, Studies in Judaism, III (1924), 194-237. ‘g 

H[ermann] L[ebrecht] Strack, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch, 5th — 

edition, 1921. a 

CHAPTER XXXVIII 

Rudolph Leszinsky, Die Juden in Arabien zur Zeit Mohameds, 1910. 

A. J. Wensinck, Mohammed en de Joden te Medina, 1908. 

Weiss, as above, IV, 1887. 


Louis Ginzberg, Geonica, I, The Geonim and their Halakic Writings, — 


Jacob Mann, ‘The Responsa of the Geonim as Source of Jewish History’, q 
Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, VII-XI (1917-21). - 


Oe PM a arary ; - 343 


Pe RS Fy A, 
. iwi, poem Qeyrierty Bevicw, 


ae ee at SSE 2 as: eer, Ff 


Patt iresinietia, 11. 436-4 
, i Mawhag? Revyadormede ao Rehigamn 


CWUAPTRS = 
5 ra Hons if Saacdia Gann, 192) 
ete, agal hese r6e \ pee, ae +}. 


4 o 


i a. CHAR Ses RAT 
Rabbi Sens law: bafta $916 [Hetwews, 
3 SAPS B12) 


pane. 7, Page iviete ovingun our ies Futis de aie 


a) Rae Biae, Het Shc brew!) 
. Phangert.. ber Leben aid tia K. 


Be BOOK if! 

; bs Ning pn fers o Tae Mipvce Ane 

ino mcangregigin der Juden im Mittalaiter 
re wack Hives hohe Mictatateer, 1908. 
niber, , eabarshed, | j 

yg palmunas bei den ubeirdiarienten 
cs ine zune Ausgang: des NIG dahe- 


dees: ioe hci asensi und de: Cale. 
tides wikcend de» Mittelalters mad der 
it wd Dewtechiand X-KIV fabri 
hy ar een XIV ued ‘ 


7 weal, 
HL, 1875-6, 


ivaac Halevy, Doroth Harischonim. Die Geschichte 


= 


Ey. BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTERS KY <XEX 


rail Vt tierodes, 1913. 
st Bludau, Juden und Judeny erfolungen, im 
iH Bell, fucden and Grie cea im. Stace Aloxand 


fuster, Les fuifs dana I's “mpire romain. . Leur cor 
“nomique et sociale. D-H, Paris, te 


CHAPTERS 
rear aes 
1, 18: Hebeew ie 
\. thelin Bacher, Die i vada der’ annatterm, ~ rd edi 


ryman, 7 ‘oldoth Tannaim ve." ‘Amoraim, tii 


A 


teraels. Je vom Ende der Hasmondermelt bis 
rdinischen Landptle ver, 1906) te Hig e% Ler se 
zum Abschluss der Mischnah, 1978 : 
ler Mischnah bis zum Abse hiusae des UL vena 
Cor taif ie wind able criticisms of his predecessors, 
tioiis are frequent ly unacceptable) vey 
facet Kira auss, Synagogale Altertiimer, 1922. ; 
ibogen, Der iidisehe Gottesdienst i an 
Entwicklun iy 2d editie A, {O24 Rs ay rae 
\' wed berg , Die Orga anisation der: jiidischen Ort 
mudischen Zeit,’ M lonatsschrift fiir Geschichte 
ches my ete ums, AT (1897), 588+ “604; hakAirne 673 


e jean TERS XXXV-ARRVI 
ae 


heim Bacher, Die Agada der Pal isthisealaahas 
i896; LIT, 1899. Die Agada der plese. 


ye Mies er der ¥ dae 
uu, “Die Entatehung des Babyie 
‘iftwerk, "in his hh abr rbdcher, :) 
Deutech, The 
¢ Dra uresteter, Tt 
seutron] Schechter, Studits i Junie, us 


t iat’ Liebrec ht} Strack, a —, 
GQ? 
a” Li, i OL i; 


a 


ivttoh Leazinsty, Die fucen in PER. 

ba 
\. |. Yoeeainek, Mohamy ned en de Jodten 
an ahowe, IV, 1887, woe 
sberg, Geonica, 1, The Geani yy 
Moony "Phe Reaptit so af the - Geonimag: 2 
sty {Dany arteriy Ren view, New wiacus © 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 743 


CHAPTER XXXIX . 
Israel Friedlaender, ‘Jewish-Arabic Studies,’ Jewish Quarterly Review, 
New Series, I-III, 1910-12. 
Sfamuel] Poznanski, onsen nDina Seiwa minzn spn, I, in mows, I 
(1918), 207-16. 
Weiss, as above, IV, 46-109. | 
Harkavy, ‘Karaites,’ in Jewish Encyclopedia, VII, 436-46. 
Slamuel] Poznanski, ‘Karaites,’ in Hastings’ Encyclopedia of Religion 
and Ethics, VIII, 662-72. 
CHAPTER XL 
Henry Malter, Life and Works of Saadia Gaon, 1921. 
Caspar Levias, ‘Masorah,’ in Jewish Encyclopedia, VIII, 365-71. 
Jacob Mann, The Jews in Egypt and in Palestine under the Fatimid 
Caliphs, I, 1920. 
CHAPTER XLI 
Benjamin Lewin, Rabbi Scherira Gaon, Jaffa 1916 [Hebrew]. 


CHAPTER XLII 
Samuel Poznanski, ]817’? 'wix, Esquisse historique sur les Juifs de Kai- 
rouan, 1909 [Hebrew]. 
Abraham Epstein, Eldad ha-Dani, 1891 [Hebrew]. 
Aldolf] Berliner, Migdal Chananel. Uber Leben und Schriften R. 
Chananel’s, 1876. 


BOOK III 
WORKS DEALING WITH THE JEWS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

Georg Caro, Social-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden im Mittelalter 
und der Neuzeit. I, Das friihere und das hohe Mittelalter, 1908. 
II, Das spatere Mittelalter, 1920. [Unfinished. ] 

Ignaz Schipper, Anfange des Kapitalismus bei den abendlandischen 
Juden im friiheren Mittelalter (bis zum Ausgang des XII Jahr- 
hunderts), 1907. 

Louis Finkelstein, Jewish Self-Government in the Middle Ages, 1924. 

Israel Abrahams, Jewish Life in Middle Ages, 1896. 

M[oritz] Giidemann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur 
der abendlandischen -Juden wahrend des Mittelalters und der 
Neueren Zeit. J, Frankreich und Deutschland X-XIV Jahrhun- 
dert, 1880; II, Italien, 1884; III, Deutschland XIV und XV Jahr- 
hundert, 1888. 

—., Das jiidische Unterrichtswesen wahrend der spanisch-arabischen 
Periode, 1873. 

Jose Amador de los Rios, Historia social, politica y religiosa de los 
Judids de Espafia y Portugal, I-III, 1875-6. 

M{eyer] Kayserling, Geschichte der Juden in Spanien und Portugal. 
I, Navarra, Baskenlander und Balearen, 1861; II, Portugal, 1867. 

A{dolf] Berliner, Geschichte der Juden in Rom, I-I], 1-2, 1893. 

Hermann Vogelstein and Paul Rieger, Geschichte der Juden in Rom, 
I, 1896; II, 1895. 

M. de Maulde, Les Juifs dans les Etats Francais du Saint-Siége au 
moyen-age, 1886. 

Leon Kahn, Les Juifs a Paris depuis le Vle siécle, 1889. 


744 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Heinrich Gross, Gallia Judaica, dictionnaire géographique de la France 
d’aprés les sources Rabbiniques, 1897. [With notes on the history 
of the various communities and their scholars. ] 


E[rnest] Renan [-Adolph Neubauer], Les Rabbins Francais du com- 
mencement du quatorziéme siécle, 1877, and Les Ecrivains juifs 
Francais du XIVe siécle, 1893. [Reprinted from Histoire Litéraire 
de la France, vols. 27 and 31.] 


Adolf Kohut, Geschichte der deutschen Juden, 1898. 


Otto Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland wahrend des Mittelalters in 
politischer, socialer und rechtlicher Beziehung, 1866. 


A[{dolf] Berliner, Aus dem inneren Leben der deutschen Juden im Mit- 
telalter, 1900. 

Julius Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden im frankischen und 
deutschen Reiche bis zum Jahre 1273, 1887-1902. 

M[arcus] Brann and Al[ron] Freimann, Germania Judaica, I. Von den 
altesten Zeiten bis 1238. A—-L. 1917. 


R. Saitschik, Beitrage zur Geschichte der rechtlichen Stellung der 
Juden, namentlich im Gebiet des heutigen Osterreich-Ungarn vom 
zehnten bis sechzehnten Jahrhundert, 1890. 


J. E. Scherer, Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden in den deutsch-éster- 
reichischen Landern. Mit einer Einleitung tiber die Principien der 
Judengesetzgebung in Europa wahrend des Mittelalters, 1901. 


Articles in the Jewish Encyclopedia under the various countries. 


M[oritz] Steinschneider. Jewish Literature from the eighth to the eigh- 
teenth century, 1857. 


——, Arabische Literatur der Juden, 1902. 

——, Die Hebridischen Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters, 1893. 
Weiss, as above, IV, 263 ff; V, 1891. [On rabbinic literature.] 
Isaac Husik, A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy, 1916. 


Isidore Loeb, La controverse réligieuse entre les Chrétiens et les Juifs 
au moyen 4ge en France et en Espagne, 1888. 


CHAPTER XLIII 
Nikolas Miiller, Die jiidische Katakombe am Monteverde, 1912. 


CHAPTER XLIV 


David Kaufmann, Die Chronik des Achimaaz von Oria, in: Gesam- 
melte Schriften, III (1915), 1-55. 


Marcus Salzman, The Chronicle of Ahimaaz, 1924. 


CHAPTER XLV 
Jean Juster, La condition légale des Juifs sous les rois Visigoths, 1912. 


David Cassel, Chisdai the son of Isaac, in: Miscellany of Hebrew litera- 
ture, I (1872), 73-91; 2b. 92-112, The Correspondence with the 
King of the Chazars. 


CHAPTER XLVI 
SAMUEL HA-NAGID 
S{alomon] Munk, Notice sur Abou’l-walid, 1851. 
Dozy, Spanish Islam, 1913. 
A[{braham] Harkavy in 0x07, 1902. 


a ae ee ee a eee een 


BIELIOGRA PHY 743 


few (eantkou 
s introduction © Selected Poems ot Seftuean fon 


chomi, APA, X, XT, Xv (1924-28), 
Jnurodactin to Blowstein’s Hebrew ‘trandeton 


ines as 
 Baaeterae, MLV LI 
| TF sansa PALA? | 

a (1876), Bei ‘ 
hi asey aisi. ! 


Oa erase Whiicea, $4104); 407-506. 
se socal Ls viitinae of Afraieate Ton Rzra, 


* ibiegnanes 6 Phin 
ys Daven of Moxiorn imraetsy, 11 (190i), 228-4 


| SMARTER KEY 

ee Mele Werke ued seu ination, beraua- 
er, hares Reawn, evict Seomeen: aed 

Se. 32%: . . 

pesenides, 190" 

“a “Paienes > wi der Weltiitareter, a 

: eh. 

| ‘emadian f. 

dew Joilis he Prince | s Des Origines au Mie ante, 


i} 


ge Sobce Ge Be aa I Xe side: ane oo | Sg 
a fuiven, Sf M6), tis f ee 
ef Re Felis,’ Revuc des Fevedew Fein, ae ia 


Spe awe ut | hee AA eee 
sone: nae =, 191.2. ae ney 
se © Alterramer in Worms vol Pome La) 


(CRAP TER bat tae = “es ch ei bag a a 


2 Wirtachuftsicden ina steed. ee : ee pe 


~~ “te. o = 


x ea dor deweschen ‘ote 


Baers So My. tS eo \ee! #. 


Fab BIBLIOGRAPRY 

Weinrich Grose, Gailta Judaica, dictionnaire’ rot 
dapres ii soures es Rj abbinig LUSK, 1897, 
MN the is ORS mae th eir scholars. 

nest] Retan {-Adoloh Neubayer), Les Rabbin 
mace t du quatorziéme siecle, 187 
— uf 4 49 s sidcle & FROG. : 
} 3 yi" a 5 ots ey and i 
| Wotat, Geschichte der deutsel 


(tte me a Die ite u in’ Deut oe perenne : 
pits iecher, socialer und vechtlicher Beziehung 4 
\oel’l Bevliner, Aus dem jinneren Lebea der det 


iter, 1 1900, - 


i 


conius, Rei gesten Zut Goose hich “nce, 


‘ io ire an and Al ron] | Pretinane 
iitesten Zeiten bis.4238, Anti 1917, 


Seltachik, Beitrige guar Geschinnte 


i Juden, namentiich im ¢ se ies des héutige 
: RO aE Ee 
= wehanten bis secnzebnton 4 lahrhundert 1890, 


Mie ' &., Scherer, Die Rechteverh: iltnisse der ude 
- rmchischen Lindera. Mit einer Rinkeitung iber 
fp denpesetzgebung in Europa wien des. 
ae \rtwhes in the Jewish Becpclopedia curider 
ie ' <Mimettizi Steinschneides jewish Litonay 
=. ' teenth oontury, 1887 Gee 
ees mn ALA bisehe 1. iteratur der tadian 1902, 2 
-~-, Die Hebraiechen Ube rset “angen pe } 
Weiss; as above, IV. 2668 fs 189k {On rab visite 


baa ch se ae La < cont raverse perinhste ntre 
Petz beste ay oe ee ah re et ee ee} Wf t 
, ea moy on Fe Hice eb en oe 


Bava oi eos : tort Rauf mann, ‘Die Chronik' fa re | 
Be niaeite Schr fies ih hacen 1-55. ae 


eS 


loan fuster, La condition ale. a: oS ye 


«ved daseel, Chisdat the san af Tsaac, int 
cA eas ture, 7 (1872), 73 DY, ib. ae ; 
Kinw of the Chazars. ; 


* 


Does, Sagal tices 1913. : i 
Aibra day Hulhaved rm bay 1902, ny 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 745 


IBN GABIROL 


Israel Davidson’s introduction to Selected Poems of Solomon Ibn 
Gabirol, 1923. 
I. N. Simchoni, 75)1pn7, X, XII, XVII (1921-23). 


Joseph Klausner, Introduction to Bluwstein’s Hebrew translation of 
on npr, 1926. 
CHAPTER XLVIII 
Jupau HA-LEvVI 
Abraham Geiger, Nachgelassene Schriften, III (1876), 97-177. 
David Kaufmann, Gesammelte Schriften, IT (1910), 99-151. 
Joseph Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, 1896, 103-34. 


, ABRAHAM IBN EZRA 
Moritz Steinschneider, Gesammelte Schriften, I (1924), 407-506. 


ES es apeaiaa Essays on the Writings of Abraham Ibn Ezra, 
1877. 
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA 


C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, II (1901), 228-64. 
Caro, I, 231-87. 

CHAPTER XLIX 
Moses ben Maimon, sein Leben, seine Werke und sein Einfluss, heraus- 


gegeben von Wilhelm Bacher, Marcus Brann, David Simonsen und 
Jakob Guttmann, I (1908), If (1914). 


David Yellin and Israel Abrahams, Maimonides, 1908. 


David Kaufmann, Der ‘Fiihrer’ Maimuni’s in der Weltliteratur, in: 
Gesammelte Schriften, II, 152-89. 


CHAPTER L 
Israel Lévi, Histoire des Juifs de France I, Des Origines au Xe siecle, 
1903. 


——,‘Les Juifs de France du milieu du IXe siécle aux Croisades,’ 
Revue des Etudes Juives, 52 (1906), 161-8. 


Théodore Reinach, ‘Agobard et les Juifs,” Revue des Etudes Juives, 50 
(1905), p. LXXXI-CXI. 
CHAPTER LI 
Maurice Liber, Rashi, 1906. 
Eliezer Meir Lipschitz »pns? 72>w 137, 1912. 
Abraham Epstein, Jiidische Altertiimer in Worms und Speyer, 1896. 


CHAPTER LII 
Rfobert] Hoeniger, ‘Zur Geschichte der Juden im friiheren Mittelalter,’ 
Zeitschrift fiir die Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland, I (1887), 
65-97. 


Karl Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalter, I, 2 
(1886), 1449-59. 


Moses Hoffmann, Der Geldhandel der deutschen Juden wahrend des 
Mittelalters bis 1350, 1910. 


Jakob Freimann, Introduction to Sefer Hassidim, ed. Wistinetzki, 1923. 


Eugen Taubler, ‘Zur Geschichte der Kammerknechtschaft,’ Mitteilungen 
des Gesamtarchivs der deutschen Juden, IV (1913), 44-58. 


746 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER LIII 
P. Lucas, ‘Innocent III et les Juifs,’ Revue des Etudes Juives, 35 (1897), 
247-55. 
Felix Singermann, Uber Judenabzeichen, 1915. 
J. E. Scherer, Rechtverhaltnisse, 121-315. 


Isidore Loeb, La controverse sur le Talmud sous Saint Louis, Revue 
des Etudes Juives 1-3, 1880-1. 


Isidor Krakauer, Geschichte der Juden in Frankfurt, I, 1925. 
Samuel Back, R. Meir ben Baruch aus Rothenburg, I, 1895. 
Julius Wellesz, ‘Meir b. Baruch de Rothenbourg,’ Revue des Etudes 
Juives, 58-61, 1909-11. 
CHAPTER LIV 
Joseph Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, 1893. 
Albert M. Hyamson, History of the Jews in England, 1908. 
H. P. Stokes, Studies in Anglo-Jewish History, 1913. 
Transactions of the Anglo-Jewish Historical Society, I-X. 


CHAPTER LV 
Gustave Saige, Les Juifs de Languedoc antérieurement au XIVe siécle 


Jean Régné, Etude sur la condition des Juifs de Narbonne du Ve au 
XI[Ve siécle, 1912, reprint from Revue des Etudes Juives, 55-63. 


Nehemias Briill, “Die Polemik ftir und gegen Maimuni im dreizehnten 
Jahrhundert,’ in his Jahrbiicher, IV (1879), 1-33. 

On the Kimhis: Abraham Geiger, 0°98 n¥12p, ed. S. Poznanski, 
1910-12, 186-253. 


On Levi ben Abraham and the contcoeran started by Abba Mari: 
Renan-Neubauer, Rabbins Francais, 628-701. 


Isidore Loeb, ‘Les expulsions des Juifs de France au XIVe siécle,’ in 
Graetz-Jubelschrift, 1887, 39-56. 


On Levi ben Gershon: Steinschneider, Gesammelte Schriften, I, 233-70; 
Renan-Neubauer, Ecrivains Francais, 586-644; Joseph 'Carlebach, 
Levi ben Gerson als Mathematiker, 1910. 


CHAPTER LVI 
Johannes Nohl, Der schwarze Tod, 1924. . 


Alfred Glaser, Geschichte der Juden in Strassburg, 1894. 


Arthur Suessmann, Die Judenschuldentilgung unter Kénig Wenzel, 
1907. 


Moritz Stern, Kénig Ruprecht von der Pfalz in seinen Beziehungen zu 
den Juden, 1898. 


CHAPTER LVI 


Max Simonsohn, Die kirchliche Judengesetzgebung im Zeitalter der 
Reformkonzilien von Konstanz und Basel, 1912. 


Samuel Krauss, Die Wiener Geserah vom Jahre 1421, 1920. 


On Capistrano: M[farcus] Brann, Geschichte der Juden in Schlesien, 
1896-1917, 115-37. 


H[irsch] Hildeehalier Simon von Trient, 1903. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 747. 


“CHAPTER CVI 


eschich é det Tucten 1 agin Bo ouies 
| Jahrhunderts, 1913. — 


fateh 
Ca pmnnat Government in Spaic,’ Students’ 
“Thediogical Seminary, {1 Prone), 162-21. 


ides, tn; Studies in Judlaisni, 7 (1696), 


ei by [. Sopanitz, 1976. 
¢ Kabbala, (965. . 


4 1913, 


Tee Zouss. 
i e des Zohar, 1849, 
mature du Zohar; 1901, 
jwo 430 ORM, in SYITA opT, 


3a : Jahrbuch doer idliedol ouravic 
sasiaee sie mse) c; ae ie 
de: ace KA (1926), 142-254. 


aS Cnarrex ux 
idiacre Ferrand Martinez et les perseciitions 
uives, 38 ala 1S7-O7. 


spuaeres EX! 
Raa et de San Mateo,’ Vek des 


ot a "i snr Boos 
i of the | Inquisition | ist Spain 1908, 1, us fi. 


a eaay 


ee 
a 

3 

+ 

pa’ 

s 

2 

= 

oo 

ae 

ge 

a one 

: i 

hoes 

zat 

‘ 

ik ; 


a 
‘ear 


¢ HAPTER Lat 4 
#. iLuess, ‘Innocent Il et lea Jatt 


Pope 


sidore 1 ae = La controverse sur rie Talmud SOUE 
les Kam » Juives 1-3, 1880-1." eerie rs | 


tation Arg kauer, Spe Ne inte der r Juden i in Frankfurt, be 


i 


Ds 
¢ 


ey agree he Jows of Ariguwtin Engl 

M. Hyamson, History of the Jews i 
Stokes, Studie ie “‘Anglo-Jewish’ Hi f 
he iraneactions of the» Bi atin hue 1 


we 


LMS 


penn Régné Etude s ei ; 
mt “iVe siécle, 912, ‘reprint y pie et 
By ‘olwotias Brill, ‘Die Polemik fir’ ba en Ma 
jahrhundert,' in his Jahrbicher, 1 : 79), 
Cio the Kimbis: Abraham Botti ovieNe nets 
$034). iZ: 136-353. : Set 
Levi ben Abra aham and the contro " 
Renan-Neuhauer, 
ior, Loels, Les pats ee des Juils. 
haere soe: ving bani, 39-36. es 


: ; “Ren an- Neubauer, gg pace tide 5, 
oe, - Leet ben Gerson als aie as 

4 

. ms Anved Glaser, Canine bee jeder in’ 

Be at Arthar Se engine: Dig: vino ti le 

ny er ha 


Grae s Mority bg n, King Ruprecht von dee 
ot Maer . ton Tiler, 1898, ; aaa 


7 ’ CHAPTER’ 
yer Max — neohn, | Pie kiseblicha Jude 
| hetormkonailien von Konstanz und 3 
| a Samucl Krades Die Wiener Geserah vom. 
os heer Oo Cap errr Melange ‘Brann, G 
: | Hfirech| ui) ‘da hendeaie, Simon von Trient 190 00 _ 
cage 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : 747 


CHAPTER LVIII 


Fritz Baer, Studien zur Geschichte der Juden im Ko6nigreich Aragonien 
wahrend des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts, 1913. 


Israel Elfenbein, ‘Jewish Communal Government in Spain,’ Students’ 
Annual of the Jewish Theological Seminary, I] (1915), 102-21. 


ge Schechter, Nachmanides, in: Studies in Judaism, I (1896), 
—141. 


Adolph Frank, The Kabbalah, translated by I. Sossnitz, 1926. 
Christian D[avid] Ginsburg, The Kabbala, 1865. 

Isaac Myer, Qabbalah, 1888. 

I. Abelson, Jewish Mysticism, 1913. 

Louis Ginzberg, ‘Cabala,’ in Jewish Encyclopedia, III, 456-79. 

Isidore Loeb, ‘La controverse de 1263 4 Barcelone,’ Revue des Etudes 
Juives, 15 (1887), 1-18. 
CHAPTER LIX 

Joseph Perles, R. Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth, 1863. 


THE ZOHAR 
D{avid] H. Joel, Die Religionsphilosophie des Zohar, 1849. 
S. Karppe, Etudes sur les origines et la nature du Zohar, 1901. 
Gerhard Scholem, 1717 150 ns perdi ne ™ an O8F, in NINA yt, 
I (1926), 16-29. 


Alfred Freimann, ‘Ascher ben Jechiel,’ Jahrbuch der Jtidisch-Literari- 
schen Gesellschaft, XIJ (1918), 237-317. 


, ‘Die Ascheriden,’ zbid., XIII (1920), 142-254. 


CHAPTER LX 


M{eyer] Kayserling, ‘L’archidiacre Ferrand Martinez et les persecutions 
de 1391,’ Revue des Etudes Juives, 38 (1899), 257-67. 


CHAPTER LXI 


Adolph Posnanski, ‘Le colloque de Tortose et de San Mateo,’ Revue des 
Etudes Juives, 74-76 (1922-23). 

Isidore Loeb, ‘Réglement des Juifs de Castille en 1432,’ Revue des Etudes 
Juives, 13 (1886), 187-216. 


. CHAPTERS LXII-LXIII 
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition in Spain, 1908, I, 145 ff. 


Mleyer] Kayserling, Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the 
Jews in the Spanish and the Portuguese Discoveries, translated by 
Charles Gross, 1894. 


BOOK IV 


. CHAPTER LXIV 
IMMANUEL 
Moritz Steinschneider, Gesammelte Schriften, I, 271-326. ; 


Umberto Cassuto, Dante und. Manoello, in: Jahrbuch fiir jiidische 
Geschichte und Literatur, 24 (1921-2), 90-121. - . 


, Gli Ebrei a Firenze nell’ eta del rinascimento, 1918. 


a 
t 


748 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ELIJAH LEVITA 


Christian David Ginsburg, introduction to his edition of the Masoreth 
ha-Masoreth, 1867. 


Wilhelm Bacher, ‘Elijah Levita’s wissenschaftliche Leistungen,’ Zeit- 
schrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 43 (1889), 
206-72. 


REUCHLIN 
Ludwig Geiger, Johann Reuchlin, 1871. 


S. A. Hirsch, Johann Reuchlin, the Father of the Study of Hebrew, in: 
A Book of Essays, 1905, 116-50. 


, Johann Pfefferkorn and the battle of books, ibid, 73-115. 


LUTHER 
R{einhard] Lewin, Luther’s Stellung zu den Juden, 1911. 


CHAPTER LXV 
H. J. Koenen, Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland, 1843. 


J. S. Da Silva Rosa, Geschiedenis der Portugeesche Joden te Amster- 
dam, 1593-1925, 1925. 

Sigmund Seeligmann, ‘Uber die erste Ansiedlung der Juden in Amster- 
dam,’ Max Grunwald’s Mitteilungen zur jiidischen Volkskunde, 
Heft 17 (1906), 1-13. 

» Het Marranen-probleem uit oekonomisch oogpunt, in: Bijdragen 
en Medeelingen van het Genootschap voor de Joodsche Wetenschap te 
Amsterdam, 1925, 101-36. 

M[eyer] Kayserling, Manasseh ben Israel, translated by Frederick de 
Sola Mendes, in: Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, II (1877), 1-96. 

Lucien Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel’s Mission to Oliver Cromwell, 1901. 

H.S. Q. Henriques, The Jews and the English Law, 1908, 49-177. 


CHAPTER LXVI 
Carl Gebhardt, Die Schriften des Uriel da Costa, 1922. 
A. B. Duff et Pierre Kaan, Une vie humaine par Uriel da Costa, 1926. 
K. O. Meinsma, Spinoza und sein Kreis, 1909. 
Jfacob] Freudenthal, Spinoza, Sein Leben und seine Lehre. I, 1904. 


CHAPTER LXVII 
Moise Schwab, Abravanel et son époque, 1865. 


Isaac S. Meisels, ‘Don Isaac Abarbanel,’ Jewish Quarterly Review, II 
(1890) 37-52. 


B{ernhard] Zimmels, Leo Hebraeus, 1886. 
Heinz Pflaum, Die Idee der Liebe, Leone Ebreo, 1926. 
Ludwig Blau, Leo Modena’s Briefe und Schriftstiicke, 1905-6. 


CHAPTER LXVIII 


M. Franco, 793nn3 dsiw» D> 135, Essai sur l’histoire des Israélites de 
l’empire Ottomane, 1897. 


Salomon A. Rosanes, Geschichte der Juden in der Tiirkei, I-III, 
1907-13. [Hebrew.] ; 


Saul Pinhas Rabinowitz, 7511 xx», I, 1894. 
M[oritz] A[braham] Levy, Don Joseph Nasi, 1859. 


‘ i nn . ‘ i 
a ee Os ee ee ee ee 


a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee 


749 


% 


s in Judaiem, 11 (1908), 202-306; 


a in Russia and Poiand from - 


= i 
waore: Graetz’s notes 3-4 at the ead & 2° 
¢ also David Kahana. o°7iper fore 


s Lae luite de R. Naftali Codeiem ¢ 
iirtcoe juives, 35, 1898, aSe7a 


| ony ies din; 1922. 
rin, n, 1879. ; 
vy Poet, The Life and Writings of Sain 


4, 1898. ver f 


remeron. LXXVIE pe ee 
eona in: Studies in. Jute “mn, i rane 


fet sak, premade nivenn, 4 vols: 1923) Sap nth . 
el Baal-Schem, der Stifter des © neurone: 1H. 

A bdie Frankisten, 1863. 

ashi are ‘pee, {, 1696, translated from the Fouhues 


avan-nubeey ombe set, Ei, 1910-13, | Pg 
fabbi Elijah Wilna Gaon, in: Satin ans 


8, The Cn K. Lijjah Wilna, 1920. 


¥ 
[“ y 
4 ‘ 
> , 
ee 
’ ie 
; bs it 
- Ah wl? 
n \ F tos 4 a pied 
% A Nien 
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oy ita, ly “or -" ~~; 
Sboat tees a Pipa} Fas im 
if 7s 8 ; 
% 4 ara - ; Act : \ £ ' tA & 4 ar 
b > i.’ A y ._. aie 
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Saul hee prams ae esta, Y. 


ao, Thos oP Rees 

het Ehacher, “Eifiah gpk a's. 
‘ , ry . Ay er ’ piiest) 

cEhe bb tr KOE deutschen 7 
P "ty ; ’ 


ht 
1, Johann Re sch 


. ata 
\ Book of Hasaye Avi: 
ied aaite Lots Rit Prefer ta 


Kirinhard) Leavin, Luther's 


Ge we sechiedenisder apa 
} S. Da Silva Rosa, Geachiedsaia Gay. 
dam, 1593-1925, 1925...) 0 e 


Sigmund Seelivmana, ‘Uber die orb. 
dam,’ Mises Grunwald’s Mitteity 
1OD¢ 6), 1-43: ; E! 
omncmtomme, i pt Marva aner niaableanl nan 
en Mede ingen van i tet © ses 
Amsterdayn,. 1925, 101-36, é 
Mleyer] Kayserling, Manasaeh ben. 
Sola Mendea, in: Miscellany of } € 
cien Wolf, Menasech ben. Isract’s, 


H.S. Q. Henriques, The Jews and eh 


[. Koeten, 


je 


of 
niaea 
‘3 
a 5 
my f° 
new 
a Be 
Sep 
Y 
ea" 
2 2 
iy 
Pigs 

es es 
= 
os a 
cs ao ae 
§ Ee. 


pe sma, Somos ner’ seia Keak ; 
Hacob! Freudenthal, Spinoza, sain Let 


doine Se bat, Abrav anel et son époque, 
S 


isaac 5. ovate es Isaac oeeks 
sie sis 


ia ’ ‘at ae 


Franc, notes lyemigy 9ny “35, t 
y amipire Ottomane, 1897.0). . 
Sulomen A. Rosanés, Geschichte : 
1% }/ Ff: Hebrew. j A ae ’ 


Mii heat t atte oe whan} f ee Row dowaly | 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 749 


CHAPTER LXIX 


peices) Schechter, Safed, in: Studies in Judaism, II (1908), 202-306; 
7-28 


eO-e 


CHAPTERS LXX-LXII, LXXIV, LXXVII 


Slfimon} M. Dubnow, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland from the 
earliest times until the present, translated by Israel Friedlaender, 
I (1916), II (1918), III (1920). 


H. von Kutschera, Die Chasaren, 1910. 


Mejer Balaban, Zur Geschichte der Juden in Polen: I. Die Juden in 
Polen, 1648-60; II. Ritualprozesse, 1915. 


——,, Skizzen und Studien zur Geschichte der Juden in Polen, 1911. 
, Die Judenstadt Lublin, 1919. 


Moses Schorr, Rechtsstellung und innere Verfassung der Juden in 
Polen, 1917. 


Samuel Abba Horodezki, naan niipd, 1911. 


CHAPTER LXXIII 
M. H. Friedlander, Die Juden in B6hmen, 1900. 


———., Das Leben und Wirken der hervorragendsten rabbinischen 
Autoritaten Prags, 1902. 


CHAPTERS LXXV-LXXVI 
On Sabbatai Zevi and his successors: Graetz’s notes 3—4 at the end of 
vol. X are fundamental. See also David Kahana, o°¥aipon nitdin 
o?onmM ,xnawn, 2 vols., 1913. 


On Hayyun also: David Kaufmann, ‘La lutte de R. Naftali Cohen 
contre Hayyoun,’ Revue des Etudes Juives, 36, 1898, 256-71. 


Leopold Léwenstein, David Oppenheim, in: Kaufmann-Gedenkbuch, 
1900, 538-59. 


C. Duschinsky, 1yo"m3D18 TIT "9 pat nrtd1n, 1922. 
Joseph Almanzi, ,b’no1 niadin, 1879. 


A. S. Isaacs, A Modern Hebrew Poet, The Life and Writings of Moses 
Chaim Luzzato, 1878. 


Abraham Kahana, wxyi) on Awd 37, 1898. 


CHAPTER LXXVII 
Sfolomon] Schechter, The Chassidim, in: Studies in Judaism, I (1896), 
1-45. 


Slimon] M. Dubnow, ,Arvona nitind sian, in: ayn, IIT (1911), 73-102. 

Abraham Kahana, ,niT’pnA 71D, 1922. 

Samuel Abba Horodetzki, ,a°7’0nmM NITWoNA, 4 vols., 1923. 

Israel Guenzig, R. Israel Baal-Schem, der Stifter des Chassidismus, 1908. 

H[irsch] Graetz, Frank und die Frankisten, 1868. 

Alexander Kraushar, .1n7y1 paxb, J, 1896, translated from the Polish 
by N. Sokolow. 

Mordecai Teitelbaum, .7’an nuban1 wd arn, I-II, 1910-13. 


S[olomon] Schechter, Rabbi Elijah Wilna Gaon, in: Studies in Judaism, 


Louis Ginzberg, The Gaon R. Elijah Wilna, 1920. 


750 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER LXXVIII 
Ludwig Geiger, Geschichte der Juden in Berlin, I-II, 1871. 
Selma Stern, Der preussische Staat und die Juden. I. Die Zeit des 
grossen Kurfiirsten und Friedrichs I, 1925. 
M[eyer] Kayserling, Moses Mendelssohn, 2d edition, 1888. 
Gutman Klemperer, Rabbi Jonathan Eibenschiitz, 1858. 
Jacob Cohn, Ehrenrettung des R. Jonathan Eibeschiitz, 1870. 
Max Grunwald, Hamburg’s Deutsche Juden, 1904, p. 70-83. 


BOOK V 
WORKS DEALING WITH THE MopERN History OF THE JEWS 
For Russia and Poland see above on chapter Lxx ff. . 
I{saak] M[arcus] Jost, Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten (in der ersten 
Halfte des XIX Jahrhunderts), I-II], 1845-7, - 
M[artin] Philippson, Neueste Geschichte des jtidischen Volkes I (1907). 
II (1910). III (1911). 
Slimon] M. Dubnow, Noveishaya istoria yevreiskago naroda. 1923. 
, German translation of the foregoing: Die neueste Geschichte des 
jiidischen Volkes (1789-1914), I (1920); II (1920); IIT (1923). 
H.S. Henriques, The Jews and the English Law, 1908, 178-305. 
pucien Wall, Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question, 
1919, 
Wlad. W. Kaplun-Kogan, Die jiidische Wanderbewegung in der neuesten 
Zeit (1880-1914), 1919. 
David Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism, 1907. 
Nahum Slouschz, The Renaissance of Jewish Literature 1743-1885, 1909. 
For events after 1900 see American Jewish Year Book. ; 


CHAPTER LXXIX 
Charles P. Daly, The Settlement of the Jews in North America, edited 
by Max J. Kohler, 1893. 
Peter Wiernik, History of the Jews in America, 1912. 
Albert Marx Friedenberg, ‘The Jews of America 1654-1787’, American 
Jewish Year Book, 28 (1926), 193-218. 
Publications of American Jewish Historical Society, vols. 1-29, passim. 


CHAPTER LXXX 

Maurice Liber, ‘Les Juifs et la convocation des Etats généraux,’ Revue 
des Etudes Juives, 63-6 (1912-13). : 

Paul Fauchille, La question juive en France sous le ler empire, 1884. 

M. Wolff, De Beteekenis der regering von Lodewijk Napoleon vor de 
Joden von Nederland, in: Bijdragen vor Vaterlandsche Geschiedenis - 
en Oudheidkunde, 1920, 51-110. 

L. Horwitz, Die Israeliten unter dem K6nigreich Westfalen, 1900. 

Felix Lazarus, Das kéniglich-westfalische Konsistorium der Israeliten, 
1914. . 

CHAPTER LXXXI 

[smar Freund, Die Emancipation der Juden in Preussen, I, 1912. 

Sebastian Hensel, The Mendelssohn Family 1729-1847, translated by 
Carl Klingemann, 1882. 

Martin Philippson, ‘Der Anteil der jiidischen Freiwilligen an dem 
Befreiungskriege,’ Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft 
des Judentums, 50 (1906), 1-21; 220-46. 

Joseph Bergl, Geschichte der ungarischen Juden, 1879. 


751 ‘ 


@ LAX Su 
sat the: Congresses re Ws mara and Aix- 


Bid 


N Winker Kong aa 


* - 


edd psixxv AG 


it Judaisin. AY, mea Ait Pincha 
”, 1696) = 


at Syriagogue. of tha, byt md 
tons et) . 
fof the Great Syragoae Acadian, 


eR folic er Ribeiriations, ut, 1 | 
gad Letpnspist: Ei 


Ludwig Geiger, Gesr Banca der Jaden in Sei 
Selina Alors Dar ens 

wrossee Kurtirs ‘i ona} | 
M jean} a8 rveetting; 2 Moses ? Neck pri Dawdit 


fauteuin Ae Eye rer, Rabhi Tonat! trate Eibetiaciniaee 
facoh < oj: BR renrettung des R. Jonathan bibeschites, . 
Max torun Wald, Hamburg's eepubesis- He 4, oy. TO 


WORKS DRALING WITH THE Nata 1 
hor Russia and Poland see above on chapter 


arcs! soak Neuere Geechiehte dat 
Hatfte des NIX Jahrhunderts), Pega? 
vinrtial Phitippeon, Neue Geet 

ii (1910). TLL 94th, | 


von) Mi. Dubnow N raveiiaya lator ay 
~vowet, (Carman translation of tie foregoin 
tidischen Volkes (1789-79) 41, ¢ 


Bae Henriques. The Jen Sieg an tal i the nilys 
ucien Well, Noted_on 
1919, 3 
J. W. Kaphin-Rogan, Die h sachet Ws 
Zeit (1880-1944). 1999, eS 
d Philipson, The Retorm ‘Moveane tin: 
hum Stouschy, The Regul issance of ma 
or events alter: 1900 see Am 


hare Pf aly “Tip aaa tent af she fee a 
P by iY Lax aS F hier, 189s. : ¥ Be: re 
Pecur ¥ ie, History of the Jews in America Eg, 


Thert Marx Friedenberg, ‘ pogien af 
- lewish Year Boek, 28 LIV264, bth So 
“uhhcations of American Jewish dst 


Pe 
2 


CHAPTER LL 
tiaurine Liber, ‘hes fuifs et ls tonvodaes 
des Etucies Puives, 65-4 (1912-73) 

Pauchille, La questiomjuive enor 
str ie Beteckems. der regering | 
foden y Om Meide ian id, i in: Biydtagen 
cy 4 Or wack? hls ie nae (970, 84-1). 


har Freud, Die Emancipation ae tad 


vebostian Hensel, The Mencelesohn bias 


Cart Wai Meany, 1882. 


Martin 1 iippaoi, ‘Der 4 Aateif. der 
Lt vi 


bei celuncakriegs, * Monateschrift fie 
tiles } en LUNs, SO ( ( 1906), 


tf: van 


Joseph Bergh Ges whichte der ungarisches 


7 
- 
a 
x 
i a: 
Mee \ 
f Pr ) 
v eal i 
: asd 
ct per 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 751 


CHAPTER LXXXIII 
Max J. Kohler, Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna and Aix- 
la-Chapelle, 1918. 
Sally Baron, Die Judenfrage auf dem Wiener Kongress, 1920. 


CHAPTER LXXXIV 
On Zunz: S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, III, 84-142. Saul Pinchas 
Rabinowitz, .yns jxop’> aw or ‘5, 1896. 
Samuel David Luzzatto Gedenkbuch, 1900. 


On Krochmal: S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, I, 46-72, and Ravid- 
owitz, introduction to )xo2 "Ip yom] °37 7and, 1924. 


On Rapoport: D. Kaufmann and others, Das Centenarium Rapoports, 
1890; S. Bernfeld, "wv nyt>in, 1899, 


CHAPTER LXXXV 
Moses Gaster, History of the Ancient Synagogue of the Spanish and 
Portuguese Jews in Bevis Marks (London), 1901. 


Charles] Duschinsky, The Rabbinate of the Great Synagogue, London, 
1756-1842, 1921. 


Christian Wilhelm Berghoeffer, Meyer Amschel Rothschild, Der 
Griinder des Rothschildschen Bankhauses, 1926. 


Ignatz Balla, Die Rothschilds, 1920. 
Paul Goodman, Moses Montefiore, 1925. 


CHAPTER LXXXVI 


Barnett A. Elzas, The Jews of South Carolina, 1905. 
A. B. Makower, Mordecai M. Noah, 1917. 


H. Englander, ‘Isaac Leeser,’ Central Conference of American Rabbis, 
28 (1918), 218-52. 


CHAPTER LXXXVII 


Joseph Jacobs,‘The Damascus Affair and the Jews of America,’ Publica- 
tions of the American Jewish Historical Society, X (1902), 119-28. 


CHAPTER LXXXVIII 
Fritz Friedlaender, Das Leben Gabriel Riesser’s, 1926. 


CHAPTER LXXXIX 


On Holdheim: Ritter, Geschichte der jiidischen Reformation, III, 1865. 

Ludwig Geiger, Abraham _ Geiger, Leben und Lebenswerk, 1910; S. 
Schechter, Studies in Judaism, III, 47-83. ' 

On Philippson: Mleyer] Kayserling, Ludwig Philippson, 1898; Josef 
Bass, in Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Juden- 
tums, 56 (1912), 1-32, 218-49; J.S. Kornfeld, Central Conference 
of American Rabbis, 21 (1911), 149-90. 

M[arcus] Brann, Zacharias Frankel, Gedenkblatter, 1901, reprint from 
Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums. 

Saul Pinchas Rabbinowitz, Sypasap maar ‘3, 1898. 


Samson Raphael Hirsch, Jubilaumsnummer des Israelit, 1908; Max 
Heller, Central Conference of American Rabbis, 18 (1908), 179-210. 


752 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER XC 
Jacob S. Raisin, The Haskalah Movement in Russia, 1913. 


CHAPTER XCI 


Max B. May, Isaac M. Wise, 1916. 


Narcisse Leven, Cinquante ans d’histoire. L’Alliance Israélite Univer- 
selle, I-II, 1911-20. 


Philipp Bloch, Heinrich Graetz, a memoir, in vol. VI of the English 
translation of the History. 


M[arcus] Brann, Heinrich Graetz, Abhandlungen zu seinem 100. Ge- 
burtstag, 1917, reprint from Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und 
Wissenschaft des Judentums. 


CHAPTER XCII 
Isidore Loeb, Situation des Juifs en Turquie, en Serbie et en Roumanie, 
1877. 


Edmond Sincerus (Elias Schwarzfeld), Les Juifs en Roumanie depuis 
le Traité de Berlin, 1911. 


CHAPTER XCIII 


Bernard Lazare, Antisemitism. Its history and causes, 1903. 


Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations, translated by 
Frances Hellman, 1895. 


., L’Antisémitisme, 1897. 
Joseph Jacobs, The Persecution of the Jews in Russia, 1894. 
Lucien Wolf, The Legal Sufferings of the Jews in Russia, 1912. 


CHAPTER XCIV 


Article ‘Dreyfus,’ Jewish Encyclopedia, IV, 660-88; Joseph Reinach, 
Histoire de l’affaire Dreyfus, 7 vols. 1901-11. 

Nahum Sokolow, History of Zionism (1600-1918), I-II, 1919. 

Richard Gottheil, Zionism, 1914. 

Adolph Friedemann, Das Leben Theodor Herzls, 1914. 


CHAPTER XCV 


Israel Friedlaender, Ahad Haam, in: Past and Present, 1919, 399-430. 
Leon Simon, Ahad Haam, Selected Essays, 1912. 


CHAPTER XCVI 


Charles S. Bernheimer, The Russian Jew in the United States, 1905. 
Cyrus Adler, Solomon Schechter, 1915. 


CHAPTERS XCVII-XCVIII : 


J. Kreppel, Juden und Judentum von heute, 1925. | 
J. H. Patterson, With the Judeans in the Palestine Campaign, 1922. 


— 


2) 7 ee. ni ripe st Fs, 
ee i 
A 
ba 
F vee 
CVUAPTER XX ie 
Dak | <P oe; A "a men 
of GIG, 2 he Nese Movers ant in 
CHAPTER XC1 
‘ " a Fee ae 
hi iM » BAAS VED. VVAIGEL LS wes 
Narcisse Lever, Cinguante ¢ 
ie, b<il, 911-26 
~] * . + a 
Prilipn >, Heinrich Gra hed 
translation of the History 
Pie a) j Flei “inrich Gr resin E, _gphandings 


Loeb, Situation des ‘fuils en ies ex Serhie et 
877. ae oe Nem 
Edmond Since dois i has Schwarafeld), 

Traité de Berlin, 1911. 


5 


HAPTER xen 


earlier, "0 rael among | 
a3 nian 


josenn ci The! Pp oe ion of bay s Jean Russi 3 


tz 


ca ; CHAPTS 2K. [xeny 
a6 1 Ene yclopedia; 
Histore de Patfaire Dr yius,'7 vols. 1901-1 
A 2 Ex Seyhecs low, A 


x " 


fe what fsotthei 


jk 
“ 


bes | Priedtiaender, Ahad Hab iit: 1 Past wa : 


nariew > Bernheimer, The anit evn 
:: {'vrws Ader, Solomon Scher hier, t915, pee; 


CHRONOLOGICAL 
TABLES 


PALESTINE EGyPt 


Before the Christian Era 


1785 End of XII. dynasty 
1700-1580 The Hyksos 
domination 
1550 Amenhotep’s campaign in 
Palestine 
1530 Thutmose I. in Palestine 
1459 Conquest of Palestine by 
Thutmose ITI. 
1375-1358 Amenhotep IV. 
1313-1292 Seti I. 
1292-1225 Ramses II. 
1225-1215 Me(r)neptah 
1220 The Exodus 


1198-1167 Ramses III. 


Hebrew Settlement 


The Conquest of Canaan under Joshua 


1150 Deborah 
The Period of the Judges 

1100 Gideon. 

Abimelech 

1100-1020 Samuel 

1080 Battle of Aphek 
1028-1013 Saul 
1013 Battle of Gilboa 
1013-1006 David, king of Judah 
1006-973 David, king of all Israel - 

973-933 Solomon 


947-925 Shishak 


JupaH ISRAEL 
933-917 Rehoboam 
917-915 Abijah 
915-875 Asa 


933-912 Jeroboam 


912-911 Nadab 


911-888 Baasa 
888-887 Elah 


887-876 Omri 
876-853 Ahab. 
Elijah 


875-851 Jehoshaphat 


853 Battle of Ramoth 


in ead 
ese oe 
—84 
851-844 Jehoram aor 
844-843 Ahaziah 
843-837 Athaliah 843-816 Jehu 


Elisha 
837-798 Jehoash 

816-800 Jehoahaz 
800-785 Jehoash 
Wires Jeroboam 


Amos 
Hosea 


798-780 Amaziah 


780-740 Azariah 
(Uzziah) 


744 Zechariah. 
Shallum 


744-737 Menahem 


737-736 Pekahiah 
736 Syro-Ephraimitic War 


740-736 -Jotham 


754 


Ba 


2160 End of Old Kingdom | 


2100 H 


860-825 
DET e 


842 Jehu pays trib: 
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AMERICA 


FRANCE 


ENGLAND 


IraLy (PoPEs) 


ews arrive in New 
Amsterdam 


Dutch possessions 


164 Judah Monis in- 
structor at Harvard 


ews naturalized in New 
York 


| 


| 


1648-1678 France acquires 
Alsace and Lorraine 
from Germany 


1723 Portuguese Jews’ resi- 
dence legalized by 
royal patent 


1649 England becomes 
republican 
1654-1728 David Nieto 


1655 Manasseh Ben-Israel in 
London 
Readmission of Jews 


1664 Jacob Sasportas in 
London . 


1685 Jews given freedom to 
exercise their religion 


1699-1762 Samson Abudiente 
(Gideon) 


1702 David Nieto haham 


1592-1605 Clement VIII. 
1593 Jews banished from the 
Papal States 
1597 Jews expelled from Cre- 

mona and other cities 
. Duchy of Ferrara added 
to the Papal States 


1624 Ghetto instituted at 
Ferrara 


1707-1747 Moses Hayim 
Luzzatto 


DENMARK 


HOLLAND 


GERMANY (PRUSSIA) 


TURKEY 


POLAND 


AUSTRIA 


1593 Maranos arrive in 
Amsterdam 


1604-1657 Manasseh Ben- 


Israel 
1612 (1615)-1640 Uriel da 
Costa at Amsterdam 


1632-1677 Baruch ( Benedict 
Spinoza 


1656 Spinoza excommuni- 
cated 
1664-1728 Solomon Ayllon 


1670-1744 Moses Hagiz 


1614 Temporary expulsion 
from Frankfort 

1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War 

1619-1637 Ferdinand IT. 


1640-1688 Frederick William, 
the Great Elector 


1648 Jewish expulsion from 
Hamburg 
1648 Peace of Westphalia 


1658-1718 Zebi Ashkenazi 
(‘Haham Zebi’) 

1665 Jacob Sasportas in 
Hamburg 


1671 Jews admitted to the 
Mark 
1680-1756 Jacob Joshua Falk 


1690-1764 Jonathan 
Eybeschiitz 
1697-1776 Jacob Emden 


1701-1713 Frederick I, king 
of Prussia 
1704-1762 David Frankel 


1711 Eisenmenger’s ‘Judaism 
Uncovered’ republished 
1712 First public synagogue 
in Berlin founded 
1713-1793 Ezekiel Landau 
pee teO Frederick William 


1609 Death of Judah Loew at 
Prague 


1629 Heller incarcerated 


1664-1736 David Oppenheim 


1670 Jews of Vienna expelled 


1626-1676 Sabbatai Zevi 


1648-1687 Mohammed IV- 


1665 Sabbatai proclaims him- 
self the Messiah in 
Smyrna 

1666 Sabbatai turns Moslem 


a 


1612 Death of Mordecai Jaffe, 
1614 Death of Joshua Falk * 


1618 Attacks on the Jews of 
Posen 


1623 Lithuanian Jews havea 
Council of their own 


1631 Death of Samuel Edels 
1632-1648 Vladislav IV. 
1635-1636 Cossack risings 
1640 Death of Joel Serkes 


1646 David ha-Levi at Lem- 
berg and Sabbatai 
Cohen at Vilna 

1648-1669 John Casimir 

1648-1649 Chmielnicki Mas- 
sacres (Nemirov, 
Tulchin, etc.) 

1650 Council of Four Lands 
“meets at Lublin 


1655 Russians take Vilna 


1655-1656 Massacres during 
Russo-Swedish war 


1669-1673 Michael 
Wisniowecki 


1674-1696 John Sobieski 


1687 Jews of Posen attacked 


1697-1733 Augustus II. 
axon king 
1700-1760 Israel Baal Shem 

Tob 


1710-1772 Dob Baer preacher 
of Mezdyrzecz 


1720-1797 Elijah of Vilna 
(Gaon) 


RussIA 


NORTH AFRICA 


1645-1676 Alexis 


1654 Cossack region incor- 
porated into Musco- 
vite empire 


1724 Death of Gliickel of 
H 1 
1725-1805 Naphthali Herz Sad 
Wessely 
1729-1786 Moses Mendels- 
sohn 
769 


1726 Death of Nehemiah 
Hayun 


PALESTIN 


1620- 1674 Jay B 


1644-1680 Nathan o 


1700 Judah the Sa: 
Jerusalem 


Haste ‘ b 
J hOd41680° Nite of - 
a 4 | 
ae 
jee { ; A 
eres tae 
if 
7 e : Fj . c 
4 i : 
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A i7@ Judah the Sains. 
‘eee Jerusslem 
: . 
Fs tt x te ANS hs ; 
7 Re 4 


eee ee he ed 


| 


AMERICA 


FRANCE 


ENGLAND 


public synagogue in New 


ive in Georgia 
ced from voting for 

bly of New York : 
ization of Jews in America 


in Charleston 


Gershom Mendes Seixas 


and Indian War 


4) Declaration of 
lependence 


Rebecca Gratz 


Mordecai Manuel Noah 


itution of the United States 
congratulate Washington 


1730-1793 Cerf Berr 


1745-1812 David Sinzheim 


1756-1816 Abraham Furtado 


1789 States General convoked 


1791 All Jews become full citizens 


795-1799 The Directory ; 
eat Isaac Adolphe Crémieux 


| 
| 1756-1764 Hirshel Levin in London 


1790 Portuguese Jews become citizens 


1 
1 


7 
7 


60 Accession of George III. 
60 (after) Board of Deputies 


1740-1758 Benedict XIV. 


| 1758-1769 Clement XIII. 


dum against ritual murder 


Ivay (Popes) 


HOLLAND 


GERMANY (PRUussIA) 


Ganganelli submits memoran- 


accusation 


organized 


1765-1792 David Tevele Schiff in 


London 


1772-1823 David Ricardo 


1777-1836 Nathan Meyer Rothschild 


1784-1885 Moses Montefiore 


1797-1873 David Salomons 


1775 Pius VI. issues cruel edict 


1798 Roman republic 


1799 Restoration of papal rule 


1795 Batavian republic formed 
1796 Jews given full citizenship 


1740-1786 Frederick II. the Great 
1743-1812 Mayer Anshel Rothschild 


1747-1803 Marcus Herz 
1750-1834 David Friedlander 


1750 Draconic legislation against Jews 
1753-1800 Solomon Maimon 


1761-1837 Akiba Eger of Posen 


1768-1828 Israel Jacobsohn 
1771-1833 Rachel Levin 


1778-1783 Mendelssohn translates 
Pentateuch 

1781 Dohm pleads for Jewish 
emancipation 

1784-1862 Gotthold Salomon 


1786-1797 Frederick William IT. 
1786-1837 Ludwig Borne 


1787 Frederick William II. abrogates 
body tax 


1789 Commission concedes privileges to 


Jews 
1789-1867 Eduard Kley 


1792-1849 Isaac Bernays 

1793-1797 First Coalition 

1793-1860 Isaac Marcus Jost 

1794-1886 Leopold (Yom Tob Lipmann)| 
Zunz 

1795-1874 Zebi Hirsch Kalischer 

1797-1840 Frederick William III. 

1797-1856 Heinrich Heine 

1797 Some disabilities removed 


1799 Epistle to Pastor Teller 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


POLAND 


1749-1841 Herz Homberg 


1763-1829 Mordecai Benet 
1763-1839 Moses Sofer 


1766-1844 Aaron Chorin 


1772 Galicia joined to Austria 


1782 Joseph II.’s Patent of Tolerance 
1784-1855 Isaac Samuel Reggio 
1785-1840 Nahman Krochmal 


1788 Joseph ITI.’s rescript 


1790-1868 Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport 


1792-1835 Francis II. (as Francis I. 
1806-1835) 
1793-1865 Isaac Noah Mannheimer 


770 


1733-1763 Augustus III. 


1746 Death of Jehiel Heilprin y 
1747-1812 Shneor Zalman of Liady 


1756-1791 Jacob Frank 
1759 Disputation at Lemberg 


1764 Stanislav Poniatovski elected king, 
Council of the Four Lands abolished 


1772 First partition of Poland 
Vilna rabbis proceed against 
Hasidim 


1793 Second partition of Poland 
1794 Berek colonel under Kosciusko 
1795 Third partition of Poland 


1800-1870 Berush Meisels 


| 1788-1860 Isaac Baer Levinsoh 


1762-1796 Catharine II. 


1786-1874 Abraham Firkovich 


1789-1878 Abraham Dob Leb 


1796-1801 Paul I. 


1799 Napoleon's campaign 


‘ty¥aby #Paprs 


efohe lee nee te 5G 


‘te Bemehiet XIV, 


y? Ciement MYT. 


Bem agednat retuat 
ENE GN 


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tien ered ech; 


« 


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He 


= 


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14 


AME yw hd gn er See 5 


784-1874 Abraham Pirkei 


{796-1861 Paul f, 


ee ee 


Rusa 


Fay em en orl nln tn mre ai goat agg 


763-1708 Catharing (5. . 


. 


1783-1860 Tenne Baer Levine 
} 780-1873 Abraham Den Le 


FRANCE 


f Bernard Gratz 


Leeser _ 
Michael Gratz 


id Einhorn 


lah P. Benjamin 


fax Lilienthal 


c Mayer Wise 


oses Aaron Dropsie 


Society of Israelites in 


on, S. C. 
‘Maryland full citizens * 


loses Mielziner 


1803-1867 Solomon Munk 


1806-1807 Assembly of Notables at 


aris | 
1807 Grand Sandhedrin convoked at 


‘aris 
1808 Decree of Napoleon 


1809-1893 Adolphe Franck 


1811-1895 Joseph Derenbourg 


1813 Equal rights conferred on Jews 
Fall of Napoleon 


1828-1882 Charles Netter 


ENGLAND 


ItaLy (Pops) 


1802-1840 Solomon Hirschel 
1803-1890 Marcus Nathan Adler 


1804-1881 Benjamin Disraeli 


1806-1879 Baron Lionelde Rothschild 


1820-1890 Solomon Schiller-Szinessy 


SWITZERLAND 


1800-1808 Pius VIT, 
1800-1865 Samuel David Luzzatto 


1798 Helvetian republic in 
Switzerland 


HOLLAND 


1806-1810 Reign of Louis 
Bonaparte 


GERMANY 
(PRUSSIA) 


1801-1828 [srael Jacobsohn’s reform 
activities 
1801-1875 Zechariah Frankel 


1806-1812 Napoleon’s sway in 


Germany 4 
1806-1863 Gabriel Riesser_ 
1806-1860 Samuel Holdheim 
1807 Kingdom of Westphalia formed 


1808 Consistory at Cassel Lae 
1808 Jewsof Westphalia full citizens 
1808-1864 Michael Sachs f 
1808-1888 Samson Raphael Hirsch 


1810-1874 Abraham Geiger 
1811 Removal of disabilities of 
- Frankfort Jews | 
1811-1889 Ludwig Philippson 
1812-1875 Moses Hess 


1812 Deathof Mayer Anshel, founder 


of the House of Rothschild | 
1812 Act of Emancipation in Prussia 
1813 Battle of Leipzig ; 
1813 Jews of Mecklenburg receive 
equal rights 
1814-1815 Congress of Vienna 


1816-1907 Moritz Steinschneider 
1816 Closing of private synagogues 
1817-1891 Heinrich (Hirsch) Graetz 
1818-1883 Karl Marx 

1818-1893 David Cassel 

1818 Dedication of the Hamburg 


Temple 

1819 Excesses in Wiirzburg and 
elsewhere 

1819-1882 Eliezer Lipmann Silber- 


mann 
1820-1899 Israel Hildesheimer 


| 1820-1884 Eduard Lasker 


1821 Isaac Bernays chief rabbi in 
Hamburg 

1823-1899 Heymann Steinthal 

1824-1903 Moritz Lazarus 

1825-1864 Ferdinand Lassalle 


AUSTRIA 


1804-1890 Solomon Sulzer 


1811 Jews of Vienna erect a 
synagogue 


1815-1905 Isaac Hirsch Weiss 


RUMANIA 


1809-1879 Meir Loeb Malbim 


771 


POLAND 


1815 Polish Constitution leaves 
out Jewish rights 


1822 Imperial ukase abolishes 
Kahals 


1826 School for training of 
rabbis opened 


1801-1825 Alexander I. 
1801-1863 Isaac Benjacob 
1801-1864 Simhah Pinsker 


1803 School founded at Volozh 
1804 ‘Pale’ established 


1807 Provincial assemblies of 
ewish representatives 
1808-1867 Abraham Mapu 


1812-1878 Baron Joseph Giinz 
burg 
1812 War against Napoleon 


1815-1825 Alexander 1. 


1818-1825 College of Jewish 
deputies 


1819-1911 Daniel Chwolson 


1821-1891 Leo Pinsker 


1824 Jews expelled from villa 
1824-1898 Samuel Mohilever 
1825-1855 Nicholas I. 


1827 Jewish ‘Cantonists’ 


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Oe exoeled froeg Villages 
Oe Barauel Mobiievee 
$35 Nichwias i 


te a 4 be Pe | ‘ - 
sEoe SUM “Can tonicee! 


German Jews 
ma Lazarus 


Cyrus Adler | 


FRANCE 


ENGLAND 


ITALY 


SWITZERLAND 


GERMANY 
PRUSSIA 


AUSTRIA 


RUMANIA 


1830 July Revolution 

1831 Judaism placed ona 
par with other 
religions 

1831-1896 Baron Maurice 
de Hirsch 


1833-1915 Narcisse Leven 


1834 Benoit Fould deputy 
in the Chamber 


1839-1905 Zadoe Kahn 


1844-1908 Hartwig 
Derenbourg 


| 1845 Birth of Baron 


Edmond de 
Rothschild 


1848 Second Republic 
1849-1923 Max Nordau 


1852-1870 Napoleon IIT. 


| 1859 Rabbinic Seminary 


at Paris 


| 1859 Birth of Alfred 


Dreyfus 


| 1860 ‘Alliance Israélite 


Universelle’ 
founded 


1829 Catholics achieve 
removal of disa- 


bilities 
1831-1907 Adolph Neu- 
bauer 


1832-1911 Lord Swayth- 
ling 


1833-1910 Michael Fried- 
lander 


1835 David Salomons 
sheriff of London 


1837-1901 Queen Victoria 
1837 Moses Montefiore 
knighted by 
Queen Victoria 
1839-1911 Hermann 
er 


1840 West London 
Synagogue 


1845 New form of oath 


for Jews 
1846-1904 Colonel Albert 
Goldsmid 
1847 Baron Lionel de 


Rothschild elected} 


to Parliament 


1856 Birth of Moses 
Gaster 

1856 Jews’ College opened 

1857 Birth of Lucien Wolf 

1858 Baron Lionel de 


Rothschild seated | 


in Parliament 
1858-1925 Israel 
Abrahams 
1858 Birth of Claude G. 
Montefiore 


1864-1926 Israel Zangwill 
1865 Birth of Sir John 
Monash 


1867 Birth of Adolph 
Blichler 


1829 ‘Istituto Rabbinico’ 
opened at Padua 


1846-1877 Pius IX 


1858 Mortara case 


1845 Expulsion of the 
Jews from Basel 


1866 Emancipation of Jews 


1832 Zunz publishes ‘Die 
gottesdienstlichen 
Vortrage’ 

1833 Jews granted eman- 
cipation in Hesse 

1833-1915 Adolph (Abra- 
ham) Berliner 


1840-1861 Frederick Wil- 
liam IV. 


1843-1921 David Hoff- 
mann 


1847-1917 Israel Lewy 

1847 Provincial Diets 
convoked 

1848 Revolution. Full 
emancipation 

1850 Reaction sets in 


1851-1914 Jacob Barth 
1853 Philippson Bible 


1854 Rabbinical Seminary 
opened at Breslau 


1856 First Hebrew weekly 
(Ha-Maggid) founded 
1856-1914 David Wolff- 
sohn 


1859 Birth of Otto War- 
burg 


1861-1888 William I. 
1862 Equality in Baden 


1864 Equality in Wiirt- 
temberg 


1867-1922 Walter 
Rathenau 
1869 Synod of Leipzig. 
mancipacion of 
ews north of the 


ain 


1831-1908 Meir Fried- 
mann 


1835-1918 Moritz Giide- 
mann 


1848-1916 Francis Joseph 

1850-1913 Wilhelm 
Bacher 

1850-1925 Joseph Bloch 


1852-1899 David Kauf- 
mann 


1860-1904 Theodore 


Herzl 


1868 Emancipation of 
Jews 


1859 Rumania becomes a 
state 


1866 Prince Cuza abdicates 


TURKEY 


POLAND 


RUSSIA 


EGyptT 


1839-1861 Abdul-Mejid 


1830 Revolution 


1863 Polish Revolution 


1831-1892 Judah Loeb 
ordon 


1833-1909 Baron Horace 
Giinzburg 


1835 Harshstatuteconcerning 


the Jews 
1836-1917 Solomon Abramo- 
vich 


1839-1910 Albert (Abraham) 
Harkavy r 

1839-1915 Isaac Jacob Reines 

1840-1845 Lilienthalin Russia 

1842-1885 Perez Smolenskin 

1842 Military service for Jews 

1843-1910 Moses Loeb 
Lilienblum 


1844 Establishment of crown | 
schools for Jews 


1846 Montefiore comes to 
Russia 


1853-1856 Crimean War 


1855-1881 Alexander II. 


1856-1927 Asher Ginzberg 
(Ahad Haam) 


1860 Birth of Simon Dubnow 


1863 Society for the Spreading 
of Enlightenment 
founded 

1864 Jews admitted to legal 
profession 


1832 Mehemet Ali takes Syria 
and Palestine 


1840 Damascus libel 


772 


_ PALESTINE 


1858-1922 Eliezer Ben- 
Jehuda 


ee A rete dati athe irl 


oe ee 


1698-1922 Klleper Bem 


Jehuda 


FRANCE 


ENGLAND 


ITALY 


| SWITZERLAND 


GERMANY (PRUSSIA) 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY | 


FAmerican He- 
Congregations 

ed 

Union College, 
fat Cincinnat! 


Theological 
ary opens in 


pardoned 


lomon Schechter 
lent of the Jewish 
(logical Seminary 

merica 


fan Jewish Com- 
é called into 


fation bill | 
ent Wilson vetoes 
ation bill 


1919 Versailles Peace 


on-Lodge Immigra- 
n Bill signed by 

sident Coolidge 
astruction Pro- 
imme of The J. D. C.! 


1894-1900 Dreyfus Affair 


1899 Dreyfus retried and 


| 1870 Birth of Sir Herbert 
| Louis Samuel 


1891 Jewish Colonization As- 
sociation incorporated | 


| 1899 Jewish Colonial Trust 
1901 Jewish Religious Union 
| 1901 ‘Jewish National Fund’ 
| created 

1902 Anti-alien legislation 


1905 Law restrains alien 
paupers 

1905 Jewish Territorial 
Organization 


1910 Liberal Jewish 
Synagogue 


| 
| 1914-1918 World War 


1917 Balfour Declaration 


| 
| 


1903-1914 Pius X 


1870 Unification of Italy. 
End of ghetto 


1897 First Zionist Congress meets 
at Basel 


1870 Unification of Germany 

1870 ‘History of Jews’ completed 
by Graetz 

1871 Emancipation in Southern 
Germany 

1872 ‘School for Jewish Learn- 
ing’ opened at Berlin 

1873 Rabbinical Seminary 
opened at Berlin 


1876 The Orthodox permitted to 
set up Congregations 

1878 Congress of Berlin 

1879-1880 Anti-Semitic move- 
ment 


1884 Hobebe Zion meet at 
Kattowitz 


1888 Frederick IIT. 
1888-1918 William II. 


1890 Society against Anti- 
Semitism founded 

1891 Ritual murder charge at 
Xanten 

1892 Anti-Semites in the 
Reichstag 

1893 Central Society of German | 

Citizens of the Jewish Faith | 

1900 Ritual murder charge at | 
Konitz 

1901 Relief Society of German 
Jews founded 

1902 Society for Promotion of | 
Jewish Learning 


1904 Union of German Jews 


1877 Rabbinical school at Buda- 
pest opened 


1882 Tisza-Eszlar 


1896 Herzl's ‘Jews State’ appears 


1904 Death of Herzl 


1876-1909 Abd-ul-Hamid 1G 


1908 Turkish Revolution 


RUMANIA 


Russia& 


EGYPT 


———— 


PALESTINE 


| 1871-1872 Attacks by mobs 


| 1879 A number ot Jews natural- 
| ized 


1895 Anti-Semitic League 
organized 


1873 Birth of Hayim Nahman | 
Bialik ‘ 
1874 General military service 


1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War | 
1878 Kutais trial 


1881-1894 Alexander III. 

1881 Pogroms at Elisavetgrad, etc 

1882 Pogroms. May Laws 

1882 Pinsker’s ‘Self-Emancipa- 
tion’ 


1887 Small percentage of Jews 
admitted to colleges 


1889 Jewish graduates not ad- 
mitted to the bar | 


1891 Jews expelled from Moscow | 


| 


1902 Plehve minister of interior 


1003 Pogrom at Kishinev | 


1905 Exodus of Jews 
1905 Russian Revolution 
1906 Pogrom in Bielostok 
1906 Duma dissolved 
1907 Second Duma 


1909-1910 Polish boycott insti- 
tuted against Jews 

1910 Jews expelled from Kiev 

1911-1913 Beilis trial 


1917 Russian Revolution 
Bolsheviks oust the Keren- 
sky government 
1918 Treaty of Brest Litovsk 
1919 Pogroms under Petlura 
government in Ukraine 


1915 Palestinian refugees form 
‘Zion Mule Corps’ 


1902-1914 Zionist colonies 


1906 Hebrew High School in Jaffa 
1006 School for Arts and Crafts 
| (Bezalel) 


| 1909 Tel Aviv founded 


1917 (Dec. 11) Allenby enters 
Jerusalem 


1918 Corner stone of Hebrew 
University of Jerusalem 
laid 

1920 Arab riots 

1920-1925 Sir Herbert Samuel 
High Commissioner in 
Palestine 

| 1921 Repetition of anti-Jewish 

| riots in Jaffa 

1922 ‘White Paper.’ 

| Mandate drafted 

| 1923 Mandate confirmed by 
League of Nations 

1924 Technicum opened at Haifz 

1925 Hebrew University dedi- 
cated 


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INDEX 


Aaron, brother of Moses, 15, 34, 
199, 

Aaron of Bagdad, cabalist, 299, 
300 


Aaron, son of Joseph, ha-Levi, 430. 

Aaron, son of Moses son of Asher, 
Masorete, 267. 

Aaron of Lincoln, 385, 386. 

Ab, Ninth of: destruction of Tem- 
ples on, 112, 202; Jews lament 
loss of nationhood on, 215; cele- 
brated by Sabbatai Zevi, 564. 

Abarim, Joseph, of Valencia, 447. 

Abaye, Babylonian Amora, 242- 
243, 2706. 

Abba Arika, 236. (See Rab.) 

Sere son of Moses, of Lunel, 

Abbasids, dynasty of, 259, 277. 

a hcasrepaan I., ruler of Spain, 
307. 

Abdarrahman III., ruler of Spain, 
308, 313. 

Abd-ul-Hamid II., sultan of Tur- 
key, and Zionism, 708. 

Abdul-Mejid, sultan of Turkey, 
652. 

Abel-Meholah, Palestine, 74. 

Abiathar, the priest, 42, 56, 59, 64. 

Abiezer, clan of Manasseh, 26. 

Abigail, wife of David, 42. 

Abijah, king of Judah, 68. 

gee son of Gideon, 27-29, 


Sts 

Abishai, brother of Joab, 46-48, 
51,57: 

Ablat, Gentile friend of Samuel of 
Nehardea, 239. 

Abner, Saul’s general, 41, 46, 47. 

Abner of Burgos (Alphonso of Val- 
ladolid), apostate, 437. 

Aboab, Isaac, rabbi, 473, 474. 

Aboab, Isaac de Fonseca, of Am- 
sterdam, 489, 519, 562. 

Abrabanel, Benvenida, wife of 
Samuel, 503, 505. 

Abrabanel, Isaac, scholar and 
statesman, 471, 472, 491, 501- 
502. 

Abrabanel, Isaac, son of Judah, 
502. 


Lad 


/ 


75 


Abrabanel, Isaac, son of Joseph, 
503. 
Abrabanel, Joseph, son of Isaac, 


501 


Abrabanel, Judah Leo Medigo, | 


502. 
Abrabanal, Samuel, son of Isaac, 
502-503, 505. 
Abrabanel, Samuel, at court of 
Henry II. of Castile, 443, 446. 
Abtaham, patriarch, 9, 2.) hae es, 
253, 328. 

Abraham, covenant of, and the 
Reformers, 639. 

Abraham, Jewish merchant of Sara- 
gossa, 349, . 

Abraham of Bohemia, ‘senior’ of 
Jews of Poland, 532. 

Abraham of Bristol, 388. 

Abraham, son of David, of Pos- 
quiéres, 393. 

Abraham, son of Hiya, of Spain, 
325. 

Abraham, son of Isaac, of Nar- 
bonne, 393. 

Abraham, son of Maimonides, 345. 

Abraham, son of Samuel, of Stah- 
leck, 366. 

Abraham, son of Sherira, Gaon of 
Pumbeditha, 258. 

Abrahams, Israel, 722. 

Abramovich, Solomon, 686-687. 

Abravallo, Samuel, of Valencia, 
447, 

Absalom, son of David, 52, 55-58. 

Abu-Ali Hasan, of Bagdad, 265. 

Abudarham, David, of Toledo, 
428. 

Abu Isa Obadiah, Messianic pre- 
tender, 259. 

Abu-l-Abbas, caliph, 259. 
Abulafia, Abraham, son of Samuel, 
Messianic pretender, 431, 440. 
Abulafia, Meir, son of Todros ha- 

Levi, 394, 395. 

Abu Manzur, Samuel, son of Han- 
aniah, Nagid of Fustat, 330. 
Abu Said, son of Halfon ha-Levi, 

330. 
Abydus, fortress of, 564, 565. 
Abyssinia, 505. 


ae ne eo 


776 


Acco (Ptolemais), 70, 102, 143, 154, 
166, 337, 370, 379, 397. 

Achish, king of Gath, 42, 43. 

Actium, 170, 173. 

Adadnirari IV., king of Assyria, 83. 

Adalbert, bishop of Worms, 360. 

Adam, 328. 

Adiabene, royal house of 211. 

Adler, Cyrus, 720, 724. 


* Adler, Hermann 721-722. 
Adler,(Marcus{Nathan} 664. 
Adolph o Ssau, 402. 

Acoton II, ,archbishop of Mayence, 


Adoasat son of David, 59, 61, 64. 

Adoniram, master of levy under 
Solomon, 62, 07,2000: 

Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, 23. 

Adrianople, Turkey, 229, 514, 565. 

Adullam, stronghold of, 41, 47. 

Aegean Sea, 512, 515. 

Aelia Capitolina, new city on site 
of Jerusalem, 215. 

Africa, North, Jews in, 277-283, 
486, 560. 

Agag, king of Amalekites, 39. 

Aghlabid princes of North Africa, 
277, 280. 

Agobard, bishop of Lyons, 350- 
351. 

Agrigentum, Sicily, Jews in, 292. 

Agrippa, son of Aristobulus, king 
of the Jews, 178, 184-188, 189- 
191, 201, 205. 

Agrippa IT, 190, 191-196, 211, 295. 

Agrippa, son-in-law of Octavian, 
172. 


Aguilar, Spain, 442. 

Aguilar, Alonso Fernandez de, 462. 

Aguilar, Raphael Moses d’, Sabba- 
tian, 562. 

Aha, of Shabha, author of ‘Sheel- 
toth’, 256, 

Ahab, king of Israel, 71-77, 78, 79, 
80. 


Ahad Haan, spiritual Zionist, 713- 
714 


Rakai Lei. 

Ahaz, king of Judah, 96-98, 100, 
102, 104. 

Ahaziah, king of Israel, 77. 

Ahaziah, king of Judah, 79, 81. 

Ahijah, the prophet, 65. 

Ahimaaz, son of Zadok, 56. 

Ahimaaz, grandson of Paltiel, of 
Italy, 301. 


_ Alexander Severus, 


INDEX 


Ahimelech, priest at Nob, 41, 42. 

Ahithophel, councilor of David, AY iF 

Marsh German Anti- Semite, 

Ai, Palestine, 22. 

Aijalon, Valley of, in Palestine, 
23, 295.400; 

Akabah, gulf of, 5, 53, 84. { 

Akiba, son of Joseph, Tanna, 213- 
214, 216-220, 221, 223. 

Akrish, Isaac, scholar, 516-517. 

Alaric, 207, 

Alaric IT, , 304. 

Albalag, Isaac, philosopher, 434. 

Albania, 567. 

Albany, New York, 676. 

Albert, duke of Bavaria, 415. 

Albert I. , of Austria, 402, 403. 

ee II., of Austria, 404, 406, 

Albert V., of Bavaria, 413. 

Albigensians, 396, 425. 

BLES procurator of Palestine, 


ee Joseph, author of ‘Dogmas’, 


Albuquerque, John Alphonso de, 
minister of Castile, 440. 

Alcana, Jewish quarter in Toledo, 
441, : 

Alcimus, high priest, 143, 144, 146, 
133) 


Aldobrandini, cardinal, 504. 

Alemanno, Johanan, 482. 

Alenu, prayer of Adoration: writ-- 
ten by Rab for New Year, 239; 
object of calumny, 367, 411, 591. 

Aleppo, Syria, 267, 344, 427, 561. 

Alessandria, Italy, 508. 

Reise the Great, 128, 142, 211, 
379. 

Alexander, son of Aristobulus I1., 
163, 164, 167. 

Alexander, son of Herod, 175, 178. 

Alexander, brother of Philo, 186. 

Alexander, a Zealot leader, 191. 

Alexander Balas, king of Syria, 
147-148. | 

Alexander Jannai (Jonathan), king © 
and high priest, 154-157, 158, 
161. 

Roman em- — 
peror, 224, 290, 293. ; 

Alexander Zabinas, pretender to — 
Syrian throne, 152. 


see 


coBRS. 


so, Parmed 
Alp honso de oie 
ea jewish actin? 
+ Alps, Jewish aeii% 
S01, 


Alsace, Jews ia, Bath oP aib Py”, 
643, Pome ' 3 
Alte a, i 4 bi a * ° is 


Al-Sheik, } Mo 
Adva, duke OS, Gas ey Ps 
Ama uiekites 3, SH, GS a ee . <a 
Amasa, David’ 9 eget eh, : 4 ; ae 

beg Amasia, jews om, bis a a 
iy ii. Murder: SEP. ° "aren 
- Barazi ah, king o Pai 

- Am aziah, < hel pr ota Tee 7 ae 

Amenhotep 1., & eal (a x nate 


~~“ Amenhotep (¥.. eaageatee ek 
4 i 


America, Jews it, dail a: 
678, 724, oi rhe oe 
United States, beieic ihe <4 pe 5 

- American Jew hats Csaitpialtng nae 

Amittai, son of Shagm ee 4 a 
Jewish ! UR, We fos 

- Amoian (ancierdt 

Ammon, 4. 5, ik. re 
§2, S4, 06, 1 ee - 

Amynonites, 45. yy 

Amnon, son af Lape a, 

Anion, bog i samp * 

-Amoraim, frei 
245, 24%. i) 

_ Amorites, 7 ae ah. : 

Pe ee 

Amos, thee 


i: ae Balt oie mie INDEX 


Acco (Ptolepais), 70, 102, 143, 154, 
166, 337, 370, 379, 07): 

Achish, king of Gath, 42, 43. 

Actium, 270, 173, 

Adacuirari V,, king of Assyria, 83. 

Adcalbert, bishop of Worms, At 
Adam, 328; 

Adiabene; royal house of ay 

beh C YUBy, 720, iat, 


‘Adolph 6 Of NES: in On ea. 
Adol - ik, teeb bishop of M ayence,. | 
af 
Adonijah, son of David, 59, 6t, 64, ae 
Adoairam, master of levy under. 
Solomon, 62,,67, 303, es 
Adoni-zedek, king of tecumlnae: 
Adrianople, Turkey, 229, 514, 563. 
a stronghold of, 41, ai7: 
yean Sea, 512,545... 20° ‘ 
‘ cha Capitolina, mew ay on site ia 
of Jerusalem, eh . 
Africa, North, Jews in, 277-283, + 
48, &, 560, 
Agag, king of Amalekites, ‘30: 
apt bie) princes of North Africa, 
i 280. 
Agobard, bishop of Lyons, 350- 
351, 
Agrigentum, Sicily, Jews in, 293, Fs 
Agrippa, son of ristobulus, king 
of the Jews, 178, 184-186, 18Qe Ng 
191, 201, 205. 4 
Agrippa 11, 190, 197 ~196. P11, 205, ae 
Agripp ee son-in-law of Reet Ne 
i t Bas i oi 
Aguilar, sate 442, fie A wn 
Aguilar, Alonse Fernandez de, 462 es 
Aguilar, Rephael Moses d’, Sabba- r 
tian, 562, he 
Aha, of Shabha; author af ‘Sheek 
toth’, 256. 25° a 
Abab, king of Israel, 71-77, 98, 79, mS 
Ahad Haam, spititual font 13- ate 
pring dh 427. ; 
Ahag, king of Judah, 06-98, 1, 4 
3Q2,, 104, sn 
Ahasiah, king of Israel, 77, 
Abariah, king of Judah, 72; Bt, 
Ahijah, the prophet. 
Abimaaz, son © Zadok, 56, . 
Ahimaaz, grandson of Paltiel, of. 
Naly, aG1,- ‘ 


INDEX 


Alexander, son of Moses, of Stah- 
leck, 366. - 

Alexander II,, pope, 356. 

Alexander III., pope, 374, 375. 

Adenandes VI., Borgia pope, 475, 


Alexander, duke of Lithuania, king 
—of Poland, 531. 

Mexantler I., of Russia, 628-630, 

Alexander II., of Russia, 674, 687, 
693, 701. 

Alexandra, mother-in-lawof Herod, 
167, 169, 171. 

Alexandria, Egypt, Jews in, 128- 
130, 164, 184-187, 204, 211, 330. 

sends fortress of, 162, 170, 

i 


Alexis, czar of Russia, 555. 

Al-Fakhar, Judah, 395, 396. 

Al-Farabi, 376 

Al-Fasi, Isaac, epitomizer of Tal- 
mud, 202,001, 317, 322.325, 
327, 393, 396, 422, 435, 444 545. 

Al-Fayumi, Jacob, of Yemen, 340. 

Algazi, Solomon, rabbi, 563. 

Alguadez, Meir, of Segovia, physi- 
cian to Henry III., 453. 

Alhambra, 316, 470. 

Al-Harizi, Judah, son of Solomon, 
poet, 334, 335, 394, 396, 480. 

Ali, caliph, 253. 

Ali, Almoravide ruler of Spain, 324. 

Alkabez, Solomon, cabalist, 521- 
522. 


Al-Kumisi, Daniel, 263. 

Allenby, general, 730, 731. 

‘Allgemeine Zeitung des Juden- 
tums’, founded by Ludwig Phil- 
ippson, 662. * 

‘Alliance Israélite Universelle’ , 679, 
685, 689, 694, 697, 703, 705, 734. 

Al-Mahdi, Ubaidallah, Fatimite 
prince, 280. 

Almohades, fanatical Arab sect, 
masters of Moslem Spain, 331- 
336, 340, 393, 427. 

Almoravides, Berber rulers of 
Spain, 323, 324, 331. 

Al-Muallem, Solomon, court-phy- 
sician at Seville, 324. 

Alonso de la Calle, Jew in Colum- 
bus’ crew, 472. 

Alonzo da Costa, Marano, 459. 

Alphabet, made by Palestinian 
traders, 10. 


777 


Alphonse, of Poitiers, 396. 

Alphonsine Tables, translated by 
David Gans, 549, 

Alphonso II., of Aragon, 335. 

Alphonso VI, of Castile, 323. 

Alphonso VII., of Castile, 332. 

Alphonso VIII., of Castile, 334, 
335, 419, 

Alphonso X., of Castile, 427, 428. 

Sy XI., of Castile, 436, 437, 

0 


Alphonso IX., of Leon, 419. 
Oye III., of Portugal, 429, 
445. 


Alphonso V., of Portugal, 501. 

Alphonso, brother of Henry IV., of 
Castile, 460, 461. 

Alphonso of Naples, 501. 

Alphonso, Portuguese prince, 474. 

Alphonso de Santa Maria, anti- 
Jewish activities of, 457-458. 

abs, Jewish settlements north of, 

01 


Alsace, Jews in, 596, 608-609, 613, 
643. 


Altona, Jews in, 493, 494, 

Al-Sheik, Moses, 523. 

Alva, duke of, 487. 

Amalekites, 39, 43, 45, 52. 

Amasa, David’s nephew, 57, 58, 59. 

Amasia, Jews of, accused of ritual 
murder, 513. 

Amaziah, king of Judah, 83-84. 

Amaziah, chief priest of Bethel, 92. 

Amenhotep I., king of Egypt, 8. 

Amenhotep IV., king of Egypt, 11, 
12 


America, Jews in, 603-607, 644, 
678, 724, 735-736. (See also 
United States, Jews in.) 

American Jewish Committee, 720. 

Amittai, son of Shephatiah, Italian 
Jewish liturgist, 300. - 

Amman (ancient Rabbah), 51. 

Ammon, 4, 5, 18, 25, 30, 37-39, 51, 
52, 84, 96, 102, 110, 113, 124. - 

Ammonites, 65, 76, 83, 121, 143. 

Amnon, son of David, 55, 56. 

Amon, king of Judah, 105. 

Amoraim, builders of the Talmud, 
245, 246. 

Amorites, 7, 9, 11, 16, 18, 19, 33, 
35 


Amos, the prophet, 90-92, 94, 96, 
158. 
Amram, Gaon of Sura, 256, 273. 


778 


Amsterdam, Jews in, 488-493, 495— 
498, 552, 562-563, 572-574, 611, 
615, 646. 

Amulo, bishop of Lyons, 351. 

Anacletus, of Pierleoni, anti-pope, 
299, 

Anan, son of David, revolts against 
the Talmud, 260-263, 271. 

Ananites, sect founded by Anan, 
261-263. 

Anathoth, city of priests, 64, 106, 
111 


Anatoli, Jacob, son of Abba Mari, 
375-376. 

Anav, Zedekiah, son of Abraham, 
Italian Jewish scholar, 479. 

Ancona, Italy, 503, 504, 505, 508. 

Andronicus, regent of Syria, 128, 
136. 

Andros, island of, 515. 

Angevin kings of England, 385. 

Anjou, France, 356, 367 

Ansbach, 655. 

Anshel, rabbi of Ratisbon, 416. 

Antigonus (Mattathiah), son of 
Aristobulus, king and high 
priest, 163, 165, 166-168. 

Antigonus, son of Johanan Hyr- 
canus, 152, 153, 154. 

Antigonus, general of Alexander, 
128. 


Antilibanus, 4. 

Antioch, Syria, 128, 134, 135, 136, 
144, 145, 148, 150, 162, 164, 168, 
173, 196, 216, 228, 365. 

Antiochus I., of Syria, 128. 

Antiochus II., of Syria, 128, 129. 

Antiochus ITI., the Great, of Syria, 
129, 134. 

Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, of Syria, 
135-137; oppresses Jews of Pal- 
estine, 140, 143, 147, 216. 

Antiochus V. Eupator, of Syria, 
142. 

Antiochus VI., of Syria, 148-149. 

Antiochus VII. Sidetes, of Syria, 
150-152. 

Antiochus VIII. Grypus, of Syria, 
157) 

Antiochus IX. Cyzicenus, of Syria, 
152. 

Antiochus XII , of Syria, 156. 

Antipas, son of Herod, tetrarch of 
Galilee and Perea, 177, 178, 
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188. 


UN DEX 


Antipater, the Idumean, father of 
Herod, 161, 164-166. 

Antipater, son of Herod, 176. 

Anti-Semites, 725-726. 

Anti-Semitism: in Germany, 692- 
693, 699-700; in Austria, 693, 
705, 717; in Hungary, 693; in 
Russia, 693-697, 700, 714-717; 
in Galicia, 717-718; in Poland, 
718; in general, 704, 709, 713, 
724, 736. 

Antonia, citadel in Jerusalem, 194, 
201, 202 

peereee Pius, Roman emperor, 
217. 

Antony, Mark, 165-168, 169, 170. 

Antwerp, 486, 514, 515, 726. 

Aphek, 35, 37, 40, 75, 83. 

Apion, Alexandrian traducer of 
Jews and Judaism, 186, 296. 

Apocalyptists, 180. 

Apollonius, Syrian general, 137, 
139. 

Apulia, Italy, 278, 291, 501. 

Aquila, convert of Pontus, trans- 
lates Scriptures into Greek, 212. 

Aquileia, Italy, 292. ~ 

Arabia, 3, 62, 63, 78, 100, 166, 172, 
Pi 505, 506. 

Arabia, Jews in, 248-254. 

Arabs: in pre-Mohammedan times, 
134, 142, 143, 146, 155, 156, 161, 
162, 170, 175, 177, 183; under 
Mohammed, 246, 247-257; un- 
der the Caliphs, 258-271, 277; 
in Spain, 307-310, 313-316, 321- 
325, 331-332, 335-336, 419, 470; 
in the present, 734, 736-737. 

Aragon, Jews in, 335-336, 419- 
427, 447, 451, 454, 456, 467-468, 
470-472. 

Arak-el-Emir, castle of Tobiads in 
Transjordania, 134. 

Aram, 9, 83. 

Arameans, 3, 4, 39, 51, 69, 70, 71, 
75, 82, 83, 84, 91. 

Ararat, New York, attempt to 
found Jewish state at, 649. 

Araunah, Jebusite, 53. 

Arbela, Palestine, 167. 

Arbues, Peter, inquisitor of Re 
gon, 467, 468. 

Archelaus, son of Herod, king of 
Jews, 177-178. 

‘Archipherekites,’ 265. 


Assyrians, 3, 49. 91,97, 115... | = 
Astarte, Babylonian goddess,. 10, 


iNoE XxX w79 


Ashi, Rabylonian Acnaindtaliaaiied 
Babylonian Talmud, 244-245. 
Ashkelon, 12, 102, 148, 135, 178, 


Ashkenazi, Beealel, 522. 
Ashkenazi, Solomon, physician anc! 
diplomatic agent at Turkey, 516, , 
Ashkensti, Zebj (Haham Zebi), 


rabbi at Amsterdam, 376, S73- 
574, 593, 644. 


Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, 104, 


Ashurdau I1f,, king of Assyria, 84. 
Asharnazirpai, king of Assyria, 71, ae 
Ashur-nirart {\., doog of Assyria, PE, 


Ashurubailit, raler of Assyria, 107. 

Serpe) faction of patriots, 192- 
193 

Assembly, reat. Let. (See Syme 
gogue, Creat.) 


Assembiy of Jewish Notables of ee 
Paris, 613, 630, ‘a 
Asauan, Jewish military ‘colony at, ) a 
426, a 


me" ria, 53, 75, 83, 84, 93, 95, 96 = 
4) , 99, 100, 101, 103, iM, prs ie 
07. 


44, 69 
Astrakhan, 62°. 
Astruc ha-Levi, defends Tahnud at 
"Fortosa, 45, 
Astyages, king of Medes, 117. 
at queen of fudah, 76, pi 


Athens, 133, 173, 
ire tene de 108) 406, are 
A wg, jews in, ses 
407, 409, 414. 680. . PS ie 
Augustus (Octavian), vdeslinede +: 
Auguste I af Pood #8, fs ae 
ugustus TL. « nd, ; ieee oa | 
Augustus 111., of Poland, 578, $81, 05 : 
Aurelian, Roman emperor, 22% 5 ‘es 
Aurelivs, Marcus, Roman: eax oe tS oa 
peror, 220,221, . SEARS eam 
Aus, Arab cian, 249, 252... ts . 
Australia, 725, : 
Austria, Jews ia, 3 
408, 443, 414, 
624-626, 630, 638 636 
665, hina 


Antiochus f11., the Great, of stipe 


Antiochus VY. tn pi of gabe 


oe a x my ¥ re ye yy 
Pro, O04, eG 2-308 ay 


Amulo, bishop of I yon S31, 

snacletus, of Pieclegni, anti-pope 
Pie oy 

aan of David, hevatta against’ 
the Li reeitl, Iii) 264, 27). 

Lnanites, stct founded by Amat,’ 
261-26 

Anathoth, city of priests, 64, 106, 
Lh ono 
atoeli, jacob, son of Abba Mari,” 
7 AR 476: Mu 


Anav, Zedekiah, som of Abraham, 
italian Jewish scholar, 479) 0.5 
fa MONE, italy, 503 m 504, 565, SOS, 


& HE seine hye eee ae. oa Se Me, to: Coe 
Andronicus, regent of Syria, igs,. 


156, aN 
Andros, mand ot, Fis 
Lngevin kings of Ene land, 3&5, 
‘ranee, $46, HF 


Anshel, rabbi of Ratisbon; 416, 
Antwonus (Mattathiah), som of” 


Aristobudus, kiag and high. aa x 


priest, 162, 245; 166-168. 


Antigonus, san of Tohanan Hye \ 


cans, 152, 153, 154. 


. 
eats, 
ee 
Lin, 
4 


Anti jhbannes, 4. 


Antion clr, Syria, 128; 134, 135, 136, 

(44,345 148, u 50, 162, 164, vii.) 
173, 19h 216, 228, 365; 
Antiochus [., of rete i278, : 
Antiochus I, of Syria, 128, 129. 


£29) “ve 


Antiochus FV. piphanes, of Siacs) 
135-137; oppresses Jews.of Pal- 
e stine, 140, 143, 147, 216, j 


149. 
Ane jochus V 1. of Syria, p4ge1a9,. 


mais, Peners al Qi. “lexan der, : 


Antiochus. VII, Sidetes, ot Sura . eb 


150-1. ss. ee 
Antiochus VITL. Grypus, al Syria. 


142 “a ? 
Antioch us 1X. Cyzicen Us, ‘ol Seni, 


152; 
An tiochys Ki, of Sveti ia, 156. aye 
A wis inas, eon of ‘Herod, tetrarch. of 
valilee and Perea, | 177, 4233; 
180, 1 182,183, 184, 187, sae 


ae: 
Arba 


PNIDIEX 


Ardaghis I., king of Persia, 224, 

- 240. 

Aretas III., Arab king, 156, 161. 

Argentiére, France, 400. 

Argentine, Jews in, 701. 

Aristobulus, Jewish philosopher, 
148. 

Aristobulus I., Philhellen, son of 
Johanan Hyrcanus, 152. 

Aristobulus II., son of Salome Alex- 
andra, 160-164, 167. 

Aristobulus, son of Alexandra, 
high priest, 169. 

Aristobulus, son of Herod, 175. 

Aristotle, 339, 343, 344, 375, 424, 
451. 

Arkof the Covenant, portable sanc- 
tuary of Israelites, 18; at Shiloh 
23, 34; captured by Philistines, 
36; transferred by David to Zion, 
49-50; in Holy of Holies, 64, 65. 

Arles, in France, 347, 348. 

gyrus Spanish, destruction of, 
48 


Armenia, 95, 211. 

‘Armleder,’ German noblemen, 
lead persecutions of Jews, 403. 
Arnault, archbishop of Narbonne, 

419, 
Arnhem, Jews of, 487. 
Arnon, river in Palestine, 5, 18, 82. 
Arnstadt, Jews of, 381. 
Arnstein, Nathan Adam von, of 
Vienna, 632-633. 
Arnstein, Baroness Fanny von, of 
Vienna, 632-633. 
Arpad, province of Assyria, 95. 
Artaban IV., king of Persia, 240. 
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, 122, 124. 
Artaxerxes II., king of Persia, 127. 
Artaxerxes III., king of Persia, 127. 


Aruk, of Nathan, son of Jehiel, dic-_ 


tionary of Talmud, 302. 
Asa, king of Judah, 68, 69, 70. 
Asahel, brother of Joab, 46. 
Aschaffenburg, Germany, 366. 
Ascarelli, Deborah, Jewish poct of 
Venice, 510. 
aoe Judah, physician of Rome, 
50 


Ashdod, 101, 102; 124, 143, 147, 
178. 
Asher, tribe of, 9, 24, 26, 278. 


Asher, son of Jehiel, rabbi in To- 
ledo, 403, 435-438, 549, 


719 


Ashi, Babylonian Amora, compiles 
Babylonian Talmud, 244-245. 
Ashkelon, 12, 102, 148, 155, 178, 

342. 


Ashkenazi, Bezalel, 522. 

Ashkenazi, Solomon, physician and 
diplomatic agent at Turkey, 516, 

Ashkenazi, Zebi (Haham Zebi), 
rabbi at Amsterdam, 570, 573- 
574, 593, 644. 

Aahurbeppal king of Assyria, 104, 

05. 


Ashurdan III., king of Assyria, 84. 

Ashurnazirpal, king of Assyria, 71. 

Ashur-nirari IV., king of Assyria, 
84 


Ashuruballit, ruler of Assyria, 107. 

‘Assassins,’ faction of patriots, 192- 
193. 

Assembly, Great, 131. (See Syna- 
gogue, Great.) 

Assembly of Jewish Notables of 
Paris, 613, 630. 

Assuan, Jewish military colony at, 

Assyria, 53, 75, 83, 84, 93, 95, 96, 
98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 
107. 

Assyrians, 3, 49, 91, 97, 115. 

Astarte, Babylonian goddess, 10, 

et cakhant 629. 

Astruc ha-Levi, defends Talmud at 
Tortosa, 455. 

Astyages, king of Medes, 117. 

Athaliah, queen of Judah, 76, 81- 
82 


Athens, 135, 173. 

Atonement, Day of 131, 179. 

Augsburg, Jews in, 353, 403, 406, 
407, 409, 414, 680. 

Augustus (Octavian), confirms 
great charter of Jews, 288, 295. 

Augustus II., of Poland, 578. 

Augustus II]., of Poland, 578, 581. 

Aurelian, Roman emperor, 225. 

Aurelius, Marcus, Roman em- 
peror, 220, 221. 

Aus, Arab clan, 249, 252. 

Australia, 725. : 

Austria, Jews in, 382, 402, 403, 406, 
408, 413, 414, 548, 596-597, 619, 
624-626, 630, 633, 636, 639, 658, 
665, 717-718, 736. 


780 


Austria-H ungary, 725. 


Auto-da-fé, of Maranos, in Seville, 


463. 

Autonomy, national, for Jews in 
Dispersion, 714. 

Averroes, Arab philosopher, 375, 
376, 400, 401. 

Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Arab philos- 
opher, 344. 

Avignon, Jews in, 400, 449, 450, 
454, 509, 563, 610. 

Avila, Spain, 396, 429, 432, 442, 
443, 468. 

Avitus, bishop of Clermont, 347, 

‘Awakening Magyars,’ Hungarian 
Anti-Semites, 736. 

Ayllon, Solomon, Portuguese rabbi 
in Amsterdam, 572-573. 

Ayyubids, Arab dynasty, 337. 

Azariah, king of Judah, 84. (See 
Uzziah.) 

Aziz, king of Emesa, 191. 

Aziz, Fatimite prince, 301. 

Azriel, cabalist, 424. 


Baal, cult of, in Palestine, 32, 71, 
72, 73, 80, 81, 92. 

Baalath, Palestine, 49. 

Baalis, king of Ammon, 113. 

Baasa, king of Israel, 68, 69. 

Babenbergs, dukes of Austria, 376, 


Babylonia (Babylon), kingdom of, 
102, 105, 107, 109-117. 
Babylonia, Jews in, 114-120, 200, 


233-276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 299.. 


Bacau, Rumania, 688. 

Bacchides, Syrian general, 140, 144, 
145, 146. : 

Bacharach, Germany, 366. 

Bacher, Wilhelm, 681. 

Baden, 375, 675, 678, 708. 

Baden, Jews i in, 617-618, 635-636, 
655. 

‘Badge, Jews’, introduced, 375; in 
England, 388-389; in Castile, 
419-420, 443; in Spain, 456, 465. 

Badis, Berber prince in Spain, 315, 
316; 3217323; 

Bagdad, 265, 267, 269, 275, 278, 
ape 301, 311, 316, 343, 344, 345, 

27. 

Bagohi, Persian governor of Judea, 

126. 


Bahye, son of Asher, 432. 


INDEX 


Bahye, son 1 of Moses, physician to 
James of Aragon, 494, 
een Arthur James, Lord, 730, 
3 


Balfour Declaration, 730-731, 734. 

Balkans, 512. 

Balkans, Jews in, 691. 

Balta, Podolia, pogrom of, 696. 

Baltimore, Maryland, 648, 677. 

Bamberg, Jews attacked at, 635. 

Banu Nadhir, Jewish tribe in 
Arabia, 252. (See Nadhir.) 

Baptism, by John the Baptist, 180; 
by Essenes and Pietists, 180. 

Baptism, enforced: in Spain, 305, 
446-448, 453-454, 471; in France, 
347, 348, 352, 354, 360, 362, 363, 
367, 378, 399; in Germany, 361, 
366, 372, 380, 402; in England, 
389; in Portugal, 474-475; in 
Poland, 529; in Italy, 678- 679: 
Church opposed to, 298, 305, 
aye ; imperial protection against, 


Bar, Poland, Cossacks massacre 


Jews at, 554, 
Barak, son of Abinoam, judge, 24, 
My 


Baraitha, extraneous Mishnah, 223. 
Barbary States, 447, 649. 
Barcelona, Spain, 335, 397, 406, 
419, 430, 431, 444, 447, 468. 
Barcelona, disputation at, 425-426. 
mere Isaac, son of Shesheth, 451, 


Bari gan Jewish learning at, 299. 

Bar Kokeba, leader of revolt 
against Hadrian, 213-214. 

Barsimson, Jacob, first Jew in 
America, 603. 

Barth, Jacob, 682. 

Baruch, Jacob, of Frankfort, 632. 

Baruch, of Benevento, cabalist, 
48 

sere son of David, of Rameru, 
36 


Baruch, son of Isaac, tosaphist, 370. 

Barzillai, Gileadite, be Fie 

Basel, councils of, 382, 414-415, 
458, 706. 

Basel, Jews i in, 609, 642. 

Basel. Programme of Zionism, 707. 

Bashan, 5, 18, 19, 157. 

Basil I., Byzantine emperor, 300. 

Basil II., Byzantine emperor, 526. 

Bassan, Isaiah, cabalist, 574. 


Bouse ee ec sp. epee he, 

fra Sa 
Benoraainy 2 ee: Paaroe 
Bean CREME, « he gear fs Radiat 


ci tes 
crab, paar eet 
Be a 


Berdiceev, eee a5 pe a ee ; 
Berengar, omphy atte Bae: 
Berenice, cheig ta este ry 
Berenice; dangers a Ag 
Berenice, simurud oe. 
14, 
errs Jenaga@l; ee is 5 ie: 
erin, Uo ook oi” a cs) A 
Bertin, Joma sere: oe Pee iy | Me 
621-622, OF4 ae al RUS cNeae i, 
692, ta 
Beriiner, Adaiphs eo ' 
Bern, Switzeriaas, Beni SARE: D 
at, 406. . : ie 
Bernal, Jewish pharm bid tt | Re 


bus’ ‘ship, 472: 


Bernard, Saint: Fd 3 iy vats : 

Perera, ot Poh ale ; 
reonk,-41 py Say 

Berabard, isaan, is a: wi me, | pat 
635. 659, 66. 66.4. : a: 


Berr, Cerf ten 
698, 609, 
Berarels wite ot 


e apes: oe i 


139. 145, 
Beth. fetem 
47, : 
Beth-shaa 2 
38, 44, 9 
Beth-she 


ae 


780 ts 


Ve 
wuigary thaw 
* 


¢, of Watanos, i Seville, 


eee PP es.) 
nat i0na St, LOY s6WS ™ 
i hy 


> e 
ei apey 8 


# 2 ’ : 
" efroes, Arab phi the ee gopher, 3 
7G, 400, 201. 


lewe im, 40, ats, $50, Rant 
», 863: O10 oe . ‘Bene 


: Avitos, bishop af Clermont, 347. 
Awakening Magyers,' A ungat ian 
Anti-s Semites, 736, 
“Ayllon, Solomon, Portuguese rabbi 
in Ainsterdarm, 3725573. 
Arah dyn asty, Jat. 
ng of Judah, 84. (See) 
. Aziz, k ng fe mesa, 191, 
pI e pr ince, 301, 
t of, in Pales tine, 3 32, th, 
8. 92. 
lestine. as. 
lis, king of Ammon, 113) 
Baasa, Kang of Tere, 68, G9, 
Bahenberes; dakes of A ustria 3? 
377 ae 
Babylonia (B: abylon'\, Ki iadhians: of, 
102, 105, 107, 109-147: Pap gE 
Babylonia, Jews.in, 114-120/.200, 
233—276, 237) 278, 279, 220, a9. 
Racan, Ris nania, 688, 3 hi 2 
: Bas ides, Syrian ge neral, 140, 144, ; 


146, 
harach, Germany, 366). 
re chep, Wi thele, OS48) eet 
dv. oe eae rs Bi aeNn, ‘378 ¥ O75, 678, 768. zat 
a "hee Baden , Jews ia, 617-618, 035-636, 
= Ba op ; b 655,. ; 
is on aa Jey vo", int troduced, 375; jn 
a Eagland thy 388 989: th ‘Castile, 
7 a. 20, 443; in Spain, 456,465, - 
: is, Berber prince in Spain, at, 
S21; SAB. 825 i 
Nisbet 145, 267,269, 278, 278, a 
£99, 301, 311, 316, 343, 344, 345, 
527, 


ioe" 


Bagoli, Persian governor of Judea, 
on’ 


Bahyve, son af Asher, 432, ais 


cl 
Cth 
4 ye" 
ke 
+, 


i 
¥ ae 
ty 
oe 
; : 
TS ie Wa 
or, eu aay 
ed ‘ at: 
sy Sher 
“yy ut ¥ 


INDEX 


Bassus, governor of Syria, 203. 
Bathory, Stephen, king of Poland; 
542, SSL. 

Bath-sheba, wife of David, 55, 57, 
59. 

Bavaria, Jews in, 353, 382, 402- 
403, 406, 414, 418, 618, 636, 655. 

Bayazid II., sultan of Turkey, 473, 
513. 

Bayazid, Turkish prince, 515. 

Bayonne, France, Jews in, 608. 

Beatrice of Portugal, 445. 

Beer, Jacob Herz, reformer, 634. 

Beer-sheba, 4, 32; 52, 57, 62, 73, 
91, 731. 

Beilis, Mendel, blood libel case of, 
716-717. 

Beirut, 518. 

Belgium, Jews in, 680, 726. 

Belgrade, 504. 

Belitz, Germany, Jews attacked at, 

80. 


Belshazzar (Belsharuzur), king of 
Babylon, 117. 

Belvedere, Turkey, 515. 

Benaiah, commander under Solo- 
mon, 53, 59, 61. 

Bendavid, Lazarus, 621. 

Benedict of York, 386, 387. 

Benedict XII., pope, 404. 

Benedict XIII.,anti-pope, 420, 449, 
453, 454; bull forbidding study 
of Talmud, 455. 

Benedict XIV., pope, 580. 

‘Benedictions, Eighteen’, 208, 239. 

Benet, Mordecai, 635. 

Ben-hadad I., of Syria, 75. 

Ben-hadad II., of Syria, 75. 

Ben-hadad III., of Syria, 83. 

Benjacob, Isaac, 686. 

Benjamin, tribe of, 9, 24, 25, 33, 
36, 37, 39, 40, 44, 49, 58, 67. 

Benjamin of Canterbury, 386. 

Benjamin, son of Jonah, of Tudela, 
medieval traveler, 336. 

Benjamin, of Nehawend, founder 
of Karaitic sect, 262, 263. 

Benjamin, Judah P., 677. 

Benjamin of Tiberias, 266. 

Ben-Jehuda, Eliezer, reviver of 
Hebrew, 713-714. 

Ben Meir, Aaron, Palestinian Gaon, 
267, 271; dispute over calendar, 
267-268, 353. 

Ben Sira, 132, 307, 722. 


781 


Benveniste, Abraham, chief rabbi 
of Castile, 457, 514. 
Benveniste, Isaac, physician to 
James I., 419. 
Benveniste, Judah, of Saloniki, 514. 
Benveniste, Shesheth, physician 
and statesman at Barcelona, 335. 
Benveniste, Vidal, 455. 
Benveniste, family of, 486. 
Benzeeb, Judah Loeb, 621. 
Berab, Jacob, rabbi, 519-520, 521. 
pees 307, 314, 315, 316, 321, 
Berdiczev, 672. . 
Berengar, count of Narbonne, 356. 
Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, 129. 
Berenice, daughter of Salome, 175. 
eis sister of Agrippa II., 193, 


Berkovicz, Joseph, of Poland, 666. 

Berlin, Congress of, 689-690. 

Berlin, Jews in, 406, 572, 590-599, 
sim 634-635, 661-662, 682, 

Berliner, Adolph, 682. 

Bern, Switzerland, Jews massacred 
at, 406. 

Bernal, Jewish physician on Colum- 
bus’ ship, 472. 

Bernard, Saint, of Clairvaux, 365. 

Bernardinus, of Feltre, Franciscan 
monk, 417. 

Bernhard, Isaac, of Berlin, 594, 
635, 659, 663. 

Berr, Cerf (Herz), of Strassburg, 
608, 609. 

Beruriah, wife of Meir, 219. 

Besht, founder of Hasidism, 582— 
588. 

Bessarabia, 669, 709, 735. 

Bethel, Palestine, 22, 32, 68, 90, 
91, 92, 100, 106. 

Beth-horon, Palestine, 23, 62, 123, 
139, 145, 195. 

sree, Palestine, 33, 40, 41, 
4 


Beth-shan (Scythopolis), 24, 29, 
38, 44, 143, 152. 

Beth-shearim, Palestine, 221. 

Beth-shemesh, Palestine, 84. 


" Beth-ther, Bar Kokeba at, 215. 


Beth-zechariah, Palestine, 144. 
Beth-zur, Palestine, 119, 140, 142- 
143, 147, 148. 
peor art school at Jerusalem, 
13. 


782 


Bezek, Palestine, 38. 

Bezetha, suburb of Jerusalem, 195. 

Béziers, Jews, of, 333, 352. 

Béziers, Councils of, 395, 396, 397. 

Bialik, Hayim Nahman, 710-711. 

Bible. (See Scriptures.) 

Bielostok, pogrom of, 714-715. 

Bielsk, Poland, 541. 

‘Bilu,’ organization of Russian Jew- 
ish students, 697. 

Bishr, son of Aaron, of Babylonia, 
269. 


Bismarck, 690, 691. 

Black Death, Jews persecuted dur- 
ing, 404-407, 440, 528. 

‘Black Hundreds,’ Russian Anti- 

' Semites, 714-716, 736. 

Blanche, countess of Champagne, 
369. 

Blanche of Bourbon, queen of Cas- 
tile, 440, 411. 

Bloch, Joseph, of Vienna, 705. 

Bloch, Mattathiah, cabalist, 561. 

Blois, Jews of, annihilated, 367. 

B’nai B’rith, independent order of, 
676, 689, 720. 

Board of Deputies of English Jews, 
645, 730. 

Bockel, German Anti-Semite, 699. 

Bodleian library, 572, 722. 

Bodo, French deacon, convert to 
Judaism, 351. 

pee Re family of, high priests, 
179 


Bohemia, Jews. in, 353, 363, 547- 
550, 625— 626, ree 

Boleslav the Pious, of Poland, 528, 
530, 531. 

Bologna, 292, 480, 483, 678. 

Bolsheviks, 732. 

Bomberg, Daniel, of Venice! pub- 
lisher of Hebrew books, 481, 482, 
483, 

Bonafoux, Daniel Israel, 568. 

Bonaparte, Jerome, 6106. 

Bongoron, David Bonet, Jewish 
apostate, 450. 

Bonfils, Joseph, son of Samuel, 356. 

Bonn, Germany, S72 Say 663. 

Boppard, Germany, 372. 

Bordeaux, Jews in, 608-610. 

Borne, Ludwig, 632, 643. 

Boston, Massachusetts, 604, 736. 

Botarel, Moses, cabalist, 452. 

Brabant, duke of, 381. 

Brafman, Jacob, 685. 


INDEX 


Braganza, duke of, 501. 

Brandeis, Louis D., 730. 

Brandenburg, Jews in, 547. 

Bratianu, John, Rumanian states- 
man, 688-689. 

Bray, Champagne, 369. 

Brazil, Jews in, 489, 492, 603. 

Breisgau, Germany, 406. 

Bremen, Jews:in, 618, 636. 

Brescia, Italy, 292, 480. 

Breslau, Jews in, 662, 663, 680, 
681. 

Bresselau, Meir Israel, 634. 

arr Litovsk, 530, 535, 542, 550, 

Brest Litovsk, Treaty of, 732. 

Bristol, England, 388. 

British East Africa, 711. 

Briviesca, Spain, 441. 

Brody, Galicia, 584, 694.: 

Bruna, Israel, rabbi, 416. 

Brunhild, queen of France, 348. 

Briinn, Moravia, 416. 

Brunswick, 616, 662. 

Brussels, 689. 

Brussilov, Russian general, 727. 

Bucharest, 688, 690. ' 

Buchholz, Carl August, German 
attorney of Liibeck, 632. 

Biichler, Adolf, of London, 722. 

Buchner, Abraham, of Poland, 666. 

Buda, Hungary, 512, 570. 

Budapest, rabbinical seminary at, 
681-682. 

Buenos Aires, Jews in, 701. 

Bukowina, Jews in, 717-718. 

Bulan, king of Chazars, 525. 

Bulgaria, Jews in, 706. 

Bull, the Golden, German consti- 
tution, status of Jews according 
to, 407. 

Bulls, papal: Benedict XIII., 455; 
Eugenius IV., 458; Gregory IX.., 
378; Gregory X., 382; Gregory 
XIII., 504; Innocent III., 374; 
Innocent IV., 381; Martin V., 
413,414; Paul IV., 507-508; Pius 
VI., 611; Sixtus IV., 417, 463, 
465. 


, Burgos, Spain, 396, 429, 437, 441, 


442, 444, 449, 

Burgundy, Jews of, 347, 348, 398. 

Bury St. Edmonds, Jews at, 386, 
387. 

Bush, burning, Moses’ vision of 
the, 14. 


ee ee ee ee ee ee == a 


so a ara ia3 
(_appadeandy Soe. sas che Lean 
i tenant. Bh BF A 
Canaiee = dpe Toh ages nde <f Gce. 25+ 
25: Petagliayh rr ST: BRE INE; 
its aye: ashy i age x. Fa :, 
Canarte re one 
Candin. Sauer ta ea. & 4% 
52k; Syl es } 
Canosa, 4h aah z 
Cantey bie’. * (gee * my" ‘ Te uate 
386, See ‘ 
‘Cantante! tm: . Ba at 
Capetian rake il ne ‘i Bel 
Capistrace Pee Ya 


monk, 494 ee nae 
Cappadocie. bac’ © 
napeat, Miers ae Wf oral . at 
| 548, ye 
erivite Licey W3 abe ie 
Deportaties f 
Capua, | ta! ¥ =e ing: 
Caracalla, Pe oa) ae 
220. a \ : ; 
Caraffa, cardimele att ae ae a mee) 
Paul [V., pape” R 
Carcassonne, 2x 
Carchemish, H# ! 
Cariioso, les <y Bi Sy oie ae 
batian, 566, SB". os 


ae * 


Cardoso, eho ambien. eae are es ets 
burg, 493. pete if 
Carenton, France She, uy 
Catlsruhe, fews oitesaplstieor's § ee 
Carme], mount, & 3 ae ia e 
370, 379, a Ree eee a 
Carmona, Spal. RR ee x « 


Carolingians, rat RS ie ae : ee. 
$51. etal eater ; 3 
Carpathian Aijait cage) ihe Ry 3 ee. 
Carrion, Spit. 7 eee 
Carthage, 272 
Carus, Rormiad 
Casal Magxite 
Casiniir, the 3 
529, 530, S85, 
Casimir WV By 

a 2 Se 
Caspi, Jom 


Caan ane : 


t 
Ne viet 


iS SLUGeNRES, OF 
+ of 


\aron, © 


4 mA, 
(i4a8 hOLe 


+] : 
me) rbor, 


eof Bou 
9, 411, 


foseph. of V enna, fi} aS. 


, Mattaths: ae 
Bloi 3, Je a 3 of, annihil 
lhe nai | 3 rith P 


4 
ry bg 7 
i 


in de peut 
4% 


5, 730. 


ot aad ‘ 
Siti, Sot. 


thus, tanily 


Bohemia, Jews 
4550 mh 626, “Wi? ti 

Boleslav i 
53th, Sat, 

Bi: ch cee 792, Prva, 483 

Re isheviks, 7 ae 

nber re, § Jan igh: ¢ 


7 
Booatoun, Daniel Tar 
Bonaparte, Jerome, 616 


Borgoren, Dea awa ‘Bonet: 


ane sta io. 4: ath. 


Ronfis, Joseph, son of Samuel56, ps 
( Erman vy, nS 72; S73, miei 


Bony it, 


Boppard, 


s 4 


KR iseiati Tews 


136, oe 
countess of Champagne, ) 


of, high prie ets: 
. 358, 363, 347 : 


: Pious, of Poland, $28, i, a 


on i Venice, pinks 33 
"Tsher of Hebrew books #48), Be, ye 
4% halt fakes 


Bel, S68. 


Germany, O72: me 


a: 
| Grande Louis Dy, 
3 3 i, Bra .adenburg, Jews 
Bratianuy John, Rui 
a eae tas ~ 


, Bs sotuaisl 


ie om 


Hees af Cas- 


balist, SOL. 
ted, SOF oo 
jent order of i 


aver t wo 


, OTR, é 


jewish 


Bor deaux, Jews in, 608-616, 2) 
Horae, Lud wiz, O82, ¢ 43, ; 
Bostorr, Massachusetts, 604, 136. bi 
Botarel, Moses, cabalist, 452,.°.° a 
Brabant, duke of; 381, 1 


t> 


Srafman, Jacob, G85. ~: 8 


” 


INDEX 


Bustani (Bustanai), exilarch, 254- 


Byblus, 71. 
Byzantium, 526. 


Cabala: Philo’s influence on, 186, 
origin of, 423; in Spain, 423-424, 
431-434, 452; studied by Chris- 
tians, 482-483; at Saloniki, 511, 
514; Safed school of, 521-524; 
Luria’s system of, 523-524; in 
general, 299, 558, 566, 572, 574— 
576, 643. 

Cabballeria, Alphonso de la, 468. 

Cabes, Africa, 282. 

Cabrera, Andreas de, chief justice 
of Segovia, 462. 

Caceres, Simon de, Marano, 492. 

Cadiz, Maranos flee to, 463. 

Caecilius, Roman Jewish rhetori- 
cian, 295. 

Caesar, 288. 

Caesar, Julius, 163-165. 

Caesarea, 154, 172, 178, 183, .190, 
193, 194, 200, 205, 206, 216, 226. 

Caesarea Philippi, 182. 

Cain, 434. 

Cairo, Jews in, 486, 517, 518, 519, 
522, 557, 559, 560, 568, 722. 

Calabria, Italy, 291, 501, 523. 

Calahora, Loeb, martyred rabbi of 
Posen, 580. 

Calahorra, Spain, 334, 442, 468. 

Calatrava, Spain, 332. 

Caleb, 22, 119. 

Calendar: fixed by Sanhedrin, 207; 
of Karaites, 261, 262-263; dis- 
pute between Ben Meir and 
Babylonian scholars over, 267. 

California, 675. 

Caligula, Romanemperor, 184, 187, 
189, 289. 

Seok (western), in Spain, 307- 

14 


Calonymus, of Lucca, Italian Jew- 
ish scholar, 299. 

Calonymus, son of Meshullam, 360, 
362. 

Calonymus, son of Mordecai, 366. 

Calonymus family in Mayence, 
353, 359, 370. 

Cambray, League of, 482. 

Cambridge, Jews at, 386. 

Cambridge, University of, 722. 

Cambyses, king of Persia, 119, 120. 

Campo Formio, Peace of, 612. 


783 


Canaan, land of, 4, 12; Israelitish 
conquest of, 22-30. 

Canaanites: at war with Israel, 23- 
25; religion of, 10-11, 17, 68, 92; 
its influence on Israel, 31-34. 

Canada, Jews in, 605, 647. 

Candia, island of, 473, 481, 517, 
524, 564. 

Canossa, 359, 691. 

Canterbury, England, Jews at, 
386, 388. 

‘Cantonists,’ in Russia, 668-669. 

Capetian rulers in France, 352, 356. 

Capistrano, John, Franciscan 
monk, 414, 415, 530. 

Cappadocia, Jews in, 224. 

Capsali, Moses, chief rabbi of Tur- 
key,913. 

Captivity, Israel in, 97. (See also 
Deportations. ) 

Capua, Italy, 292, 300. 

Caracalla, Roman emperor, 224, 
290. 

Caraffa, cardinal, 507. 
Paul IV., pope.) 

Carcassonne, 396. 

Carchemish, 109. 

Cardoso, Abraham Michael, Sab- 
batian, 566, 568, 573. 

Cardoso, Elijah Aboab, of Ham- 
burg, 493. 

Carenton, France, 366. 

Carlsruhe, Jews attacked at, 635. 

Carmel, mount, 6, 24, 35, 73, 108, 
310,979, 

Carmona, Spain, 446. 

Carolingians, rulers of France, 349, 
351 


(See also 


Carpathian Mountains, 582, 726. 

Carrion, Spain, Jews of, 429. 

Carthage, 297. 

Carus, Roman emperor, 225. 

Casal Maggiore, Italy, 480. 

Casimir, the Great, of Poland, 528- 
529, 530, 531. 

Casimir IV., king of Poland, 530- 
531% 

Caspi, Joseph, of Argentierd 400. 

Caspian Mountains, 379. 

Caspian Sea, 140. 

Cassel, David, 682. 

Cassel, Westphalia, 616. 

Cassius, Roman general, 165, 166. 

Castile, Jews in, 332, 334, 335, 
427-429, 435-450, 458-467, 470- 
472, 486, 


784 


Castro, Rodrigo de, physician, 493. 

Catacombs, Jewish, at Rome, 294- 
295. 

Catalayud, Spain, 420. 

Catalonia, Jews in, 334-336, 420- 
431, 447, 454-456, 472, 486. 

Catargiu, Rumanian minister, 689. 

Catharine of Castile, 453, 460. 

Catharine II., of Russia, 585. 

Catholicism, religion of State in 
Spain, 305. 

Caucasus, 525, 629, 685. 

Census: of Israel, by David, 51; of 
Jews in Palestine, by Romans, 
179; of Jewsin Germany, during 
World War, 727. 

Central Conference of American 
Rabbis, 724. 

Centralization, religious, in Israel, 
19, 48, 49, 68, 101, 106. 

Cervera, Spain, Jews massacred at, 
406. 


Chalcis, province in Lebanon, 191. 

Champagne, France, Jewish learn- 
ing in, 356, 368-369, 396. 

Charlemagne (Charles the Great), 
299, 403; Jews under, 349-350, 
353. 

Charles the Bald, of France, 351. 


Charles the Simple, of France, 352. - 


Charles IV., of France, 399. 

Charles V., of France, 399, 400. 

Charles VI., of France, 400. 

Charles X., of France, 642. 

Charles III., of Navarre, 449. 

Charles IV., German emperor, 404, 
406. 

Charles V., emperor, 482, 486, 487, 
507, 510, 547. 

Charles X., of Sweden, 556, 578. 

Charles, of Hohenzollern-Sigmar- 
ingen, 688. 

Charles, Austrian emperor, 733. 

Charleston, South Carolina, Jews 
in, 604-605, 607, 648. 

et Jacob de, of Amsterdam, 
576 


mee Moses de, of Amsterdam, 

576. 

Chazars, Jewish kingdom of, 328, 
329, 525-526; Hasdai Ibn Shap- 
rut corresponds with, 309-310. 

Chebar, river in Babytoiia, 114. 

Chelebi, Raphael Joseph, support- 
er of Sabbatai Zevi, 559-560. 


INDEX 


Chemosh, god of Moab, 78. 

Chepharsaba, 156. 

Cherethites, David’s body- guard, 
48, 


Cherith, brook of, 73. 

Chernigov, 527, 669; Cossacks mas- 
sacre Jews at, 554. 

Childebert I. , Merovingian ruler of 
France, 347. 

Chillon, Switzerland, 406. 

Chilperic I., Merovingian ruler of 
France, 347, 348. 

China, 490. ~ . 

Chinon, France, Jews massacred 
at, 399, 

Chintila, king of Spain, 306. 

Chiquitilla, Joseph, cabalist, 432. 

Chlotar II., Merovingian ruler of 
France, 348. 


-Chmielnicki, Bogdan, Cossack het- 


man, massacres of, 551-556, 559. 
Chora. Aaron, 635. 
Christian IV., of Denmark, 563. 
Christianity: Jewish basis of, 229; 
becomes state religion of Roman 
Empire, 229. 
Christina, queen of Sweden, 489, 
404, 
Chwolson, Daniel, 685. 
Cicero, 288. 
Cimmerians, 105. 
Cincinnati, Ohio, 648, 676, 681, 723. 
Circumcision, prohibited by Ha- 
drian, 213. '(See Abraham, cove- 
nant of. ) 
City of David, Jerusalem topailed 
49, 59, 101. 
Civil War: David and descendants 
of Saul, 46-47; David and Absa- 
lom, 56-58; David and Ben- 
jamites, 58; Solomon and Jer- 
oboam, 66; Rehoboam and Jer- 
oboam, 67-68; in Kingdom of 
Israel, 68-70, 79-80, 95, 97; 
under Alexander Jannai, 155- 
156; Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, 
161-163; Alexander and Hyr- 
canus, 163; Herod and Hasmone- 
ans, 167-168. 

Civil War, in the United States, 
6 

Ciudad Real, Spain, 466. Seria also 
Villa Real. ') 

Clairvaux, France, 368. 

Clara, Argentine, 701. 


Cohumhes. 
{oiurit 
Mar 


crew 


i aoystal ett use 
f,, Grr ensinie 


Cooksigs 
Coj yer?! De raga wy 


es 


— 


€ = eg 1k, Pi revarpcces in Lebar HOM, 191, 


at Nae phe aa oes rain 
‘ Fi , 
sy 
| 
784 [ND z x. 
“astro, Rodrigo de physi chan, 4953, Chem osh, 


a: : 4 
Catacombs, fewish, at Rome, 294—  Chephiars 
O5 Cherettiins Da 


Cataionia, Jews in, $34-336, 420- 
t31, 447, 484456, 47 2, 486. Chernigov, $28 ¢ £ 
C — Rumanian minister, 689, re Jews ats 354, 
Catharine of Castite, 454, 460, tuldek yy 
: ati arime TEs of Russia, : S&S oR 
Catholicisn ", religion of State in , Chi Niort, '§ 
Sonin % : Chiiperte A 
8, S25, 629, 685. France, 347, 
by Da wid, $f of China, 490, ae 
je ws i s tine, by Roman ne, Chinen, Fra 
} 793 of Jews 16, Ge rinany » dis ‘ing °\ deine 
rid W ar, 727. erie z: 
ee 


- 


Cent rat nets ace of heoihstegan ; 
tx: ib bis, ” ‘ j " - 
i Fatt rake pebieldens iti fsract, ‘ 
%, 48, 49, 68 101 106, 
Cervera, Spain, Je WS massacred at, 


+ 
*.% Fee 


Champagne, Ir ree lewish learn~ 
ing in, » 359) 368--469, 396: 

F : G 

Charlemagne ( Charles the Great), 

199, 408- flows ander, oe gr 


$53) bai 
-h ar les the Bald, of F rance, 351. 


hi Ps rle sthe: SHES apie, oli i ‘Tane e, kh Pao y 


Ch: are oS Ty. ot fer ANOQY, as ao: 
Charles V., gl rance, 399, 400.. 
Charles VI, of { France, €00, 


Charles X., of France, » 42. 

Charlies 1 iT. , of Navar. 6, 449, 

Charles [V.; German emperor, ADA, 
406, ee 

Charles V., emperor, 482, 486, 487, Oe 
S07, 510, 547. ra 


Charles X., of Sweden, 5: 6, VE. Mae 
Charies, of Hohenzollemn- Se 
fh Zen, O88, ¥ - 


Chaz aston, South Carolina, Jews. 
in, 604- ~605, 607, 648. . 


Charles, Austrian emperor, 733. 
ei. ar ty 


Chaves, Jacob de, ‘of Ams sterdam, 
S76, aes. enn 

& “ha ves, Moses he, i Amsterdam, Bre 
$7 7 6, ; f mes 


Chazars, Jewish kingdom of, 328, 
329, $25-526; | Hasdai bn Shape 
rut corresponds with, 309-316, 

Cheba, tiver in Babylosia, ila. 

Chelehi, Raphael Joseph, support. 
er of Sabbatai Zevi, 559~ 500, 


INDEX 


Claudius, Roman emperor, 187, 
188, 190, 191, 211, 289, 346. 

Clemens, Flavius, cousin of em- 
peror, Jewish proselyte, 207, 290. 

Clement IV., pope, 426. 

Clement V., pope, 437. 

Clement VI., pope, 401, 404. 

Clement VII., pope, 504, 505, 506. 

Clement VII., anti-pope, 449. 

Clement VIII., pope, 504. 

Clement XIII., pope, 580. 

Cleopatra III., of Egypt, 154. 

pe peer VII., of Egypt, 166, 169- 
171. 

Cleopatra of Jerusalem, wife of 
Herod, 177. 

Clermont, Council of, 347. 

oe Conference of rabbis at, 
677. 


Clovis, founder of Frankish mon- ‘ 


archy, 347. 

Cluny, church reforms of, 365. 

Coblenz, Jews of, 381. 

Codes, Jewish religious: in the 
Torah, 17-18, 19, 83; the Mish- 
nah, 222; the Talmud, 245-256; 
of Jehudai Gaon, 256; the Great 
Halakoth, 256; of Saadiah, 270; 
of Hai Gaon, 275; of Al-Fasi, 
322; of Maimonides, 339, 342- 
344, 393, 394-395, 424: of Moses 
of Coucy, 379; of Isaac of Cor- 
beil, 379; of Isaac, son of Meir of 
Vienna, 380; of Abraham, son of 
Isaac of Narbonne, 393; of 
Solomon Ibn Adret, 430; of 
Asher, son of Jehiel, 435; of 
Jacob, son of Asher (Turim), 
438-439; of Joseph Karo (Shul- 
han Aruk), 521, 537, 546, 581; of 
Solomon Luria, 536; of Moses 
Isserles, 537; of Mordecai Jaffe, 
546; of Anan, founder of Ana- 
nites, 261; of Karaites, 262; of 
Eldad the Danite, 279-280. 

Code, of Justinian, 265, 297; of 
Theodoric, 297; of Theodosius 
the Great, 304; of Receswinth, 
306. 

Code Napoleon, 623. 

Cohen, Jacob Joseph, Hasidic 
leader, 588. 

Cohen, Judah, son of Moses, of 
Toledo, 428. 

Cohen, Nehemiah, Messianic 
preacher, 565. 


785 


Cohen, Raphael, chief rabbi of 
Altona, 593, 654. 

Cohen, Sabbatai, 546, 555-556. 

Cohen, Simhah, of Worms, 361. 

Cohen-Zedek II., Gaon of Pumbe- 
ditha, 264, 268, 269, 275, 278. 

Coinage: of Simon Maccabee, 151; 
of Johanan Hyrcanus, 153; of 
Bar Kokeba, 214. 

Colmar, Germany, 382, 408. 

Cologne, Jews in, 346, 353, 362, 
366, 406, 413, 414. 

Colonization of Palestine by Jews, 
679, 697-698, 713. 

Columbia College, 607. 

Columbus, Christopher, helped by 
Maranos and Jews, 472; Jews in 
crew of, 472. 

Commerce, Jews in, 48, 62-63, 71, 
87, 116, 172, 230, 249, 292, 303, 
335, 346, 357, 359, 420-421, 486, 
511, 512, 527, 532, 604, 605. 

ane governor of Palestine, 

Compiégne, in France, 351. 

Conat, Abraham, printer, 480. 

Conat, Estellina, wife of Abraham 
Conat, 480. 

Confederation of Rhine, 381; Jews 
in states of, 617-618. 

Conferences, rabbinical, in Ger- 
many, 662-663. 

Conrad III., German emperor, 365. 

Conrad IV., German emperor, 380, 
381. 

Consistory of Jews, in Paris, 615, 
642; in Italy, 615; in Holland, 
615-616; in Westphalia, 616, 

Constance, Council of, 413, 454. 

Constantine the Great, 228, 353. 

Constantinople, Jews of, 486, 512, 
513-517, 552, 559. 

Constantius II., 229. 

Conversions to Christianity, in 
Berlin, 622. (See also Baptism, 
enforced.) 

Coolidge, President, 736. 

Copenhagen, 597, 659. 

Cordova, Jews in: golden period of, 
307-314; 327-330; decline of, 
332, 437, 446, 464. 

Cordovero, Moses, 523. 

Corfu, 473, 501. 

Coronello, Spanish governor of 
Naxos, 515. 


786 


Cortes, Spanish legislature, anti- 
Jewish measures of, 429, 437, 
443, 444, 452, 459, 460, 461. 

Cossacks, Russian freebooters, 
massacres of Jews by, 551-556, 
581, 684, 726. 

Council of Four Lands, governing 
body of Jews of Poland, 537, 
538-540, 550, 555, 580, 585. 

Council of State, 130, 153, 160, 
165. (See also Sanhedrin.) 

Courland, 727. 

Coutinho, Ferdinand, bishop of 
Portugal, 474. 

Cracow, Poland, Jews in, 527, 529, 
530- 521, 533 535, 537, 543, 544, 
547, 550, 556, 570. 

Crassus, 163. 

‘Creation, Book of,’ mystic work, 
272, 280, 300, 320, 423, 431. 

Crémieux, Isaac Adolphe, 642, 651— 
652, 657, 674, 679, 688. 

Cremona, Jews of, 509, 522. 

Crescas, Hasdai, philosopher, 447, 
450, 451-452, 456, 496. 

Crete, island of, 8. 

Crimea, 512, 526-527, 530,627, 685. 

Crimea, Jews in, 525. 

Crimean War, 673. 

Cromer, Lord, 708. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 491-493. 

Cromwell, Richard, 604. 

Crusades, 407, 527,547,550; First, 
359-364, 365, 371, 479, 699; Sec- 
ond, 364, 365, 372-373; Third, 
369, 371, 372-373, 386, 387. 

Crusades, persecutions during the, 
chronicled, 372-373. 

Ctesiphon, capital of Persia, 211, 
241. 


Cuenca, Spain, Jews in, 429. 

Cumanus, procurator of Palestine, 
190, 191. 

Curacao, 604. 

Cuza, Alexander, prince of Ruma- 

- nia, 687-688. 

Cyaxares, king of Media, 107. 

Cyclades, islands of, 515. 

Cyprus, Jews in, 211. 

Cyprus, mother of Herod, 171. 

Cyrenaica, Africa, 712. 

Cyrene, Jews in, 211. 

Cyrus, king of Persia, 117—120, 254, 
491. 

Czecho-Slovakia, 733. 


INDEX 


* Dante, ‘Divine Comedy’ of, 480. 


Dagobert I., Merovingian ruler of 
France, 348. . 
Dagon, Philistine god, 147. ¢ 
Dalberg, Karl von, grants civil 

rights to Jews of Frankfort, 617. 
Damascus, kingdom of, 62, 68, 69, 
70, 71, 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 84, 86, 
95-98, 99,156,161. 
Damascus, Jews in, 486, 651-653; 
Sie libelagainst, 651-653, 679, 
03. 
Damietta, 330. 
Dampierre, Jewish learning at, 370. 
Dan, tribe of, 4, 9, 24, 33, 57, 62, 
68, 91. 
Daniel, Book of, last book to enter 
collection of Scriptures, 138, 159. 
aE os head of Jerusalem school, 
olds 


Danube, river, 353, 363, 512. 

Dardanelles, 564, 728. 

Darius I,, king of Persia, 120. 

Darius II., king of Persia, 126. 

Darius III., king of Persia, 128. 

Dauphiné, Jews settle in, 398. 

David, king of Israel, 40-44, 44- 
49, 51-54, 55-60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 
69, 70, 84, 92, 94, 97, 100, 101, 
Se 114, 116, 264, 268, 269, 276, 
523. 

David, Tower of, in Jerusalem, 337. 

David, brother of Maimonides, 342. 

David, Jewish merchant of Lyons, 
349. 

David ha-Levi, Polish rabbi, 546. 

David, son of Meshullam, 359. 

David, son of Saul, of Provence, 
opponent of Maimonides, 394. 

David, son of Zaccai, exilarch, 264, 
268, 269, 276. 

Davila, John Arias, bishop of Sego- 
via, 461, 468. 

Davis, Jefferson, Confederate 
president, 677. 

‘Day of the Lord,’ also ‘Day of 
Judgment,’ in prophecies of 
Amos, 91-92; of Isaiah, 96; of 
Malachi, 122. 

Dead Sea, 5, 6, 83, 90, 157, 166. 

Debir (Sanctuary), i in ‘Temple, 22, 
64, 65. 

Deborah, prophetess, 24; song of, 

pA 


Decentralization, religious, in 
Israel, 68; in Judah, 69, 160. 


reynn es 


702-703, iit nae 
Drohobicz, Gaticsay Fi ij 
Ty aysie, Moses Ay hy 74 
Dropsic College, 72a, 
Druniont, Fregch Sebi. 
- 702. . As 
Drusilla, daughter of Agee: Tier, 
191, 
Dubno, Poland, #78 
Dubnow, Simon, masters Pa. P 


Praia, designing yy ts: i 


| Me co) oa | Tee y* ery ‘3 ae nf Ne he 
fe te i an 
Tiamainn Depryice Ser’ a ee Sere 


425 ; 
Levers Pele Te es - era Kips le ll ‘ 
ities oF ame Me wat ar ia 
47h. ded aS gig. wea ae sh 
nae 


Dometi tary SE peak SH7e) yg tees re 
207, hy Fa | 

Don, river, 24 Vane me) 
Danin, Nici ae * Gime es" a. Vege J 
3 <« 


Donmech, aero ReGen 429 >: 
. 371, $8b. = 
Donnoia, Fizy betes ue, Tarps +2 ok = 
scholar, SRA 3. 


Dor, Palestime, Ti Sua) 
Doris, wife of Hiewead: ach. ; ; 
Dormide, M She? ghetto ais” 


England, #9) 
Dosa, ‘son af 
Sura, 275. 
Dositheus, Je wish grate vy Kayp- a, 
tian army. 34% ‘le 
Dothas, plam ta) fh) ae} 
Drenteln, govermar af Bien, GOK, 
Dresticn, lows of, eth. e 
Dreux, Fr: ance, 25, Coe 


Dre yius, Capt: nin Altes, eRRetr «a, 


Sombie hs. 4 ee. at 


Duero, Spain, 294, 
Puichipns, Albarn. $e. 


Duma, Rusdiaa paar anaes a, 


716, 717. : Bre) 


Dunash (Adoniaa ee ia } ; i a 


grennnar bas, cai 


Dunash: Re Ra ae 
220. ‘ rte tae 


ir aly 
Pek Ai 4. 


is, Jews in, 21 


: , 
Het of rte 


DB Dovid: Jowish merchan? of b 


+ fa “ 
he See) 'P erie 


sie 1, ais: 
ETN, Philistine rod, 147. Pe) 
Dalberg, Kark won.) grants end 

rights to Jewsof frankiart, $it. 
Damascus, 7. Jingdem of, ids 68 2, 


i 06.-O8. 00) 156. 14. rae: ‘Nae Pay > 
amascus, fews tay 486, 651-653 
. lood tibet met shies, G 
_ 203: . ee padhe aeD 
ra niet tta, S36, ne Se i ; 
Jampierre, jewhea icarningat,370, 
lan, tribe ‘of. 4, 9, 24, 33, Bi, 6 
6k Ot, 
Daniel, Book of, lane boule to ‘eter 
collection of Scriptures, 158, 199. 
Lane ty head if Jenson: school, 
Siz: ng 
Dante; ‘Divine Comedy! of: 480, : 
Danubd, river, 453, 368, 512, ry 
Dardanelles, 564, 72 28. 
Darius I, king of Persia, 120. 
Das ius It. king of Persia, 126). « 
Dartas TES 4 nag g of Persia, 12S. 
Da Gera Jews settie m, 398. - 
Da wid, king of Israel, 40-44, 
, 51-54, 55-60) GL G2, G3) 6 
oo 70, 84, 92, 4, 97, 100, 101, 
110, 114, 116, 264, 268, 269, 
523, ae 
Leds il, Towels of, im : hercandignds ; 37. 
ried, bor other of Maimonides, ie 


349: oe 
ee id has Lew, Polish rabble, 
David, son.of Meshullata, 359) 
David sow of Saat, of Pro 3 

opponent af Maimonides, ane 
Davie, son of Zaccai, e | 

263, 269, APG. ees 
Davila, Toba: Arias, bisho 

via, 461) 468 Sues 
Davie, Jefferson, 

pres ident, ye ee 
‘Day of the Lond,’ ‘alo. 
judgment,” in 

Anos; 94-92; 

Maladhi,. IZ: - 
Desc =| Sea, s. 6, ‘3, % 5 
Debir (Sant vary), in = 

A, sas) acre me. 


n be vs. atentiaauiele e 


israel, oa am in Joaeee 


INDEX 


Deckendorf, Jews of, 403, 404. 
Declaration of Independence, of 
America, 599, 606, 609. 
Declaration of Rights of Man and 
Citizens, of France, 609. 
Deioces, king of Medes, 105. 
Delilah, 35. 
Dembovski, Polish bishop, 584. 
Demetrius I., of Syria, 144-147. 
Demetrius II., of Syria, 147-150, 
152, 


Demetrius III. Eucaerus, of Syria, 
156. 

Denikin, Russian general, 733. 

Denmark, 576, 594, 727. 

Deportations: Assyrian, 99; first 
Babylonian, 110; second Baby- 
lonian, 112, 233. 

Derenbourg, Hartwig, of Paris, 705. 

Derenbourg, Joseph, 705. 

Derzhavin, Russian statesman, 
627-628. 

Descartes, French philosopher, 497. 

Dessau, Germany, 592, 616. 

Detmold, Germany, 638. 

Devil’s Island, 702. 

Dhu-Nuwas (Joseph), ruler of 
southern Arabia, converted to 
Judaism, 248. 

Dictionaries, biblical:of Menahem, 
son of Saruk, 310-311; of Samuel 
ha-Nagid, 317; of Jonah Ibn 
Janah, 317; of David Kimhi, 395. 

Dictionaries, talmudic: of Nathan 
of Rome (Aruk), 302; of Mar- 
cus Jastrow, 681; of Alexander 
Kohut, 699. 

Diego, Neo-Christian of Segovia, 
461. 


Diet, Coronation, in Poland, 538. 

Dietrich II., archbishop of May- 
ence, 416. 

Diniz, of Portugal, 429. 

Diocletian, Roman emperor, 228, 
229. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 295. 

Disraeli, Benjamin, 645, 658, 690. 

D’Israeli, Isaac, 645. 

Dmowski, Polish statesman, 718. 

es ee wegetoa1, Do2, 594,)555, 
578. 

Dob Baer of Mezdyrzecz, Hasidic 
leader, 585, 586. 

Dohm, Christian Wilhelm, Prus- 
sian diplomat, 596, 598, 608. 

Dok, Palestine, fortress of, 151. 


787 


Dolza, Jewess of Worms, 372. 

Domatus, Jewish merchant of 
France, 349. 

Dominic, founder of Dominicans, 

25 

Dominicans, conversionist activ- 
ities of, 390, 396, 413, 414, 417, 
426, 463, 465, 471, 484, 485, 529. 

Domitian, Roman emperor, 203, 
207, 290, 291. 

Don, river, in Russia, 525. 

Donin, Nicholas, apostate, 378. 

Dénmebh, sect of Sabbatians, 570, 
571, 583. 

Donnolo, Sabbatai, Italian Jewish 
scholar, 300, 357. 

Dor, Palestine, 154, 163. 

Doris, wife of Herod, 176. 

Dormido, Manuel Martinez, of 
England, 492. 

Dosa, son of Saadiah, Gaon of 
sta. 2/5, 

Dositheus, Jewish general in Egyp- 
tian army, 148. 

Dothan, plain of, 6. 

Drenteln, governor of Kiev, 695. 

Dresden, Jews of, 636. 

Dreux, France, 333. 

Dreyfus, Captain Alfred, affair of, 
702-703. 

Drohobicz, Galicia, 717. 

Dropsie, Moses Aaron, 724. | 

Dropsie College, 724. 

Drumont, French Anti-Semite, 
702. ‘ 

Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa, 189, 
191. 

Dubno, Poland, 570. 

Dubnow, Simon, historian, 714. 

Duero, Spain, 314. 

Dulcigno, Albania, 566. 

Duma, Russian parliament, 715, 
716, 717. 

Dunash (Adonim), son of Labrat, 
grammarian, 311-312, 356, 357. 

Dunash (Adonim), son of Tamim, 
280. ; 

Duport, French statesman, 610. 

Duran, Prophiat, Marano, critic of 
Christianity, 450. 

Durnovo, Russian minister, 700. 

Dury, John, English missionary, 
490. 

Dutch West India Company, 603. 


pare 


788 


Eber, ancestor of Hebrews, 3. 
Ebro, river in Spain, 335. 
Ecbatana, Persia, 117, 120. 

Ecija, Spain, 437, 446. 

Economic condition of the Jews: in 
Palestine, 85-88, 119, 120, 151, 
172, 209-210, 221, 230, 518, 713, 
728; in Babylonia, 116, 233-235; 
in Alexandria, 185; in Arabia, 
249; in Italy, 292, 508, 511; in 
Spain, 303, 420-421, 438, 452, 
471; in France, 346, 378, 392; 
in Germany, 359, 371-372, 403, 
405, 409-411, 413, 590, 592, 636; 
in Austria, 377, 381; in England, 
384, 385-386, 388-390, 645, 646; 
in Turkey, 512; in Russia, 528, 
529, 627-629, 669, 683, 735; in 
Poland, 532, 543, 551-552, 578- 
579, 709, 718; in Rumania, 688; 
in the United States, 604-607. 

Edels, Samuel, Polish rabbi, 546. 

Eden, Garden of, 434. 

Edessa, Syria, 365. 

Edom, 18; used to denote Rome, 
329, 569, 585. 

Edomites, 65, 91, 114, 121. 

Education: in early Israel, 88; in 
Palestine, 210-211, 225; of Jews 
in Babylonia, 234; in Poland, 
544-546; in Austria, 597; in 
Germany, 597-598; in West- 
phalia, 616-617. 

Edward I., of England, 390. 

Edward, Black Prince, of England, 
442. 

Eger, Akiba, Prussian rabbi, 635, 
679. 

Egica, king of Spain, 306. 

Egidio di Viterbo, cardinal, 482. 

gilbert, archbishop of Treves, 
362. 

Egypt, ancient, 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18, 
20, 37, 39, 48, 53, 61, 62, 64, 65, 
112, 46, 91, 93. 95."97, 90, fu: 
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 
110, 111,112,113, 118. 119361 
under the Ptolemies, 129, 134- 
137, 154, 163, 166, 170, 171, 190, 
214, 215; under the Arabs, 254, 
264, 268, 275, 277, 279, 280, 301, 
324, 330, 332, 338, 341, 342, 345; 
under the Turks, 512, 515, 522, 
560, 571, 612;.under: indepen- 


° 


INDEX 


on government, 651, 652, 728, 

0. 

Egypt, Jews in, 113, 115, 126-127, 
128-130, 147-148, 164, 184-187, 
211, 265. 

Ehud, Judge, 25. 

Einhorn, David, American rabbi, 
677, 698. 

Eisenbaum, Anton, of Poland, 666. 

Eisenmenger, Johann Andreas, 
German Jew-baiter, 591. 

Eisenstadt, Hungary, 682. 

Eisner, Kurt, Jewish communist i in 
Bavaria, 732-733. 

Ekron, 102, 147. 

Elah, son of Baasa, king of Israel, 
69 


Elam, 105. 

El-Arish, district of, 708, 730. 

Elath, port on the gulf of Akabah, 
53, 84, 96. 

Elbe, river, 353, 570, 623, 676. 

Eldad, son of Mahli, the Danite, in 
Kairawan, 278-280, 282, 309; 
ritual of, 279. 

Elders of Zion, Protocols of, 736. 

Eleazar, high priest, 130. 

Eleazar, old teacher, killed by Anti- 
ochus, 138. 

Eleazar, a zealot leader, 191, 192. 

Eleazar, Maccabee, 144. 

Eleazar, uncleof Bar Kokeba, priest 
in Jerusalem, 214. 

Eleazar, son of Azariah, Tanna, 207. 

Eleazar, son of Hananiah, 195. 

Eleazar, descendant of Judah the 
Galilean, 203, 204. 

Eleazar, son of Judah, cabalist, 372, 
424, 

Eleazar, son of Pedath, Amora in 
Palestine, 228. 

Eleazar, son of Simon, third Lee 
tor in Jerusalem, 201. 

Eleazar, son of Simon, Tanna, 220. 

Elephantine, Jewish military col- 
ony at, 126. 

Elhanan, Abe Bs Isaac the Elder, 
tosaphist, 3 

Eli, priest of Shiloh, 36, 37, 41, 43, 

64. 


Eliashib, high priest, 124, 126. 

Eliezer, son of Hyrcanus, Tanna, 
207; 212- 213, 219. 

Eliezer, son of Samuel, 370. 

Elijah, ‘the prophet, ee 74, 79, 94, 
122, 452, 522; 560, 572. 


tN oy FRO 


. uacintdnon, of Amsrrin, BO4, 

ah Ses Gisen. aF%, 
$e kaka, Mea weit, ad Coparpetle 044. 
Ce homens ‘ahta, 558-559. 
a ee) tee ee Teale oll oan Vawstqar, & 
pes } s ie ere fasres Mie ef} 
Westie  owteee!, Packie, oF. 

S photig.. Pagers eaeal weg, Saigneer 
ee, 2%, % 5 oh Sper GES 

oe a 322. Ba Se; ee ee | we Veet. 


¢, 


paws 


i, 678, 721-123. Ba cea ed sh, aes See 2 - o 
sires of, 78 aah ake <4 
23) 494-495. ied CRant ¢ aint BB : “ft 


jewe in Fe elite: 5 
ewia> Kawato. ef i an werd ia, - 
ie : 
of i ape isms: ais. & gh te 
b tawny: Ly rary in me 
Ausirta, oi amy aoe es a ae 
Bad ies 470-473; Hamas Teens | om 
“yon, Prussia 475: from Dae OMG athe 
eS oe fro: Rossa OS) hi ees 


Eybeactuta, jose Kon 


3, 24, 38, 37. 504, 18S hes Wk is, Cae ms 
ate northern — thee ceca SO Pie 
Ezion-gs . 
_ Ales 
3 Ezra, t che’ 5 
jews in, ais, Palestiak, | 


leads, Ly . 


= the A aces me 
a Dis, 308, 
ig ae 38, rity Bags 
sie vals 512, S33, BEE, 

4 GE. under inaiepiike e 


INDEX 


Elijah, of Treves, 362. 

Elijah, Gaon of Vilna (son of Sol- 
omon), 586-588, 592, 630. 

Elim, 16. 

Elimelech, of Lizensk, Hasidic 
leader, 585. 

cay ional Russia, pogrom of, 

94, 

Elisha, the prophet, 74, 78, 79, 94. 

Elisha, son of Abuiah, heretic, 218. 

. Eller, Germany, Jews massacred 
at. 303. 

Elvira, Spain, Council of, 304. 

Emancipation, of Jews: in Europe, 
596, 632-633; in Austria, 596- 
597, 624-626; in France and de- 
pendencies, 608-618; in Prussia, 
619-624; in America, 648; in 
Germany, 654-658; in England, 
658; in Poland, 665-667. 

Emanuel I., of Portugal, 474, 516. 

Emden, Friesland, Jews in, 487, 
488, 663. 

Emden, Jacob, opponent of Eybe- 
schiitz, 576, 593-594. 

Emesa, 191. 

Emicho, count of Worms, leads 
mob against Jews, 361-363. 

Emmaus, Palestine, 140. 

Encyclopaedia, Jewish, 724. 

Ende, Franz van den, 496. 

En-dor, Palestine, 43. 
England, attitude to Zionism of, 
708, 711, 730-731, 734, 737. 
England, Jews of, 364, 384-391, 
397, 643-647, 665, 678, 721-723, 
726, 736; their expulsion, 479; 
their readmission to, 491-493; 
emancipation of, 658. 

Enlightenment in Russian Jewish 
center, 631. (See Haskalah.) 

Enoch, son of Moses, talmudist of 
Cordova, 314, 315. 

ae spring in Jerusalem, 49, 


Ense, Varnhagen von, Prussian 
diplomat, 622. 

Ensisheim, Alsace, 382. 

Ephraim, tribe of, 23, 24, 35, 37, 
39, 40; used to denote northern 
kingdom, 93, 97, 116. 

Ephraim, Mount, 6, 75. 

Ephraim, rabbi of Tyre, 341. 

Ephraim, son of Jacob, 372-373. 

Erfurt, Germany, Jews in, 375, 
406, 415. 


789 


Esarhaddon, of Assyria, 104. 

Esau, 434. 

Escafa, Nehemiah, of Granada, 316. 

Escapa, Joseph, rabbi, 558-559. 

Esdraelon, plain of, in Palestine, 6, 
148. (See also Jezreel, Plain of.) 

Eshtaol, Palestine, 33. 

Eskeles, Bernhard von, financier, 
of Vienna, 632-633. 

Eskeles, Cecilia von, of Vienna, 
632-633. 

Essenes, sect of, 180, 182. 

Essenism, old Pietism, 180. 

Este, dukes of, 503. 

Estella, Navarre, Jews massacred 
at, 436. 

Esterhazy, French major, in Drey- 
fus affair, 702. 

Esther, queen, 127, 158. 

Esthonia, Jews in, 735. 

Ethbaal, king of Tyre, 71. 

Ethiopia, 118, 278. 

Ethiopians, 91, 113. 

Eugenius III., pope, 365. 

Eugenius IV., pope, 414, 458. 

Euphrates, 51, 52, 53, 107, 109, 
167, 170, 212, 233, 427. 

Eupolemus, son of Johanan, leads 
embassy to Rome, 145. 

Euric, king of Spain, 306. 

Europe, Jews of, 283. 

Everard, ‘master of Jews’ in Gaul, 
350. 

Evil-merodach, king of Babylon, 
116-117. 

Exeter, Synod of, anti-Jewish mea- 
sures of, 390. 

Exilarch (Resh Galutha), head of 
Jews in Babylonia, 235-276. 

Exodus, of Israelites, from Egypt, 
15. 

Expulsions: from England, 391; 
from France, 398, 399, 400; from 
Austria, 413-414; from Spain, 
470-473; from Portugal, 474- 
476; from Lithuania, 530-531; 
from Russian villages, 630, 667. 

Eybeschiitz, Jonathan, rabbi, 593— 
594, 595. 

Ezekiel, the prophet, 115-116, 158, 
329. 


Ezion-geber, port, on the gulf of 
Akabah, 53, 61, 71. 

Ezra, the Scribe, leads return to 
Palestine, 122-123; as religious 
leader, 131, 158, 159, 233, 266. 


790 


Fadak, fore settlement in Ara- 
bia, 249, 253. 

Fadus, Roman procurator of Pal- 
estine, 190. 

Fagius, pupil of Levita, 482, 483. 

Falces, Spain, Jews massacred at, 
436. 

Falk, Jacob Joshua, talmudist and 
rabbi, 593, 

Falk, Joshua, Polish rabbi, 546. 

Famagosta, Cyprus, 516. 

Fatimites, Arab dynasty of, 277, 
280, 329, 

Faure, President, 703. 

Faustina, Jewish actress, 292. 

Fayum, Egypt, 264. 

Federation of Swabian cities, 409. 

Felix, Roman procurator of Pales- 
tine, 191-193. 

Ferdinand I., of Castile, 323. 

Ferdinand Lid of Castile, 395. 

Ferdinand IV., ‘of Castile, 436, 437. 

Ferdinand L., of Aragon, 453, 454. 

Ferdinand Il. of Aragon (V. of 
Castile), 461-471, 502; marries 
Isabella of Castile, 461; intro- 
duces Inquisition, 463. 

Ferdinand |., of Portugal, 445. 

Ferdinand I. , of Naples, 501. 

Ferdinand i. of Austria, 548. 

Ferdinand II., of Austria, 549. 

Ferrara, Jews in, 480, 487, .502- 
504. 

Ferrer, St. Vincent, 
friar, 453, 454, 455. 

Festus, Roman procurator of Pales- 
tine, 193. 

Fez, Africa, Jews in, 282, 337, 473, 
486, 519. 

Pibovick Abraham, 
scholar, 685-686. 

Fischel, Moses, chief rabbi of Lit- 
tle Poland, 533. 

Flaccus, Roman prefect in Alexan- 
dria, 185, 186, 288. 

Flagellants, persecutio-s of Jews 
by the, 406-407. 

Flanders, Jews settle in, 391. 

Florus, Roman procurator of Pales- 
tine, 193, 194, 

Foch, General, of France, 73”. 

Forsyth, John, United States secre- 
tary of state, 652. 

France, Jews in, 348-352, 356-364, 
365-371, 377, 378-379, 398-400, 


Dominican 


Karaite 


INDEX 


402, 404, 408, 479, 608-618, 642- 
643, 657, 665. 

Francis I., of France, 482. 

Francis I., of Austria, 624. 

Francis II., emperor, 624. (See also 
Francis I., of Austria.) 

Francis Ferdinand, Austrian arch- 
duke, 725. 

F C78. Joseph, of Austria, 658, 
678 


Francis, Mordecai, tax-farmer in 
Cairo, LWA 

Franciscans, incite against Jews, 

Franck, Adolphe, scholar, 643. 

Franco, Niccolo, papal nuncio to 
Spain, 463. 

Franco, Samuel, cabalist, 514. 

Franco, Yuce, of Avila, 468. 

Franconia, Jews of, massacred, 
382, 402-403; expelled, 415. 

Frank, Jacob, Sabbatian and Mes- 
sianic pretender, 583-584. 

Frank, Ludwig, German Jewish 
socialist, 725. 

Frankel, David, Geren rabbi, 
592, 595, 616. 

Frankel, Zechariah, 663, 680. 

Frankfort (-on-the-Main), Jews in, 
379, 380, 383, 406, 413, 417, 484, 
556, 557, 570, 575, 590, 591, 593, 
596, 635-636, 641, 645, 657, 662, 
663; emancipation of, 617, 632. 

es Reform Society, 660- 

ik 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 581. 

Frankists, followers of Jacob Frank 
in Poland, 584. 

Franks, tolerant towards Jews, 346, 
347, 351, 


Franks, David, of Philadelphia, 
605, 606. 

Franks, Jacob, of Philadelphia, 
605 


Frederick I. Barbarossa, Versa 
emperor, 371, 372. 

Frederick IL., ’German emperor: 
375.37, 377. 

Frederick IIl., emperor, 416, 483. 

Frederick, the Wise, elector of Sax- 
ony, 484. 

Frederick III., of Brandenburg, 
590. (See Frederick I., of Prussia.) 

Frederick I., of Prussia, 590-591. 

Frederick IL., the Great, of ca 
591, 592, 619, 


cia 


: ay 
we) 
abe 

* oh 195 phe 
eth Sa — of; ke Sree 45 
L9G POS shy Mareeba, Oe a pases 
spiritual mer bey. ates, eas) ae. : 
synagogia: Mule ih; PGFs ack 
closed, 366. ae 
Galiiee, Sea of, 4, 32, (7A eae 
Gall dpoli, Turkey, a at 
Gathus, governar og Syria, \ 
Gallus, emperor in thee Bnet, 27% Roe 
- Galveston, Texus, 72 1 ae 
Gamata, in Golan, 155, 197, 2 ( 
Gamatiel I, v anna, SEe3, ; 7A 
Gamaliel U1. (of Jabra, “acta id ear 
Sainen, Tanna, head ef thw Sip ’ ut 
“hedtin, 206-268, 793. ‘sae 
Gamalel iLli., een of judy 4 | oa 
patriarch, 22%,- ays 
Gamiatliel 1V., patriarch, 2a. oe 
Gatmaliel V., patriar ch, 25, ae 
Gamaliel Vf... last patriarch, 2%) Bie 
‘Gamrat, Polish bishop, S34. ee 


Gunganelli, cardinal, investi 
bleed accusation, 580-581, 
Gans, David, 549, 
Gans, Edkard, parhet, O58. . 
Gaon (Geonim}, beads of Batee ‘ 
- lonian acade mies, 235, 247- 2? é, 
357+ in Palestine, 267. ; 
Gaster, Moses, haham nm Lendan, 
707 ,. 721-722 
Gascony, Noo of, 397, 
Gath, Philistia, 42, 48, #2. meee 
‘Gatherer, The' (Ha-Me RSET? >, —_ 
Hebrew periodical, B21, ‘or Sa 
Gandiocus, Jew ai Freace, 351. Mente tt 
Gaul, jews in, under Christian em- . Meee 2 
perors, 346. | t 
Gaza, Palestine, 42, 90, 100, 101. 
WOK, 128, 148, 154 17k, 235, $60, 
561, 562, 612, 730, 731. sf 
Gedaliah, governor af Fuciea, it3- 
143. 
Jape’? "amet ancestor of the Jagetion, Brees eS 
(Geiger, Abrabam, ethiler and te- ie eae 
former, 660-663, 681. GARI. - na i ey a 
sapere 3, sermany, Jeweralenetnn pao 
Genizah of Carre, 725-928. oe Bp iB 
Genoa, tushy, . lews inj. wits 4, aaa re ey re 
502, 503, A. rf Gkde fre oe len Sears 
George ith. ot Bughand: BOBS 8 er 
Georgia, United Stage, Bald “ See ye ah at 
in, 603, 604. cee 
Gerasa, Transiordinns: * = A 


Tete. pte ait, BMG ro ones 

; et > a 5 Geet 

Mya Bay GS eee a 
2 . 


aut 


'F ‘ae Bw iy ; Sans 
hee aed patie 


Pmeete, Dee tp, & 


INDEX 


pepcenCl III., German emperor, 

699, 

Frederick II., duke of Austria, 377, 
S28, 

Frederick, grand duke of Baden, 
and Zionism, 707-708. 

Frederick William, Great Elector 
of Brandenburg, 590. 

Frederick William I., of Prussia, 


591, 
Frederick William II., of Prussia, 


619. 

Frederick William III., of Prussia, 
620. . 

Frederick William IV., of Prussia, 
656. 

Freiburg, Germany, Jews mas- 
sacred at, 4006. 

French Revolution, 599, 608, 610— 
611, 616, 654, 657, 703. 

Friedberg, Germany, 547. © 

Friedlander, David, of Berlin, re- 
former, 619, 622-624, 632. 

Friedlander, Michael, of London, 
scholar, 722. 

Friedman, Meir, of Vienna, schol- 
ar, 704, 722. 

Friesel, governor of Vilna, 627. 

Friesland, Netherlands, 487. 

Fulda, Germany, Jews massacred 
at, 3/6, 381. 

Fulvia, Roman proselyte to Juda- 
ism, 290. 

Funes, Spain, Jews massacred at, 
436 


F urtado, Abraham, of France, 608, 
Ol dig 

Firth, Germany, 556, 596. 

Fustat, Jews in, 265, 280, 330. 


Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, 162- 
1 


Gad, tribe of, 9, 19, 278. 
Bet Transjordania, 154, 171, 
18. 

Galante, Moses, of Jerusalem, 561. 

Galatz, Rumania, 689. | 

Galba, Roman emperor, 200. 

Galicia, Spain, Jews of, 323; scat- 
tered after expulsion, 486. 

Galicia, Jews in, 625-626, 709, 717- 
718, 726. 

Galilee, Palestine, 6, 23, 97, 143, 
154, 179, 181, 182, 518, 524; 
patriotic movement in, 164-165, 
167, 177, 183, 191, 192, 195-198; 


791 


patriotic bands of, in Jerusalem, 
199-203; in Masada, 203-204; 
spiritual center in, 217, 226; 
synagogue ruins in, 265; schools 
closed, 266. 

(salilee, Sea Of, 5,102.0) Ula athe 

Gallipoli, Turkey, 728. 

Gallus, governor of Syria, 195. 

Gallus, emperor in the East, 229. 

Galveston, Texas, 712. 

Gamala, in Golan, 156, 197, 198. 

Gamaliel I., Tanna, 206. 

Gamaliel II. (of Jabneh), son of 
Simon, Tanna, head of the San- 
hedrin, 206-208, 293. 

Gamaliel III., son of Judah I., 
patriarch, 225. 

Gamaliel IV., patriarch, 225. 

Gamaliel V., patriarch, 230. 

Gamaliel VI., last patriarch, 230. 

Gamrat, Polish bishop, 534. 

Ganganelli, cardinal, investigates 
blood accusation, 580-581. 

Gans, David, 549. 

Gans, Eduard, jurist, 638. 

Gaons (Geonim), heads of Baby- 
lonian academies, 235, 247-276, 
357; in Palestine, 267. 

Gaster, Moses, haham in London, 
707, 721-722. 

Gascony, Jews of, 397. 

Gath, Philistia, 42, 48, 82. 

‘Gatherer, The’ (Ha-Measseph), 
Hebrew periodical, 621. 

Gaudiocus, Jew of France, 351. 

Gaul, Jews in, under Christian em- 
perors, 346. 

Gaza, Palestine, 42, 99, 100, 101, 
108, 128, 148, 154, 171, 215, 560, 
561, 562, 612, 730, 731. 

Gedaliah, governor of Judea, 112- 
1138: 

Gedymin, ancestor of the Jagellos, 
530. 

Geiger, Abraham, scholar and re- 
former, 660-663, 681, 682. 

Geldern, Germany, Jews massacred 
at, 363. 

Genizah of Cairo, 722-723. 

Genoa, Italy, Jews in, 292, 473, 
502, 503, 509. 

George III., of England, 645. 

Georgia, United States, 605; Jews 
in, 603, 604. 

Gerasa, Transjordania, 156, 157. 


792 


Gerizim, Mount, Samaritan tem- 
ple on, 28, 121, 124-125, 137, 
152, 183. 

Gerlach, archbishop of Mayence, 
407. 

Germany, Jews in: beginnings of, 
352-355, 359-366; during Cru- 
sades, 371- Ks 377, 527; ser- 
vants of the treasury, S714 eae 
in the 13th century, 379-383, 
528; in the 14th century, 402- 
412: in the 15th century, 413- 
418, 440, 485; Jewish learning of, 
408, 415- 416, 595.. 537, ceuice 
15th century, 530, 547— 548, S10; 
576, 580, 581, 592- 596, 603, 
616-618, 632, 638- 639, 649, 659- 
664, 675, 679- 682, 724: eman- 
cipation of, 654-— 658, 665; ‘Anti- 
Semitic excesses against, OF 1— 
693, 699-700, 736. 

Gerona, Spain, 336, 393, 395, 421, 
426, 444, 447. 

Geronimo de Santa Fe, Jewish 
apostate, 449, 454, 455, 468. 
Gershom, son of Judah of Mayence, 
founder of talmudic learning in 
Germany, 302, 352, 353-354, 355, 

356, 357. 

Geshur, in Golan, 52. 

oy Palestine, 48, 61, 62, 150, 
152 


Ghazali, Arab theologian, 320, 328, 
331 


Ghettos:in Germany, 407; in Italy, 
509; in Poland, 531. 

Gibbethon, fortress of, 68, 69. 

Gibeah, Palestine, 36, 37, 38, 39, 
45, 46, 48, 54, 69; outrage of, 33. 

Gibeon, Palestine, 7, 22, 23, 59, 
195 

Gibraltar, Straits of, 307, 331. 

Gideon, judge, 26—27, 29, 32, 37. 

Gideon (Abudiente), Samson, of 
England, 644. 

Gihon, spring, near Jerusalem, 49, 
59, 101. 

Gilboa, mountains of, 6, 26, 43, 45. 
Gilead, Transjordania, 5, 19, 24, 
29, 33, 38, 45, 72, 79, 97, 156. 
Gilgal, Palestine, gi 32: 38, 58,91. 
Ginsberg, Asher, vis ‘(See Ahad 

Haam.) 
Gish-halab, Palestine, 197, 198. 
lagerons. British prime-minister, 


INDEX 


Glaphyra, Cappadocian princess, 
175 178: 

Gliickel of Hameln, 563. 

Gneist, leads in protest against 
Anti- Semitism, 699, 

Gnesen, Poland, 528. 

Godard, leader in the Paris Com- 
mune, 610. 

Godfrey of BbuiltoH: 359. 

Godfrey of Wiirzburg, expels Jews 
from Franconia, 415. 

Goethe, animosity towards Jews of, 
617, 636 

Golan, Transjordania, 5, 156. 

‘Golden penny of offering’, Jewish 
tax, 403, 411. 

Goldsmid, Colonel Albert, of Lon- 
don, 706. 

Goliath, Philistine giant, 40, 41. 

at Cossacks massacre Jews at, 
554. 

Gonzalo de Cordova, viceroy of 
Naples, 488, 502. 

Gonzalo de Santa Maria, Jewish 
apostate, 450. 

Gonzales, Diego, Neo-Christian, 
treasurer of Castile, 457. 

Gorchakov, Russian chancellor, 
690. 

Gordon, Jekuthiel, supporter of 
Luzzatto’s Messiaship, 575. 

Gordon, Judah Loeb, Hebrew writ- 
er, 686. 

Gorgias, Syrian general, 140, 143. 

Gorz, Jews in, 548, 639. 

Goshen, Egypt, 12, 14. 

Gradis, David, of France, 608-609. 

Graetz, Heinrich, historian, 680. 

Granada, Spain, Jews in, 282, 315, 
316-321, 325, 326, 330, 336, 393, 
438, 442, 448, 470. 

Grant, President, 689. 

Gratz, Bernard, of Philadelphia, 
606. 

Gratz, Michael, of Philadelphia, 
606. 

Gratz, Rebecca, of Philadelphia, 
650. 

Greek civilization introduced into 
Palestine: by Antiochus Epiph- 
pe 135-136, 138; by Herod, 
173 


Grégoire, Abbé, favors Jewish 
emancipation, 609. 

Gregory I., the Great, pope, 298, 
305, 348. 


INDEX i te 


Haifa, Paletian, © Ae PER 
Hakam ff... elnth a Det, ao. 
310, Fi 
‘Hakentowusier, Cire ait aie 
-trian AptiSemites, 726 | 
Halakat (rekg ine ties; dmmde 
smerny #: ape dennaies ha a, ox 
eV RaQ TPS, 4 eR, 
pcan pre Be i 


a. St es 


. corke, 244, 


Halévy, consponer, agg 

Halle, Germany, Soja 

Halle, Jews of, cation, ae 

Halperin, banker of Bardacaty. a? 

Ham, breather ai Shere, 3 

Ham, France, Jes? miternceety 
406, 


Harman, Pe rsian taxtyiat ie. 2iF ae 


Haimath, Syria, 82. 35, 4, tee 
i). . 
Hamburg, Jews in, 4, 204 de 


$52, 563, $90, 644-45, ae 
Be pmanci nx tion Of G86. 
Marauudlites, Aral: tearsiy, 375 


Rammurstpi. Palylaaree he 
ale of, +. 

Hamon, Jost: physsowen icoatye? 
turta, St3 


Haxistie, Maree goat’ ri cece th Ses 


pmiman Li, 467,214, Sia 
Hamet, xins of, erin ev Lopes ae 

at Mhecheet, 27 ea * es 
Haast, bg ertipet, it ee 
Haouried. hugh portant. See 1 ? ers 
Hanan. cam gi 8 Fesbimt ag Kats e vs 

wats, 28b-262, Mi, BAP net 

Hanaivah, tae re ypngett, 25% é 
Hananiah, hath piicct, OF 
Henania. Sih. is c ae > Ea ; : Ria % 
. Maoder in Eeyptian SOE 5 Li = ane 
lop agg foondls sichienat wy begee ee iN 4 

igoia, 2 . | eae 
Hoaaninh, exilareli, 260; 7 as 
+Tananiah, son 0 ai. putas fee i 

Punsbediths, 273 , 
Hanina, con Gi Teradies.. 1 eee: 

21%, 2419; 326 
Hanne, bing of x wes Voie, See 
Hanuver, fowes of 29 agen e 
"Hanseatic cities jets oh. tacklt | Me ec 
Havua, knig of Stee, Sb ree kar 2 
Maadixkah, 14% +7) 
Mara» +, 17. FO, a, Vs, Se : “th é fos © 
flarby, {aune. ot i. Rrigghema chin, He ee > gee 
Hardenber. Peerage neater... 

623, a Ai 


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Mabths te t aye Mie WHER, 
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7 . . a 
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ihe’ Seqet 7 
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¥ coy Gee a its seeks (bs "4 i rae % 


Se re eek” eee ee slice 
“A rere. SA Sas i te STS, 
Br Mae. bn eam oe $05,” 
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ii): ene i oyainet, GUIS 


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INDEX 


Gregory VII., pope, 323, 358. 
Gregory IX., pope, 375, 378, 380, 
Gregory X., pope, bull against rit- 
ual murder, 382. 
Gregory XIII., pope, 504. 
Gregory, bishop of Tours, 348. 
Grodno, Lithuania, 530, 669, 727. 
Giidemann, Moritz, 704, 705, 706. 
Guesclin, Bertrand de, 441-442. 
‘Guide of the Perplexed,’ of Mai- 
monides, 344-345, 393, 394, 395, 
396, 400, 424, 643. 
Guido, cardinal, 381, 528. 
Guiscard, Robert, brother of Roger 
II., of Italy, 299. 
Guizot, French statesman, 642. 
Gumbiner, Abraham, rabbi of Po- 
land, 581. . 
Gumperz, Aaron Solomon, 594. 
Gumprecht, Isaac Joseph, of Frank- 
fort, 632. 
Guntram, of Burgundy, 348. 
Giinsburg, Mordecai Aaron, 672. 
Giinzburg, Baron Horace, 686. 
Giinzburg, Baron Joseph, 686. 
Guzman, Alvar Perez de, 446. 
Guzman, John Alphonso de, 446. 
Guzman, Leonora de, 440. 


Habad, intellectual Hasidism, 586. 

Habakkuk, the prophet, 158. 

Habbus, Berber prince in Spain, 
5157310: 

Habsburgs, 547, 725. 

Hadad, Edomite prince, 61. 

Hadad, king of Damascus, 68. 

Peete king of Zobah, 51, 52, 

2 


Hadadezer, king of Damascus, 76, 


79. 

Hadashah, Palestine, 145. 

Hadid, Palestine, 156. 

Hadrian, Roman emperor, 212- 
215, 216; 217, 290. 

Hagenau, diet of, on ritual murder 
question, 376. 

Haggadah, homiletic teachings of 
Tannaim, 223, 281. 

Haggai, the prophet, 120, 158. 

Hagiz, Jacob, rabbi of Jerusalem 
560, 561, 573-576. 

Hague, Netherlands, 499. 

Hai, Gaonof Pumbeditha, 274-276, 
Ate 280, 281, 301, 314, 317, 357, 


793 


Haifa, Palestine, 6, 379, 427, 724. 

Hakam II., caliph in Spain, 308, 
310, 314. 

‘Hakenkreuzler,’ German and Aus- 
trian Anti-Semites, 736. 

Halakah (religious law), legal 
teachings of Tannaim, 174, 223; 
developed and arranged, 270. 

Halakoth, Great, compendious 
code, 256. 

Halévy, composer, 632-643. 

Halle, Germany, 581, 591, 638. 

Halle, Jews of, expelled, 366. 

Halperin, banker of Berdiczev, 672. 

Ham, brother of Shem, 3. 

ee France, Jews massacred at, 


Haman, Persian minister, 217, 434. 

Hamath, Syria, 52, 76, 84, 100, 
109. 

Hamburg, Jews in, 486, 493-496, 
552, 563, 590, 634-635, 637; 
emancipation of, 636. 

Hammudites, Arab dynasty, 315. 

Hammurapi, Babylonian king, 
code of, 7. 

Hamon, Joseph, physician to sul- 
tans, 513. 

Hamon, Moses, physician to Sul- 
aiman IJ., 487, 513, 514. 

Hamor, sons of, aristocratic family 
at Shechem, 27. 

Hanan, high priest, 193, 195, 199. 

Hananel, high priest, 169. 

Hananel, son of Hushiel, of Kaira- 
wan, 281-282, 302, 317. 

Hananiah, false prophet, 111. 

Hananiah, high priest, 194. 

Hananiah, son of Onias IV., com- 
mander in Egyptian army, 154. 

Hananiah, founds school in Baby- 
lonia, 216. 

Hananiah, exilarch, 260. 

Hananiah, son of Judah, Gaon of 
Pumbeditha, 273. 

Hanina, son of Teradion, Tanna, 
21, 2197220; 

Hanno, king of Gaza, 99, 100, 101. 

Hanover, Jews of, 636. 

Hanseatic cities, Jews of, 632. 

Hanun, king of Ammon, 51. 

Hanukkah, 141. 

Haran, 4, 107, 108, 109, 334, 335. 

Harby, Isaac, of Charleston, 648. 

Hardenberg, Prussian minister, 
623, 633. 


794 


Harkavy, Abraham, 686. 

Harmhab, king of Egypt, 12. 

Harod, well of, Palestine, 26. 

Harrison, President, 700. 

Harun ar-Raschid, caliph, 349, 

Harvard College, 604. 

Hasadiah, scholar of Oria, Italy, 
300. 

Hasan (Josiah), appointed exilarch 
by Saadiah, 269. 

Hasidism, 581-588. 

Haskalah (enlightenment), in Rus- 
sia, 671-672, 686-687. 

Hasmoneans, Maccabean dynasty 
in Judea, 151-168. 

Havilah, land of, 278. 

Hayim, of Volozhin, head of school, 
630, 672. 

Hayun, Nehemiah Hiya, cabalistic 
imposter, 571-574. 

Hayyuj, Judah, Hebrew gramma- 
rian, 315, °317;,357. 

Hazael, of Damascus, 79, 82-83. 

Hazor, in Naphtali, 62. 

Hebraists, Christian: in Italy, 395, 
479, 482-483; in Germany, 483-— 
485. 

Hebrew literature, modern, begin- 
nings of, 576, 639-641; in Russia, 
671-672, 686-687. 

Hebrew Union College, at Cincin- 
nati, 681, 698, 723. 

Hebrew University, of Jerusalem, 
131, JSP. 

Hebron, Palestine, 9, 22, 42, 45, 
46, 47, 48, 56, 119, 140, 143, 200, 
215, 338, 571, 687. 

Hechler, British chaplain, 707. 

Hegel, German philosopher, 641. 

Heidelberg, 499, 635. 

Heilprin, Jehiel, historian, 581. 

Heilprin, Michael, 694. 

Heine, Heinrich, 318, 639, 643. 

Hejira, Mohammed’s flight to Me- 
dina, 250. 

Ee as treasurer of Seleucus, 
135. 

Heliopolis, Egypt, 147. 

Hellenists, in Jerusalem, 138, 142, 
146. 

Heller, Yom Tob Lipmann, 547— 
550/555, 

Helmstedt, Germany, 594. 

Henry II., emperor, 354. 

Henry IV., German emperor, 359. 

Henry VI., German emperor, 372. 


INDEX 


Henry I., of England, 384. 

Henry II., of England, 385, 386. 
Henry III., of England, enforces 
wearing of ‘Badge,’ 388, 389. 
Henry II., of Castile, 442-443, 445. 
Henry III., of Castile, 446, 448, 

449, 452, 453. 
Henry IV., of Castile, 460, 461, 
462. 
Henry IV., of France: 488. 
Henry, bishop of Ratisbon, 418. 
Henry, duke of Bavaria, 404, 
Henry de Trastamara, 440-441. 
(See Henry II., of Castile.) 
Henry, French colonel, in Dreyfus 
affair, 703. 
ete Byzantine emperor, 266, 
8. 
Hercules I., duke of Este, 503. 
Hermeneutic principles, taught by 
Hillel, 175. 
Hermon, mount, 
52 301. 

Herod, the Great, king of the Jews, 
154, 164, 165, 166-168, 169-176, 
179, 188, 193, 205. 

Herod, half-brother of Antipas, 181. 

Herod, uncle of Agrippa I1., 191. 

Herodias, wife of Antipas, 181, 187. 

Herodium, fortress, 173, 200, 203. 

Herrera, Alonzo de (Abraham), 
cabalist of Amsterdam, 488. 

Herz, Henrietta, Berlin salon of, 
622. 

Herz, Leopold Edler von, 633. 

Herz, Marcus, of Berlin, 621-622. 

Herz, Marianna von, 633. 

Herzl, Theodore (Benjamin Zeeb), 
founder of Zionism, 703- 709, 
711-712, 730. 

Heshbon, Transjordania, 18. 

Hess, Moses, 679-680, 703. 

Hesse, Jews in, emancipation ‘of, 
635-636, 656. 

Hesse- Cassel, landgrave of, 645. 

Hezekiah, king of Judah, 100-103, 
104, 109, 

Hezekiah, patriot leader in Gales 
executed by Herod, 165. 

Hezekiah, exilarch, Gaon of Pum- 
beditha, 276, 317. 

Hezekiah, of Treves, 362. 

High priest, head of Judean com- 
monwealth, 130. 

Hilary, of Poitiers, 346. 

Hilarion, metropolitan of Kiev, B27. 


in Palestine, 4, 


bh x ws 


Holland. fewa ia, de. Soh, de, 
603, O04, GMS, 74% PE ¢ eextanie: 
pation ey, OTR, Witte. -. 

Hoimes, Nathanied Lug hy yay 
sion! ary, 4190, ar, 

Holy of i oles, ix thie Faas, 0 
entered by high Gragt Gres 


year, 64: entered py Antiorhe aa 
t\ io ee a ob Dielatis Oes- os 

s * r" SeHAtStins = e¥ Sener ié ALT 
G63 


Homber y. Herz, G2£5-4m) 
Homen, Loperx, Marans, $87, 
Henoriua [11. prep, 375, 2 
Hophni, son of Hii, priest, 3% 
Flephra, king at Baryyn whl : . 
Herace, Roman poet. 92 a, 
are Pana) HOU aa Se { yet: c 
14, 16, 72, 74, (See alee Sia, 
Hormn2ii rt . king at Perea, 222 
Hosea, the prophet, 92-4. 807 
ere e i 
Hoshaish, author of Tasepdex. 
225. 226, 2238. 
Fleshea, king af Israei, OF, 2. ya 
Hourwitz, Zalkind. of Paria, G1 Bette 
Hubertueburg, Peace of, 595. as 
Bagh, chancellor of France, 93! “A 
Hugh, of Lincoln, bit ahel af 


wom 


FRO--490) ; 
Maco. Vieton F rench [eset, #55. é 
Hutiiah, ihr orophetrss, 106 ; —- ha 
fiuich, Jake, in Paws ne, 4, LS. noe os 


Mismanisen,reviwal od by ning, 47%, 
Hiumboteti, Wihbebn wun Prassiag 

giatesman, 623,635. — . . 
Haina, exilarch, 235. ! ae 


Huna, Babylonian Amora, 246, sre & : 
244. . wey 

Hungary, Jews in, 377, G2, +, oon Ont 
693, 736. ; a 

Hurwitz, Isaiah, cabattst, 24. Pe, 


Hushei, councilor of Dawnt, “7 
Hushiet, gon of Ethanan, of Rasta 
wan, 286, St7. 
Hussites, waca of the, 433, 4a5 
Hutten, Uirich von, raat rtrd : | 
‘Reuchlin, 484... Fat We "hoe Aa 
Hyvksos, Syrian beaut, 8... 2 fe Gs 
Hyreanis, fortress of, 170 a eae, iS ee 
Hyrceanus it., hi prinety 1095 >» rt 
163, 167; ethaare 16 wh 
Hyrcanus, of family oe Tohts 
134, 138. iter 


19% 


biarkavy, Abraham, 696, 07 (0 

Marmbab, bag of Egypt, 12. he 

Harod, weil oi, Palestine, 26, 

Harrison, President, 700, 

Harun ar-Raschid, caliph, 440.) 

Harvard College, 604. 

Hasadigh, echola¢ of OWwia, ttaly, 
300 

Hasan ( Josiah), appatntyd exilarch 
by Saadiah, 269. ee 

; asidiam, 581-988: 

tHankalah (enlightement), ia Rus: os 
sia, 671-672, -GR6RB7, i ee 

Hasmoneans, Macoabean <iymsty ae 
513 lutte He =< 268. : 

Havilult, dawd of 27B 4 

Flaydna, of VG atin, head of acho, 
U2. MY, : a 

ay un, Senin Hiya. eabalistic 
PIVAL 2 PSE oe eo 

: tae ay B hse ie H * gramma- 
ray Oe hy AY. 337. 

fiopags, Of k ‘Damar, 79, 82-83. 

hw, dey ‘aphiah, 62; ae 

Hoblrgiets, Christian: ios Healy, 305, 5 
$79, 443489; in — thas me: 
4u8 a 

Heche tirerature, in3 . 
ningsal. 57663968 
67 t- a7? 66-68t, ae i 

Hebres Union Calle Gini * 
matt OB, $08.7 fae 

Hebrew 4 orvietaity, ‘at : . 


73% ay igh 


Hebron, ‘eiestine, ¥," ai 0 x 
ab), 8 6%, 56, 2119, 
PTH. 258 RE, 627, 


pete reat chap ls 


Sie ahecyPe loa. 


ebyukoelt ; € et Wh, 
Henry L)., 2nd (ae 
. . 


a1 


Howry TY |, (erence ae a " 
Heary VI... <seetnetr es ‘Spee - 


INDEX 


Hildesheimer, Israel, 682. 
oral high priest under Josiah, 


Hilkiah, son of Onias IV., com- 
mander in Egyptian army, 154. 

Hillel, Tanna, 174-175, 199, 205, 
206, 222, 229, 353. 

Hillel II., patriarch, 229, 230. 

Hillel, of Verona, philosopher, 480. 

Hilleli, Bible MS. in Spain, 335. 

Himyarites, 248. 

Hinderbach, bishop of Trent, 417. 

ae valley of, in Jerusalem, 
104. 

Hiram, king of Tyre, 52, 63, 65, 95. 

Hirsch, Max, German Jewish so- 
cialist, 732. 

Hirsch, Baron Maurice de, phil- 
anthropist, 700-701, 704. 

Hirsch, Samson Raphael, scholar 
and founder of neo-orthodoxy, 
633-664, 679, 680. 

Hirschel, Solomon, rabbi of Lon- 
don, 645. 

Hisda, Babylonian Amora, 243, 
244. 


Hisham II., ruler of Spain, 314. 
History, Jewish writers of: Flavius 
JOP ANE, 295-296; Justus of 
iberias, 296; Sherira Gaon, 274; 
Josippon, 300; Abraham Ibn 
Daud, 332; Samuel Usque, 487; 
Gedaliah Ibn Yahya, 508-509; 
oseph ha-Cohen, 509; Solomon 
bn Verga, 514; Abraham Zac- 
uto, 516; David Gans, 549; Jehiel 
Heilprin, 581; Leopold Zunz, 
639; Nahman Krochmal, 640-— 
641; Solomon Judah Loeb Rapo- 
port, 641; Isaac Marcus Jost, 641; 
Heinrich Graetz, 680; Adolph 
Berliner, 682; Isaac Hirsch 
Weiss, 704; Simon Dubnow, 714. 
Hittites, 7, 12, 18, 65, 83, 96. 
Hivites, 7. 
Hiwi (Hayawaihi), of Balkh, tra- 
ducer of Scriptures, 271. 
Hiya, author of Tosephta, 220, 223, 
228, 236. 
Hochstraten, Dominican dean at 
Cologne, 484. 
Hoffmann, David, scholar, 682. 
Hojeda, Alphonso de, Dominican 
head, 463, 464. 
_ Holdheim, Samuel, 659-662. 


795 


Holland, Jews in, 489, 566, 576, 
603, 604, 605, 728, 732; emanci- 
pation of, 611, 615-616. 

Holmes, Nathaniel, English mis- 
sionary, 490. 

Holy of Ilolies, in the Temple, 64: 
entered by high priest once a 
year, 64; entered by Antiochus 
[V., 137; entered by Pompey, 
£035 

Homberg, Herz, 625-626. 

Homen, Lopez, Marano, 487. 

Honorius III., pope, 375, 420. 

Hophni, son of Eli, priest, 36. 

Hophra, king of Egypt, 111. 

Horace, Roman poet, 292. 

Horeb (Sinai), mountain of God, 
14, 16, 72, 73. (See also Sinai.) 
Hormizd IV., king of Persia, 247. 
ae the prophet, 92-94, 107, 

158. 


Hoshaiah, author of Tosephta, 
223, 226, 228. 

Hoshea, king of Israel, 97, 99. 

Hourwitz, Zalkind, of Paris, 610. 

Hubertusburg, Peace of, 595. 

Hugh, chancellor of France, 351. 

Hugh, of Lincoln, blood libel of, 
389-390. 

Hugo, Victor, French poet, 695. 

Huldah, the prophetess, 106. 

Huleh, lake, in Palestine, 5, 157. 

Humanism, revival oflearning,479. 

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, Prussian 
statesman, 623, 633. 

Huna, exilarch, 235. 

Huna, Babylonian Amora, 
244. 

Hungary, Jews in, 377, 626, 658, 
693, 736. 

Hurwitz, Isaiah, cabalist, 524. 

Hushai, councilor of David, 57. 

Hushiel, son of Elhanan, of Kaira- 
wan, 280, 317. 

Hussites, wars of the, 413, 415. 

Hutten, Ulrich von, supports 
Reuchlin, 484. 

Hyksos, Syrian bedouins, 8. 

Hyrcania, fortress of, 170. 

Hyrcanus II., high priest, 160—- 
163, 167; ethnarch, 164-166, 171, 
288. 

Hyrcanus, of family of Tobiads, 
134, 135. 


241, 


796 


Ibleam, Palestine, 79. 

Ibn Abithor, Joseph, 314. 

Ibn Abi-Zimra, David, 517, 518, 
522; 

Ibn Adonijah, Jacob, son of Hayim, 
compiler of Masoretic notes, 483. 

Ibn Adret, Solomon, of Barcelona, 
397, 430-432, 435, 444. 

Ibn Aknin, Joseph, 344. 

Ibn Alamani, Aaron Benzion, 330. 

Ibn al-Balia, Baruch, 325, 327. 

Ibn al-Balia, Isaac, son of Baruch, 
S2Tw e228: 

Ibn al-Bazak, Mazliah, 301. 

Ibn al-Fakhar, Abraham, 334. 

Ibn Abi Amir (Almanzur), 314. 

Ibn Ata, Abraham, Nagid of Kaira- 
wan, 278. 

Ibn Azhar, Eleazar, 325. 

Ibn Bakuda, Bahye, 320. 

Ibn Benveniste, Joseph, son of 
Ephraim, treasurer, of Castile, 
437. 

Ibn Chiquitilla, Moses, 333. 

Ibn Crescas, Abiathar, physician 
to John II., of Aragon, 460. 

Ibn Daud, Abraham, 325, 332, 345. 

Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 302, 332-334, 
364, 386, 395, 427, 479, 496, 499, 
640. 

Ibn Ezra, Isaac, 326. 

Ibn Ezra, Judah, 332. 

Ibn Ezra, Moses, 322, 325-327, 
eon: 

Ibn Farusal, Solomon, 324. 

Ibn Gabirol, Solomon, 282, 317- 
320, 326, 394, 424, 643. 

Ibn Gaon, Shem Tob, son of Abra- 
ham, cabalist, 432. 

Ibn Ghayyath, Isaac, 322, 326. 

Ibn Habib, Jacob, of Saloniki, 514, 
519. 

Ibn Habib, Levi, rabbi of Jeru- 
salem, 519-520. 

Ibn Hasan, Jekuthiel, 318. 

Ibn Hasdai, Hasdai, 321. 

Ibn Hasdai, Joseph, poet, 321. 

Ibn Jau, brothers, of Cordova, 314. 

Ibn Jau, Jacob, 314. 

Ibn Janah, Jonah, grammarian and 
econ nes 317,320, .d0suaonh 
394, 

Ibn Kamnial, Abraham, 324. 

Ibn Kuraish, Judah, of Tahert, 282. 

Ibn Lab, Joseph, of Constantino- 
ple, 517. 


INDEX 


Ibn Megas, Joseph, 316, 321. 

Ibn Megas, Joseph, son of Meir, 
325) See al. 

Ibn Megas, Meir, 332, 334. 

Ibn Muhajar, Abu Ishak, 324. 

Ibn Muhajar, David, 325. 

me cm Ukba, founds Kairawan, 
214. 

Ibn Naghdela, Joseph, son of Sam- 
uel, 282, 317, 321. 

Ibn Naghdela, Samuel, statesman 
oe scholar, 281, 282, 315-318, 

ats 

Ibn Negro, David, collector of cus- 
toms at Portugal, 445. 

Ibn Nunez, Jacob, physician to 
Henry IV. of Castile, 460. 

Ibn Pulgar, Isaac, 437. 

Ibn Rumahis, Arab admiral, 313. 

Ibn Sarjado, Aaron, Gaon of Pum- 
beditha, 269, 273, 274. 

Ibn Shalbib, Amram, 323. 

Ibn Shaprut, Hasdai, 308-312, 313, 
314, 526. 

Ibn Shaprut, Isaac, 308, 310. 

Ibn Shaprut, Shemtob, 443. 

Ibn Shem-Tob, Joseph, 457. 

Ibn Shoshan, Joseph, 334. 

Ibn Shoshan, Judah ha-Cohen, of 
Fez, 332. 

Ibn Sid, Zag (Isaac), of Toledo, 
astronomer, 428. : 

Ibn Tashufin, Yusuf, Almoravide 
ruler, 323-324. 

Ibn Tibbon, Jacob, 397. 

Ibn Tibbon, Judah, son of Saul, 
father of translators, 393-394. 
Ibn Tibbon, Samuel, son of Judah, 

translator, 394. 
Ibn Tumart, founder of Almo- 
hades, 331. 
Ibn Verga, Judah, historian, 514. 
Ibn Verga, Solomon, historian, 514. 
Ibn Wakar, Judah, 437. 

Ibn Wakar, Samuel, physician of 
Alphonso XI. of Castile, 437. 
Ibn Yahya, David, of Naples, 502. 
Ibn Yahya, Gedaliah, historian, 

508-509. 
Idrisids, Arab dynasty of, 277. 
Idumea, 140, 167, 178, 195, 200. 
Idumeans, 142, 143, 152, 166, 167, 
199. . 
Ifra Hormizd, mother of Shapur 
II., 244. 


796 ee 


tbleam, Peleetine, 79,’ 
ibn Atithar, foseph, 314, 
ibn Abi-Zimra, David: 7, 514, 
S>2 
thn Adonijah, Jacwb, scn'of Hayim, 

compuer of Masoretay wotes, 
tbe Br apks Solomen ai Barcelona, 
, 450-432, 435, 94, 
thn nig Sir Jaseph, ‘aga. 
lon Adamant, Aare Benzion, 3a0:, 
Litt a- at jn, Rare, W275, $37. 
Hin al Balin, isaac, son of Baril 


i Oa van Aiaatiah: 301: 

lh LF at 4, , Abraham, cx? Oe 
ibn Abi Acer (4A bmanaDS ste i" 
tien Ada, Ae sain, Nagid ott 


wry eh Mae 
iB . Elesanr ; oa 
the He site, Bahye, 3 
{ 


bs Rom eankites jong 80x of 
Aw Bek treasurer, . Gy: 


rt eo waitila, Monae 8 Bae 
ss: CRS, Abiat a” 
rs joha DL, of Aragon aah 
‘ig: Uswareh, Abwrahaatn, 3m, $33, 
isn, xray) Abraham, 302, alt Se, 
3 “5, MBG, 395, 477 478, 49, icles 


pte . ea, Isaac, 326,” 
Sheu Sere, Judah, 3 


the Forni. Moses, — fost 


xt 2 argsal, Selamen; a. - i 
3» tehinol, Soloman, #az 782, Ab= 
326, 394, 4248, OE, si 


. age, Shera Tob: so obra | z 

+, cabalist, 432, Cae 
tua (ahapyath, beam, 320) Se 
i ve teeta, Jacob, of Salonik, 


iwi Fal ists, Levi,’ rabbi of 
Gee A ” Rie 520, j be Smee 
Lions PE eat, . Jekuthiel, 38. 
i $a tal, Hasdai, 321 


eee 
ibe fae, dy; B14. an 3 os 
eae “coches Ba 


Uber} in’ a as bs eG L Abrabain, ‘se "ij 
f by ie ne se he Pe juddabe, ~*~ 


Limes tht t eg 1a of Cc ’ 
4 es % a ts 
* . 3: - 


rictions 5 against, ree 
Adee, 719-720, es 


z% " 
\ ee a 
Rady a ee 
ea ‘ 
ey aad 


; Ison’ arte a: . 

‘S81; buil Laituaane ey: 

oi murder Tsiterancs - A Cr | . ¥ 
; Ish a ee vw bias Wis ’ a ay | 

Ishtar, « gh , ee ae 

om A = 


, 


of, a eri: ‘S Oe ; y : 
paitinre ie ee * Matar, 
ee 

ables ae na #3 = ‘ 


Sethian: cathe rit 
oath. Be is, 


“sf re 
h Psa Pera " ont 2 ae 


he rag 
fect fo Ap my 


ys 


INDEX 


Ma North Africa, Jews in, 

i  PoeRe™ 

Ignatiev, Russian minister, 695, 
696. 


Immanuel, of Rome, Hebrew poet, 
480. 

Immigration, restrictions against, 
af the United States, 719-720, 

6. 

Imola, Italy, 508. 

Speen Arab king and poet, 
250. 

Indies, West, 472, 491, 492. 

Inigo, Martin, Inquisitor, 467. 

Innocent III., pope, 369, 373, 374, 
419, 615. 


Innocent IV., pope, 380, 581; bull | 


condemning ritual murder 
charge, 381, 382. 

Innocent VIII., pope, 470. 

Inquisition: introduced into Ara- 

on, 425; introduced into Cas- 

tile, 460-461; made general in 
Spain, 463-469; introduced into 
Portugal, 475-476; introduced 
into Netherlands, 487-488; in- 
troduced into Italy, 502, 506, 
507, 569. 

Irak (Babylonia), 254. 

Iran, Persia, 254. 

Isaac, patriarch, 9. 

Isaac, Jew of France, in embassy 
to Harun ar-Raschid, 349. 

Isaac, son of Abraham, rabbi of 
Gerona, 430. 

rn son of David, of Mayence, 

62. 

Isaac, son of Eleazar ha-Levi, of 
Worms, 356. 

Isaac, son of Eliakim, of Worms, 
361. 

Isaac, son of Eliakim, rabbi of 
Wiirzburg, 366. 

Isaac, son of Eliezer, carries Has- 
dai’s epistle to Chazar king, 310. 

Isaac, son of Joseph, of Corbeil, 


Isaac, son of Judah, rabbi of May- 
ence, 356. 

Isaac, son of Leon, of Cordova, 
316. 

Isaac, son of Meir, Rashi’s grand- 
son, 364. 

Isaac, son of Moses, rabbi of Vi- 
enna, 380, 381. 

Isaac, the Elder, son of Samuel, of 


797 


Dampierre, cosaphist, 368, 370. 

Isaac, the younger, of Dampierre, 
tosaphist, 370. 

Isaac (Maestro Gaio), papal phy- 
sician, 480. 

Isaac, rabbi of Chernigov, 527. 

ae of Volozhin, Polish rabbi, 

Isabella, the Catholic, of Castile, 
459, 461, 462, 463-471. 

Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand 
and Isabella, 474. 

Isaiah, the prophet, 96-98, 100, 
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 117, 138, 
158, 640. ' 

Isenburg, Germany, 416. 

Ishbaal, son of Saul, 45, 46, 47, 51. 

Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, 113. 

Ishmael, Tanna, 213, 216, 218, 223. 

Ishtar, Babylonian goddess, 10, 
104, 110. | 

Isidore of Seville, 305, 309. 

[spahan, Jews in, 245. 

Israel: early history of, 4-21; in 
Palestine, 22-99; relation to God 
of, in prophecies of Amos, Hosea 
and Isaiah, 91-94, 96-97, 118; 
according to Meir Tanna, 218; 
according to Judah ha-Levi, 329. 

Israel, Kingdom of, 67-100. 

Israel Baal Shem Tob, 582. (See - 
Besht.) 

Israel, of Enns (Austria), 413. 


‘Israel, of Krems, ‘chief rabbi’ of 


German Jews, 412. 

Israeli, Isaac, of Toledo, 435. 

Israeli, Isaac, son of Solomon, phy- 
sician and philosopher, 265, 285. 

Issachar, tribe of, 9, 24. 

Isserlein, Israel, of Neustadt, 408, 
414, 415, 416. 

Isserles, Moses, Polish rabbi, 537, 
546, 549, 556, 581. 

‘Istituto Rabbinico,’ of Padua, 640. 

Istéczi, Hungarian Anti-Semite, 
693. 

Italy, Jews in, to the 12th century, 
287-302; to 1492, 479-482; to 
17th century, 501-511; since, 
552, 569, 597, 615, 639-640, 678, 
730. 

Itil, Chazar capital, 526. 

Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, 
336. ts 

Ittai the Gittite, general of David, 
57, 


798 


Itureans, forced to accept Judaism, 
154, 

Itzig, Daniel, 
619, 632. 

Ivan III., czar of Moscow, 531. 

Izdundad, Persian princess, wife of 
exilarch Bustani, 255. 


banker, of Berlin, 


Jabbok, river, in Palestine, 5, 26, 
45, 51. 

Jabesh, Transjordania, 33, 38, 44, 
45. 


Jabneh, Palestine, 143, 151, 178, 
187; academy at, 205, 206, 217, 
221. 

Jabotinsky, Vladimir, 731, 734, 
Ee 


Jacob, patriarch, 9, 21, 557, 599. 


Jacob, son of Amram, Nagid of 
Kairawan, 278. 
Jacob, son of Asher, author of 


‘Turim,’ 438-439, 520, 545. 
Jacob, son of Jakar, of Mayence, 
pupil of Gershom, 356. 
Jacob, son of Gaudiocus, of France, 
551% 


Jacob, son of Nissim, of Kairawan, 
280, 317. 
Jacob, of Orleans, rabbi in London, 
386. 
- Jacob, son of Shullam, 362. 
Jacob Tam. (See Tam, Jacob.) 
Jacobins, in France, 610. 
Jacobs, Joseph, scholar, 720. 
Jacobsohn, Israel, educator and 
reformer, 616-617, 633-634. 
Jael, wife of a Kenite, 24. 
Jaen, Spain, 308, 442, 462, 466. 
Jafta, Palestine, 8, 65, 139, 143, 
147, 148, 150, 152, 156, 164, 167, 
171, 612, 679, 697, 713, 731, 736. 
Jaffe, Mordecai, Polish rabbi, 546. 
Jagello, Polish socialist, 718. 
Jagellos, Polish dynasty of, 529, 
530, 534. 
Jair, Manassite clans of, 19. 
Jakini, Abraham, Sabbatian, 559. 
Jamal Pasha, governor of Pales- 
. tine, 726. 
Jamaica, island of, 492. 
James I., of Aragon, 419, 420, 425. 
James ee of England, 644, 
Jannai, Tanna, 226-228. 
Jannai, liturgist, 270. 
Japheth, son of Elijah, rabbi of 
Acco, 337, 


IND E-X 


Japan, 714, 729. 

Jarmuch, river, in Palestine, 5. 

Jaroslav, Poland, 538, 726. 

Jason (Jeshua), Hellenizer, high 
priest, 135-137. 

Jason, son of Eleazar, leads em- 
bassy to Rome, 145. 

Jassy, Rumania, 688. 

Jastrow, Marcus, scholar, 681, 684. 

Jazdegerd II., Sassanian ruler, 245. 

Jazdegerd ite 247. 

Jeanne I., of Navarre, 436. 

Jeanne iis of Navarre, 436. 

Jeb, 126. (See Elephantine.) 

Jebusites, 7. 

Jedaiah, son of Abraham, of Béz- 
iers, 397, 

Jefferson, Thomas, President, 606. 

Jehiel, son of Abraham, head of 
school at Rome, 301. 

Jehiel, of Paris, 378, 379, 427. 

Jehiel, Michael, of Nemirov, 553. 

Jehiel, of Pisa, 505. 

Jehoahaz, king of Israel, 83. 

Jehoahaz, king of Judah, 108, 109. 

eee king of Judah, 81- 83, 83- 

106. 


Jehoiachin, eee of Judah, 110, 
114, 116, 119. 

Jehoiada, chief priest, 81. 
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, 109, 110. 
Jehoiarib, priestly class of, 139. 
Jehoram, king of Judah, 76, 77, 78. 
Jehoram, king of Israel, 78, 79, 80. 
Jehosteenae king of Judah, 71, 76, 


Jehu king of Israel, 79-80, 82, 83, 
95. 


Jehudai, Gaon of Sura, 256, 263, 
266, 277. 

Jephthah, judge, 29, 30, 38. 

Jerahmeel, Judean clan, 119. 

Jeremiah, the prophet, 106-107, 
109-113, 114, 139, 158. 

Jericho, Palestine, 19, 22, 25, 74, 
112, 119, 151, 161, 167, 169, 170, 
ii 

Jeroboam, king of Israel, 65, 67, 68. 

Jeroboam II., king of Israel, 84, 90, 
92, 95, 96. 

Jerusalem, 7, 22, 33, 41, 47, 48, 49, 
365, 369, SH, 408, 475, 486, 522, 
563, 569, 573, 612, 613, 649, 708. 

Jerusalem, Jews in, in 12th cen- 
tury, 337-338; in 13th century, 
345, 426-427; in 15th-16th cen- 


he a 524: in t/th 


i es SINC, Pia, 


arti an m- Poth 


o~ t  S& van 


Joba CPi £ op” oe 3 ah, A Ory. 


; 
join, of Ninwaers quae Pene ae 
am ) P / Sik 
john f., of Atepi. pecadiees Gees 
+ heh, é 
, 
jonn fi., of Arai, eae 


son i 7 C tity ee a RA 
ioha }1., of Costtey $27 O58, ae 
25%. 459. 
john C, of Portugal, 4 
Joba if. af Ho tea eb, $2.4. Oo. G28 
S01 ' 
john THl., of gat, hi 
fohn T.., ot Pyar ") Rite 
john Castmir, of Poluad, aa 
DEG; 
jatin Sobiesh t al Poles : ST, 
pote 1f., archbishep of Mase 
41}, ; 
Johason-todge momnigratiat- 2 
736, 
jon! iNetribution Core nitensee. oF 
Anwerica, 728, i738 
ee agg fortress of, &3, 
gpsh, prophet, p43, 

Jonah, son of Abvatiam of ¢ aaa: 
telat, $24. 421, 422, 482 
jJonathe:, Maccsbee, high wees 
adiiitulter, 243, 346. }45+544 

onathan, h ie pies, 1ST, 

onathan, oo ef Abiatyar £6 

unat haz, eon mM Daviel eof ee 
of Limel, 393. 

Jonathan, soo of Saul, SR, Jo, 4 
44,47, 54, ; 

pean river, 4, 5, 6, 14, 19, 3a 
24, 25, 26, 30, 33, 35, 48, 46.54. 
56,57, $9, 65, 67, 14, 3. Me. 
‘AR, 120, 134, 243, 146, 148, £25, 
154, 156, 63, 189, 1#7, 298, am 
201, 252, 697, 741. 

ese, son of Halaphthe, Tarnow, 2 

ie son of en Hrargiet, re 

eet age », Abrubauit, of Pruksca, 


Josefovics, Michaes, ‘sonice” hoe 


in Lithuania, S50. 
Joseph, tyile of, %, +f: 
“63, $1, $22. 


§ ae ‘ Y pahyeeceet. See es. (ae 2wttam, wile of. 


, Kae ti.. Peay $45) FS) 
ie is aoe 4 ee a bea, 205, 206, ‘ 
‘ ‘ ‘s ; 
y ‘ 


* PD, tadirnir, BB ae x ee , 


pt eee er a 24, $57. 590. z 
i as » | Giameee ry 6 Peiabots Nagid of 


~ TR 


eae. SPR: a Ce aes 

Av teh Asher. auch? of ‘ i 

Powe: Gab Fs a, 2G, 548° ; ‘ 
ait oa ‘Jal war, of Mayence, a 

a at tsersh Noni, SSG ee 

ee | (int rdioc ipa, af Fran’. 


Wek war at N in iasinn, ad Karas. 


c4 rans, rabbi it Lone ah 


4 oy + af Shullam, 382, ote 
vat Paw, See Tan, Jacob.) 
th ae rance, 610), sa 
eae ae aS | wh, schok: ae, 720. 
pee SEAR, Tersel, oacnaor» 
come sear, 616-627, 633-634, 
er, ahh ofa Kenite, 24. 
(ie ik, Ta 208, 442, 462, 466. 
iwta, ONtestine, 8, 63, aR gas, 
ee ey 150, 152/456, Lik. hat, 
Pot, BHS,.079, 697; 71S 2G8, 736. - 
2 Oi, WiGst decai, Polish rami, 540. 
ge, Path sociale, TRL oe 


bap Menke Psdiiks dynasty” 
eA Fees 

pale, Mebane ie clanaol: 19, 

pao Abe sheets Sabbatian, 
LeARs 


é oa, emer’ of 
tine, 750.4 Baral 
Jamaleca, sah ail ih, 492, om 
lames L., af has agua, 419 
James ite aT Sea pated, 
Junmal, "Vonks Tiss ; 
lannai, liturgia, pots, a 
Japheth, son 4 eye rabbi 
5 


Acco, 337, 


? 
on 
4 


PEND: BX 


tury, 518-519, 520, 524; in 17th 
century, 559, 560-561; in 18th 
century, 5/0-571; since, 713, 
1S 4 TS 1: 

Jeshanah, Palestine, 167. 

Jeshua, brother of high priest Jo- 
hanan, 126. 

Ieee son of Dannai, high priest, 
193. 

Jeshua, son of Gamaliel, high priest, 
193, 199. 

Jeshua, son of Sappha, in com- 
mand at Idumea, 195. 

Jesse, father of David, 97. 

Jesus of Nazareth, 181-183, 199, 
228, 341, 367, 378, 456, 498, 604, 
622. 

Jewish Colonial Trust, Zionist 
bank, 707. 

Jewish Colonization Association, 
700-701. 

Jewish National Fund, 707, 724. 

‘Jewish Peril,’ or ‘Protocols of 
Elders of Zion,’ 736. 

Jewish Publication 
America, 724. 

Shatabe Territorial Organization, 

12 


Society of 


Jewish Theological Seminary of 
America, 699, 723. 

Jews, origin of name, 112. 

Jews’ College, of London, 722. 

Jezebel, wife of Ahab, 71-73, 74, 
76, 79, 81. | 

Jezreel, plain of, 24, 35, 43, 74, 79, 
86, 87, 108. (See also Esdraelon, 
plain of.) 

Joab, son of Zeruiah, David’s gen- 
eral, 46, 47, 49, 51-53, 55-59, 61. 

Joazar, high priest, 179. 

Jodephath, fortress of, 197. 

Joel, prophet, 158. 

Johanan, of Gish-halab, 196, 198, 
199-203. 

Johanan, high priest, 126. 

Johanan, Maccabee, 146. 

Johanan, Palestinian Amora, 226- 
228, 239. 

Johanan (Hyrcanus), son of Simon, 
high priest and king, 150, 151, 
152-153. 

Johanan, son of Zaccai, Tanna, 
leader of Pharisees, 205-207. 
John (Johanan) the Baptist, 180, 

181 


John, bishop of Spires, 360. 


799 


John the Good, of France, 399. 

John, of Navarre, expels Jews, 472. 

John I., of Aragon, protects Jews, 
448. ; 

John I1., of Aragon, 460. 

John I., of Castile, 444, 445. 

John II., of Castile, 449, 453, 457, 
458, 459. 

John I., of Portugal, 445. 

dae of Portugal, 473, 474, 476, 

John III., of Portugal, 505. 

John I., of Poland, 531. 

Pies Casimir, of Poland, 554-555, 
578. 

John Sobieski, of Poland, 578. 

John II., archbishop of Mayence, 
411. 

Johnson-Lodge immigration bill, 
736. 

Joint Distribution Committee of 
America, 728, 735. 

Joktheel, fortress of, 83. 

Jonah, prophet, 158. 

Jonah, son of Abraham of Gerona, 
talmudist, 394, 421, 422, 430. 
Jonathan, Maccabee, high priest 
and ruler, 143, 146, 147-148. 

Jonathan, high priest, 191-192. 

Jonathan, son of Abiathar, 56. 

Jonathan, son of David ha-Cohen, 
of Lanel 7393 6m 

Jonathan, son of Saul, 38, 39, 40- 
44, 47, 54. 

Jordan, river, 4, 5, 6, 18, 19, 22, 
24, 25, 26, 30, 33, 38, 45, 49, 54, 
§ 630534009 909 0! all See eel 
112, 129, 134, 143, 146, 148, 152, 
154, 156, 163, 180, 182, 190, 200, 
201, 252, 097, 751. 

Jose, son of Halaphtha, Tanna, 220. 

Jose, son of Jose, liturgist, 270. 

Josefovicz, Abraham, of Poland, 
De 1s 

Josefovicz, Michael, ‘senior’ of Jews 
in Lithuania, 532. 

Joseph, tribe of, 9, 11, 12, 22, 27, 
65,91, 922, 

Joseph, brother of Herod, 126, 167. 

Joseph, Babylonian Amora, 241- 
242, 276. 

Joseph Caiaphas, high priest, 182. 

Joseph, Chazar ruler, 526. 

Joseph, of Lyons, 349. 

Joseph, rabbi of London, 384. 

Joseph, leader of Jews of York, 387. 


800 


Joseph (Joselmann), of Rosheim, 
lay head of German Jews, 507, 
547-548. 

Joseph, son of Abba, Gaon of 
Pumbeditha, 258. 

Joseph Bar Satia, Gaon of Sura, 
269, 273. 

Joseph, son of Berechiah, of Kaira- 
wan, 280. 

Joseph, son of Calonymus, of May- 
ence, 362. 

Joseph, son of Gorion, 195, 199. 

Joseph, son of Tobiah, 134. 

Joseph, son of Zechariah, 143. 

Joseph ha-Cohen, of Genoa, physi- 
cian and historian, 509. 

Joseph II., emperor, 596-598; Pat- 
ent of Tolerance of, 624. 

Josephus, Flavius, historian, 195- 
197, 295-296. 

oshua, successor of Moses, 22, 73, 
158, 275)-2798 

Joshua, high priest, 120, 214. 

Joshua, son of Hananiah, Tanna, 
207/212, 243):216, 261: 

Joshua, son of Perahiah, Pharisee 
teacher, 155. 


Josiah, son of Amon, king of Judah, - 


105-106, 108, 110, 160. 

Josippon (Little Josephus), histor- 
ical digest of, 300. 

Jost, Isaac Marcus, 641. 

Jotham, son of Gideon, 27. 

Jotham, king of Judah, 96. 

Juan de San Martin, Spanish In- 
quisitor, 463. 

Juan Ruiz de Medina, Spanish In- 
quisitor, 463. 


Juana, daughter of Henry IV. of. 


Castile, 462. ; 
Judah, tribe of, 9, 22, 24, 33, 39, 
40, 41, 45, 48, 49, 58, 62. 
Judah, Kingdom of, 67-111, 563. © 
Judah I. (Rabbi), patriarch, 220; 
codifies Mishnah, 221, 222, 224, 
225, 226, 233, 235, 236, 244. 
Judah II., patriarch, 225-227. 
Judah ITI., patriarch, 225, 228. 
Judah IV., patriarch, 230. 
Judah, son of Asher, of Toledo, 
436, 438. 
Judah, descendant of Asher son of 
Jehiel, 446-447. 
Judah, son of Baba, Tanna, 216. 
Judah, son of Calonymus, 359. 


INDEX 


ine son of David, exilarch, 269, 

270. 

Judah, son of Ezekiel, founds 
school at Pumbeditha, 241. 

Judah, son of Hezekiah, Galilean, 
177, 179, 190, 203. 

Judah, son of Hai, Tanna, 219- 
220 


Judah, son of Isaac (Sir Leon), of 
Paris, 370. 

Judah, son of Nathan, son-in-law 
of Rashi, 363, 364. 

Judah, son of Simon Maccabee, 
151 


Judah, son of Solomon ha-Cohen 
(Ibn Matkah), of Toledo, 375. 
Judah, the Maccabee, 139, 140, 

142-145, 148. 

Judah, the Saint, son of Samuel 
Calonymus, 370, 372, 424. 

Judah, the Saint, Polish cabalist, 
570-571. 

Judah ha-Levi, of Cordova, 322, - 
324,-325, 326, 327-331, 394. 
Judah, chief rabbi of Portugal, 429. 
Judah, treasurer of Portugal, 445. 
Judah Aristobulus, son of Johanan — 
Hyrcanus, 153; high priest and 

king, 153-154. 

Judea: under Babylonian rule, 113, 
114; under Persian rule, 122; 
under Greek dominion, 129-145; 
independent, under Hasmone- 
ans, 146-168; under Herod the 
Great, 169-176; under Rome, 
177-215. 

‘Judeans,’ members of Jewish le- 
gion, 731.) 

‘Judges’ in early Israel, period of 
the, 24-30, 35-36. 

Judith, empress of France, 351. — 

Juglar, Gaspar, Inquisitor, 467. 

Jugo-Slavia, 733. 

Julian, the Apostate, 229-230, 291. 

Julian, metropolitan of Spain, 306. 

Julius II., pope, 504. 

July Revolution, in France, 642, 


Jupiter Capitolinus, templein Jeru- 
salem to, 135, 205, 215, 291. 

Jupiter, Olympian, temple in Jeru- 
salem dedicated to, 135, 137. 

Jupiter Xenius, Mount Gerizim 
Temple dedicated to, 137. 

bar Byzantine emperor, 265, 
297. 


INDEX 80] ay 


‘ Klausner, Abraham 


_ Kosaath, Hungariah: states miak, > etiam 


Khowrai tl, king of Persia, 247, 


266, : 
Kiera, Esther, favorite at Turkdeh . 
court, S16, 


Mev, Jews of, 552,694, 700. 

Kimbhi, f RA tevirl, £0n or jose shi gram 
marian and  leneinoara nhdes I95- 
396, ¢&3. 

Kimhs, Joseph. son-of Tenac, gpam: 
marin ane) translator, BY5. 

Kimbi, Moaea se a of Josmpin 395, 

Kiriath-se pher, Palestine, 16. 

Rishiney, Russia, whe 


Kishinev, pogrom of, 709-711, 715: 

ishon, river, in Palestine; 6, 24. 
Sak 76. “4 
Kitzingen, Germany, Jews at- ‘, 


tacked at, 380. 


Kiuprilt, Ahmad, vazir of Turkey, 
S64. 


Kienber, image, 


Polish rabbi, 535. 

scncar, 408. 

Klev, Eduard, refarrm er, Gt. 

Kohler, Kaufmann, scholar and re- . 
former, 698, 723, : 

Kohut, Alexander, scholar, 698- ota 
ovo... f 2 

Koidanover, Samuel Aaron. Potish oe 
rabbi, 556, 


Kolon, foseph, of Mantua, 484, wa 
Kénigsberg, Prussia, 591, 595, G86, ee 
694, 


Konitz, Prussia, Jews accused of 
ritual murder at, 709, 
Konstantinoy, Cossacks mavsacre’ Oia 
Jews at; 554. 
Koran, 251. 
Kose iusko, Polish 


general, 666, 


658, | tee 
Kowno, Poland, 669, 687... = Re 
Kavne. fews of, 556, “— fis: ties 
Kremenez, Ruséa, 571. i 
Krems, Austria, Jews magencred at, 


Krochmal, Nahraa, 640-041, § > | Te as 
gi Russias Anti- Basie A 
Kuhn, Loeb, & Company, Ameri- SSR Pit as 
can bankers, 720. je ee A 
Ku Klux Klen, 7360) 9 + wit aR a ara 
pier ba Bela, Heogarian @ Miher ies sy Fie 


Zz 


ears af he -, Arabia bi: 


249, oes 


“a 
\ ake 
fi 


ag { tty euyie ry 2) of Re alpen AG, 
‘ms hes : 01 Leeariat ews, Sab? r 
ho Fo i Judah, 

hoa adn hie. tine Of school 


ior Satie, Caen of Sura; 


toy 73 ? 
yah op of eoretitab: of Katra- 


en Ee ae Goris 195 190, 
ines yeneD 295 mia ) a 
i RR, wry pe noa, phy: ae 
Git. wi Sake ian, 509: . 
mepete. oy bis. anna 590-5 5aRs Pat 
. . mance of, G24. > 7% a 
+ invins, historia, 5 
Tame 5 : 
pide aC of Moan a 73, 
Loh Wee Mee Pe 
jushva, Sete priest; 420, ny ae fit: 
42 i, Soe OF aE anarviady, “Panne, 
eee: 243.2 216, BEA 
tT erahiah, Phariver: 
e985, tye 
oa ef Amon, Ieingetal Tistnbs, 
HES, 08; 110, IA 
ae Cp ee » [om phew), Paerer< 
i PRUNES. tha, 300, 3 rod . 
és aie Marcus, 644% 
ee ae a . Coik Jeon, 27): 
ae Aleeuy y's of Judah, Gh; Be 
cS Sian Marin. Spawn F tps 
ee #68 eo 


: Mecina, See fr 


Pusha, he aM Mee & +g. ge 3 

2,8 r = a 4h. 5a. 6, a a ig 
ae ion 6T-ATE: $64. 
ve: ; ae schid. grr * AI 
impiety 3 Laat, 221, 222; aa 
ie? rg bap Ps 236, 2 244, 
Pathak 4K fp insadhoub 0 25-227. 
joked £5): jouhieaehy 225, 2280, 
; mat | es rents Bet a 250. j 
er rig wim ed beet ih T 


ewe 46-3 AT : : Pi yole & ‘t b ea 
hh { tla hy » WATE ol & bal o. ? ol aby = ~ 
jodah, son of Eudaey ties, AMAL 


INDEX 


Justus of Tiberias, historian, 296. 
Justus of Narbonne, 349. 


Kaaba, at Mecca, 251. 

Kaddish prayer, 160, 243, 341. 

Kadesh, 16. 

Kadir, caliph, 274. 

Kadir, last Mohammedan king in 
Spain, 323. 

ere , Zadoc, chief rabbi of France, 

05. 


Kahana, Yom Tob, Gaon of Sura, . 
264. 


Kainuka’, Jewish tribe in Arabia, 
249, 251. 

Kairawan, Jews in, 277-283. 

Kalir, Eleazar, liturgist, 270. 

Kalischer, Zebi Hirsch, nationalist 
rabbi, 679. 

Kalisz, Russia, 527, 529, 530, 556, 
581. 


Kalla, months of study, in Baby- 
lonian academies, 237, 244. 

Kameniec-Podolsk, Poland, 584. 

Kant, Immanuel, 595, 621. 

Karaites, 262, 263, 265, 268, 271, 
276, 332, 342, 365, 411, 433, 514, 
518, 530, 627, 644, 685-686. 

Karkar, 76, 100. 

Karo, Ephraim, 520. 

Karo, Isaac, son of Joseph, 475. 

Karo, Joseph, of Safed, cabalist 
and codifier, author of the ‘Shul- 
han Aruk,’ 475, 519, 520-522, 
536, 537, 546, 556, 581. 

ae Babylonian scholar, 236, 

Se 

Kattowitz, Silesia, 698. 

oe ah ok eg ald Meir, of Padua, 
537: 


Kaufmann, David, scholar, 681. 

Kazan, Russia, 556. 

Kavadh I., king of Persia, 246. 

Kavadh II., king of Persia, 247. 

Keilah, Palestine, 42, 119. 

Kenites, 22, 24. 

Seer yges Russian statesman, 729, 
32. 

Kerpen, Germany, Jews massacred 

.. #ati36s; 

Khaibar, Arabia, Jews in, 249-253. 
Kharkov, Russia, 697, 711. 
Khazraj, Arab clan, 249-252. 
Kherson, Russia, 669, 709. 
Khnub, Egyptian god, 126. 
Khosrau I., king of Persia, 246. 


801 


eevee II., king of Persia, 247, 

Kiera, Esther, favorite at Turkish 
court, 516. 

Kiev, Jews of, 552, 694, 700. 

Kimhi, David, son of Joseph, gram- 
marian and lexicographer, 395- 
396, 483. 

IXimhi, Joseph, son of Isaac, gram- 
marian and translator, 395. 

Kimhi, Moses, son of Joseph, 395. 

Kiriath-sepher, Palestine, 10. 

Kishinev, Russia, 715. 

Kishinev, pogrom of, 709-711, 715. 

Kishon, river, in Palestine, 6, 24. 
13907 5h 

Kitzingen, Germany, 
tacked at, 380. 

Satya Ahmad, vizir of Turkey, 

64. 

Klauber, Isaac, Polish rabbi, 535. 

Klausner, Abraham, scholar, 408. 

Kley, Eduard, reformer, 634. 

Kohler, Kaufmann, scholar and re- 
former, 698, 723. - 

Kohut, Alexander, scholar, 698- 
699, 

Koidanover, Samuel Aaron, Polish 
rabbi, 556. 

Kolon, Joseph, of Mantua, 481. 

K@6nigsberg, Prussia, 591, 595, 686, 
694. 

Konitz, Prussia, Jews accused of 
ritual murder at, 709, 

Konstantinov, Cossacks massacre 
Jews at, 554. 

Koran, 251. 

Kosciusko, Polish general, 666. 

Kossuth, Hungarian statesman, 
658. 

Kovno, Poland, 669, 687. 

Kovno, Jews of, 556. 

Kremenez, Russia, 671. 

Krems, Austria, Jews massacred at, 
406 


Jews at- 


Krochmal, Nahman, 640-641. 

Krushevan, Russian Anti-Semite, 
709. 

Kuhn, Loeb, & Company, Ameri- 
can bankers, 720. 

Ku Klux Klan, 736. 

Kun, Bela, Hungarian Jewish com- 
munist, 733. 

Kuraiza, Jewish tribe in Arabia, 
249, 252, 253. 


802 INDEX 


Kutais, Russia, Jews accused of 
ritual murder at, 685. 


Lachish, Palestine, 84, 103. 

Lackland, John, of England, 388. 

La Guardia, ritual murder case at 
Avila, 468, 470. 

Laish, Palestine, old name of Dan, 
33% 

Lamel, Simon von, of Vienna, 633. 

Lafiado, Joseph, of ¥amascus, 651. 

Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 606. 

Landau, Ezekiel, rabbi of Prague, 
593, 598. 

Langton, Stephen, archbishop of 
Canterbury, anti-Jewish enact- 
ments of, 388, 389, 

Languedoc, Jews of, 352, 392-401. 

Lapapa, Aaron, anti-Sabbatian, 
SO 2 

Lara, David Cohen de, rabbi at 
Hamburg, 494. 

Lasker, Eduard, German Jewish 
statesman, 691. 

Lassalle, Ferdinand, German Jew- 
ish socialist, 691. 

Lateran Council, third, 367; fourth, 
374, 388, 419. 

Latvia, Jews in, 735. 

Law, Written and Oral, 159. 

Lazarus, Emma, 695. 

Lazarus, Moritz, philosopher, 681. 

League of Nations, 734, 735. 

Leah, wife of Jacob, 9. 

Leander, bishop of Seville, 304, 305. 

Lebanon, 4, 6, 7, 52;20 2,7 G2j465, 
154, 184, 191. 

Lebensohn, Abraham Dob, 672. 

Leeser, Isaac, rabbi, of Philadel- 
phia, 650, 652, 677, 681. 

wie Italy, 488, 557, 560, 562, 
66. 


Legion, Jewish, in Palestine, 728, 
730-731. 

Leibniz, 499. 

Leiden, 499. 

Leipzig, 624, 680. 

Lemberg, Poland, Jews in, 529, 
533, 546, 554, 564, 584, 625. 

Lenczyca, Poland, ritual murder 
charge at, 544. 

Lenin, Nikolai, Bolshevist, 732. 

Leo IV., Byzantine emperor, 526. 

Leo X., pope, 484, 504. 

Leon, Spain, 308, 323, 334, 335. 


Leon, Jews of, 419. 
Les Judah Messer, of Mantua, 
81. 

Leon, Moses de, compiles Zohar, 
432. 

Leon, Rodrigo Ponce de, governor 
of Cadiz, 463. 

Leonora, regent of Portugal, 445. 

Leonora, duchess of Tuscany, 503. 

Leontin (Leon), Judah, son of Meir 
ha-Cohen, of France, 352, 354. 

Leontopolis, Egypt, .Temple of 
Onias in, 147, 204. 

Leopold I., emperor, 590. 

Leopold I., of Austria, 370. 

Leopold H., of Austria, 370. 

Leovigild, Visigoth ruler of Spain, 
304, 305. 

Lepidus, in Second Triumvirate, 
165. 

Lessing, German poet, 594, 590. 

Leven, Narcisse, 705, 

Levi, tribe of, 9. 

Levi, son of Abraham of Ville- 
franche, 397. 

Levi, son of Gershon, philosopher 
and scientist, 400-401, 490. 

Levi, son of Habib, 475. 

Levi, son of Shem-Tob, Jewish 
apostate, 474, 

Levi, Abraham, physician, 428. 

Levi, Nathan Benjamin, Sabba- 
‘tian, 560-561, 562, 5606. 

Levi, Samuel, physician, 428. 

Levin, Hirschel, rabbi of London, 
645. . 

Levin, Mendel, of Satanov, 631. 

Levin, Rachel, Berlin salon of, 622. 

Levinsohn, Isaac Beer, 671. 

Levita, Benedict, of Cracow, 535. 

Levita, Elijah, 482-483. 

Levites, brotherhood of priests, 34, 
122-124, 130. © 

Levy, Hayman, of New York, 605. 

Lewy, Israel, scholar, 682, 722. 

Libnah, Palestine, 78. 

Library, National, at Paris, 483. 

Licinius, co-emperor, 229. 

Lida, Russia, 709. 

Liebmann, Jost, court jeweler at 
Berlin, 572, 590. 

Lilienblum, Moses Loeb, 687, 697. 

Lilienthal, Max, American rabbi, 
671-672, 675-676. 

Limoges, France, Jews banished 
from, 352. 


stints 


6 in, 385, 


INDEX gtd 


Louis iX.. of Havarw, 444. 

Louis of } hungary, king wf eed 
§29, 

paveeas Zion,’ 6937-498, 9 By, ANT 
Liberk, jews in, 61%, o. 

Lubtia, Poland, Jews j int, $3.3, 345 
537, 538, $43, S44 544 S584 ate 
580, . 

j iibay, ‘Russia, Jews masseceiad af 
552. 

Lucva, Italy, 299. 333, 38% 

Lutena, Spain, fews is, Mk, Age 
3524, 325, 326, 327, 332, 586. 

Luc alles, Romany general, i6f, 

Luczk, Lithtiania, S30. 


Ludd, Palestine. 265, Gee aise 


Lod.) 

Laeger, Austrian Anti-Sernine, 703 

Luis dé Tarren, interpreter in 
Columbus crew, 472. 

Lumbroze, jn ‘ob, Pwarcian Ft 
Maryland, 

Lima. Alvaro de. 4% SF, 4h%, Gh. 

Lunel, 395, BG7. 

Line, | ewe cif; exigarn| ' He ot, 393. 

Luria, Isaac f'Avt, dao). eshatiat 
and uio-~Mesuiah, 12-524, 
$58, 574, 581, S82. Ana. 

Luria, Solomon, Potish rabid, 535- 
537, 546. 

nati ee 434-485, S47 

atti at * artin, ‘ 

Lutostanski, Hippenyie, Kastan 

Anti-Semite, 685... 

Luzzatto, Muses Haim, cabaiter, 

§74-577, 593, 644, 


Luzzatto, Sainte! Daved, oobi, 


729, 
hone Eaghaot, jews. aitechesh ate | 
Lom, inges i, 3, p, Sas, as a 


~~” 
t eet, Sewn in, 75Se 


oe) ~ Abrahain: Holy 
:: , Heaac, rabbi, of 


ae Gt Lian, 


wt Vienna, 643. 

“wt damascus, 651. 

, Teemedeania, 606. 4: 
be ai it Ps abhi of Pr mia 


igiate. Seqgheu, art bhishop a 
anti-jfe ‘wish emu 


ek Cat % 3 
at, S68, 389,» me; 
REE: Pew & Of S52, anz we E 


wn, Raven, anti-Sabheatioes 
Mead Coben ¢ ley wali. at 
pe eo 494. ie thaaleas 
ee ae Ldunrd, Germae ‘Tevise 
di aot ee ae 691 ‘ : 
ma rdinand, ¢ serve jee 
site tuk. G9i. : 
recone { ouncil, thi ject, $6 


s. 4 1%. 


- 


xe, VWeyseten and Oral ie : 
jocae, Srama, 695. aa 
ov, Moritz, phile ipl, as 
eh, Nations, 734, FB, + 


, Z we ig of 4s acob. ee or Pee 
bee, bishop of Ses Adie, We, 


Os. 


isin yO, Ty Sy GE Be = : 


, ike, 191, 


ing, 490, 652, 677, 66 ‘i 
( cue pes. ofa Asa 48s, S87, 


fi 


eb yin Palestee " 


¢ 
ss 


ulin, peter in 
a6 Wi S04, 584, 625. 
; ’ Nae se 
cl Mat mi at, ey) 


Lenin, Fait qr enes 
Leo f¥., Byahetoe’ esperar, 826, 
Len &.) pope, 284. aba 
teem. spain, 08. 923 


INDEX 


Limousin, France, 356. 

Lincoln, England, Jews in, 385, 
387, 389-390, 

Lipkin, Israel, Polish rabbi, 687. 

Lipman, Yom Tob, of Miihlhausen, 
defender of Judaism, 411. 

Lippomano, Ludovico, papal nun- 
cio in Poland, 541. 

Lisbon, Portugal, 475, 486, 501. 

Lisbona, Samuel, of Gaza, 560. 

Lissauer, Ernest, 725. 

Lithuania, Jews in, 529, 530-546, 
555, 556, 578, 586, 588, 627, 629, 
669, 672, 735. 

Liturgy, 239, 256, 270, 318, 326, 
327. (See also Synagogues, 
prayers for.) 

Lloyd George, David, English 
statesman, 729. 

Loans, Jacob, physician to Fred- 
erick III., 483. 

Lod, Palestine, 156, 229. 

Syne Italy, Jews expelled from, 
509. 


Loew, Judah, chief rabbi of Prague, 
548-549, 

Lokhvitza, Russia, Jews massacred 
at2552: 

Lombards, in Italy, 297, 299, 390. 

Lombardy, 382. 

London, Jews in, 333, 384-391, 
491, 492, 643-647, 652, 664, 673, 
Ly 700, 704, 705, 707, 719, 722, 

36. 

Longchamp, chancellor of England, 

388. 


Longinus, governor of Syria, 164. 

Lopez, Aaron, of Newport, 605. 

Lopez, Moses, de Fonseca, rabbi at 
New York, 605. 

Lorenzo, the Magnificent, 482. 

Lorraine, 357, 366. 

Lorraine, Jews in, 353, 360, 364 
370, 398, 608-609. 

Loubet, President, 703. 

Louis, the Pious, of France, son of 
Charlemagne, 349-350, 351. 
rere VII., king of France, 365, 

367. 
Louis IX. (St. Louis), king of 
France, 378, 390. 
Louis X., of France, 398. 
Louis XIII, of France, 488. 
Louis-Philippe, of France, 642, 651. 
Louis the Bavarian, emperor, 403. 
Louis, duke of Bavaria, 415. 


803 


Louis LX., of Bavaria, 416, 

Poe of Hungary, king of Poland, 

‘Lovers of Zion,’ 697-698, 706, 707. 

Lubeck, Jews in, 618, 636. 

Lublin, Poland, Jews in, 554,q90008 
537, 538, 543, 544, 546, 554, 555, 
580. 

ase Russia, Jews massacred at, 


Lucca, Italy, 299, 333, 353. 

Lucena, Spain, Jews in, 256, 322, 
324, 325, 326, 327, 332, 336. 

Lucullus, Roman general, 161. 

Luczk, Lithuania, 530. 

Ludd, Palestine, 266. (See also 
Lod.) 

Lueger, Austrian Anti-Semite, 705. 

Luis de Torres, interpreter in 
Columbus’ crew, 472. 

Lumbrozo, Jacob, physician in 
Maryland, 604. 

Luna, Alvaro de, 457, 458, 459. 

Lunel, 395, 397. 

Lunel, Jews of, cultural life of, 393. 

Luria, Isaac (‘Ari,’ Lion), cabalist 
and pseudo-Messiah, 522-524, 
558, 574, 581, 583, 586. 

Luria, Solomon, Polish rabbi, 535- 
537, 546. 

Lusitania, 729. 

Luther, Martin, 484-485, 547. 

Lutostanski, Hippolyte, Russian 
Anti-Semite, 685. 

Luzzatto, Moses Hayim, cabalist, 
574-577, 593, 640. 

Luzzatto, Samuel David, scholar, 
640, 660, 690. 

Luzzatto, Simhah (Simeone) rabbi 
of Venice, 511. 

Lvov, Prince, Russian statesman, 
729. 

Lynn, England, Jews attacked at, 
387 


Lyons, Jews in, 349, 350-351, 356, 
400 


Lyons, Synod of, 351. 

Lysias, governor of Syria, 140, 142- 
144. 

Lysimachus, brother of Menelaus, 
136. 


Maacah, wife of David, 51, 52. 
Maccabees (Hammerers), 64, 139- 

151. (See also Hasmoneans. ) 
Macedonia, 136. 


804 


Machaerus, fortress of, 181, 200, 
203. 

Machir, Manassite clans of, 19, 57. 

Machir, brother of Gershom, 354. 

Mack, Julian W., jurist, 734. 

Macon, Council of, 347. 

Madrid, Spain, 509. 

Magdeburg, Jews in, 353, 366, 381. 


Maghreb, 277, 340, 344. 

Magians, fire- worshipers, 240, 245. 

eee ig Transjordania, 45, 46, 
5 

Mahoza, Babylonia, academy at, 
233, 241-244, 247. 

Maimi, Simon, chief rabbi of Por- 


tugal, 475. 
Maimon, Solomon, philosopher, 
621. 


Maimonides (Maimuni), Moses, 
325, 338-345, 393-397, 400, 401, 
422,424, 425, 430, 433, 435, 439, 
451, 456, 480, 482, 491, 496, 519, 
520, 521, 536, 640, 643. 

Maimonides College, at Philadel- 
phia, 681, 698. 

Maimun, father of Maimonides, 
Jam; 337, 338, 345. 

Maimunists and anti-Maimunists, 
394-396, 430. 

Main, river, in Germany, Jews set- 
tled along, 382, 417. 

Majorca, island of, Jews of, 447. 

Malachi, the prophet, 122, 158. 

Malaga, ‘Spain; 315316, 318, 470. 

Malak, Hayim, Polish cabalist, 
570-571, 

Malbim, Meir Loeb, rabbi, 690. 

Malea, Isaac de (Zag), son of Meir, 
of Castile, 428. 

Malea, Joseph de, son of Meir, of 
Castile, 428. 

Malea, Meir de, of Castile, 428. 

Malebys, Richard, English noble- 
man, 387. 

Malesherbes, French statesman, 
608-609. 

Mallorca, Jews of, 421. 

Manasseh, tribe of, 19, 23, 24,.26. 

Manasseh, king of Judah, 104-106. 

Manasseh, priest of Gerizim tem- 
ple, 124-125, 126. 

Manasseh Ben- ‘Israel, rabbi of Am- 
sterdam, 489-491, 496; and re- 
admission of Jews to England, 
491-493. 


INDEX 


Manhattan Island, 603. 
Manicheism, 258. 
Mannheim, German 
Mannheimer, Isaac 
Vienne, 659. 

Manrique, Ifiigo, of Spain, 465. 
Mansur, caliph, 259. 

Ne , Jacob, physician i in Italy, 
Mantua, Italy, 333, 480, 481, 504, 


, 511, 635, 
oah, rabbi of 


Manuel, Don John, regent of Cas- 
tile, 437. 

Mapu, Abraham, 686. 

Marah, 16. 

Maranos (Crypto-Jews), dual life 
of, 448, 458-469, 476, 486-489, 
491-493, 495-496, 502-505, 507- 
508, 520, 608. . 

sere governor of Palestine, 

8 

Marco, Jewish surgeon on Colum- 
bus’ ‘ship, 472. 

Marduk, god of Babylon, 99. 

Mareshah, Palestine, 166. 

Margalioth, Jacob, rabbi, 418. 

Margalioth, Moses, rabbi, 587. 

Margarita, ‘Antonius, Jewish: apos- 

tate, 548. 

Mari, successor of Ben-hadad III., 
83. 


Mari, king of Tyre, 165. 

Maria of Castile, 437. 

Marlborough, duke of, 644. 

Marsus, Syrian governor, 190. 

Marseilles, Jews in, 347, 348, 392, 
608. 

Marshall, Louis, communal leader, 
720, 734. 

Martin V., pope, 413. 

Martinez, Gonzalo, minister of 
Castile, "437-438. 

Martinez, Ferrand, 445-446, 448. 

Martini, Raymund, Dominican, 
426, 431. 

Martyrs, Ten, suffer death under 
Hadrian, 216. 

Marx, Karl, Socialist, 691. 

Maryland, Jews i in, 604, 648. 

Masada, fortress of, 166-167, 170, 
171, 194, 200, 203. 

Masaryk, Thomas, President of 
Czecho- Slovakia, 733. 

Masorah, safeguard of Scriptures, 

- 266! two schools of, 266-267, 483. 

Masovia, Poland, 535. 


ter of 


of | Macca 


a 
Messiastic | pretenders: in, as 


END EX 205 


Menahem, son of Heibo, 356. 
Mutiahens, soa of Judah, 302, 
Menahem, sow of Saruk, gram 
fan, 345, $14—312, 356, 357. 
Meaaheri, son of Solomon ba» 
Meiri, ebbi of Perpignan, $97 
Menadetssohn, Abrali: am, 622. 
Mendelseolin, Dorothea, 622. 
Mendeiseshn, Henrietta, 622, 
Mendelssohn, F apagg 623, 
Memdelssobn. Moses, 592-599, 608, 
616, 619, 621, 622, 023, 628, 631, 
654. 
Mendelssohn - Bartholdy, Vy ux, f 27 
Mendelssohntaas, disciples ot 
Mosea Mendeissoin, 671. 
Mendes, Dioga, in Antwerp, 436. 
Mendes, Kranciseo, 486. 
M endez. (aracia, Mareno, 486 ~487, 
$03, 514. 
Mendez, Reyna, 514. 
Menecls us, high-priest, 136-127, 
ph2, 145, : s % 
Menton, Ratt, Preach conan, BRGY, ‘ag me 
Menz, Furiahy rabtn, 483, 513. . 
Merab, daughter of Saul, 54. 
Meribaal, son af ‘Jonathan, 47, 57, . a 
Meritla, SE in, 503 
Merlato, ; usirian coneal, O81, > : | Spee 
Merlo, Diewo, I najuiastor, 40, Ue 
Me(rjneptah, king al Egypt, 34 $ 
Merodach-baladan, king of Baby- ec 
lon, 162, : oe a ae 
Merom, Palesting, 23,522. er. 
ie ste Franiesh ruleeaaehs Se 


5. ae 


ais 


4 
- 


Messoburs, Jews ia, 355. . | 
Merwan il., calioh. 79%". » Ree 
Mesha, king of 2 uals 74. le hae 
Moshullam, sort of Jasob, 394, | Aiea 


Piemrccane, 4, ath, 232. 512, 7 
Messiah: ideal King-as, oT) Isiah’ i tae 
conception of, 490; Neonat, Te} > 5 


182; Bar Kokiba as ee: yk sm etce hy 4 
244; ascording t@ ates Seely oe 
434. 


256-260) in Spain, 434; 84 = 
Motko, 505-507; abut 


Juria and Vit Ree. “ale. 
Zewi, 358-567; Suits 


ai 


ot anhalt 
Matich ; 


hd se ee : “ ie 3 nity 
7 ’ ; a ahd of r, a Masal 


Via ys ést rani ot Pee 
paren . jitRoM, “phil salier, 


ial Dak ho Poa! a, | 2 7 fit). Tlscs. 
eer el co} 934397, : An, 451, 
, Rie BOS AO SSR ESS, $39, 
4°), 32% GL 482, 298, AMG, B18, 
. £98 1 886, 640, 642. ae 
dio tpi College, at? Phinaei- 
cyhict a nue e. teeR : 
Cain, tevher pt Ma 
& 338, 44355 in a 


n he Pye ea and ante: Mas simvunists, 


Des RN ray . a 
Mein, Goeth G srmany, ews ‘pete ra 
bend wa) Aig $82, 407 > 
; i at 3 «t aa ria af, Tews ‘al, 447. i 


Se Vintuctes Use prophet, 222 458. 
te ey jabsga, Spain, 318, 306) 318; 470. 
ood iatak,  Bayim, ‘Poligh: abalist 


Mab ideir ap pee: vabbt, 600. 
fay ‘“ t cesar oe (Lag) pte il 

eatle. 428. {ERR SES: 
baenh de, Son | 


Audis, “Muar do, of Costitesaaae MS 
Moths, Minhard, Esai noble Me 


Viewes ND | Sahin aif 19, 43. 242 4 
Mavaaweh, Ringed indats, 104 “106, 

Manaserd, pete wf spas dh pe, 
pie, PZ ENS, | 13%, 


191 493 z 


INDEX 


Massachusetts, ley in, 604. 

Matilda (Maud), empress, mulcts 
Jews of England, 384. 

Mattathiah, Hasmonean, father of 
Maccabees, 139. 

Mattathiah, son of Simon Macca- 
bee, 151. 

Matthiah, son of Heresh, founds 
Jewish learning at Rome, 294. 
Maurice, Byzantine emperor, 247. 

Mauricio, Argentine, 701. 

Maury, abbé, 609. 

Maximilian I., emperor, 484, 547. 

Maximilian IJ., emperor, 515. 

‘May Laws,’ of 1882, in Russia, 
696. 

Mayence, Jews in, 352-354, 356, 
360-363, 406, 407, 411, 416. 

Mazdak, communist teacher of 
Persia, 246. 

Meaux, Council of, 351. 

Mebasser, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 
268, 273. | 

Mecca, Arabia, 250, 251, 253, 569. 

Mecklenburg, Jews of, 618, 636. 

Medeba, 70, 152. 

Medes, 95, 109, 117, 127. 

Media, 99, 107, 145. 

Medici, Maria de, 488. 

Medigo, Elijah del, 481-482. 

Medigo, Joseph Solomon del, 524. 

Medina (Yathrib), in Arabia, 249, 
Bau od, eos. 

Mediterranean (or Great) Sea, 4, 
5, 48, 71, 421, 486, 512. 

Megiddo, Palestine, 24, 62, 79, 108. 

Mea ne Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 651- 

ee 

Mehr, Germany, Jews massacred 
at 363 

Meiningen, Germany, Jews at- 
tacked at, 380. 
Meir, Tanna, 217-219, 221, 222. 
Meir, son of Baruch, of Rothen- 
burg, 378-379, 382, 383, 402. 
Meir, son of Baruch ha-Levi, in- 
troduces system of ordination, 
408. 

Meir of Lublin, 546. 

Meir, son of Samuel, of Rameru, 
Rashi’s son-in-law, 363. 

Meisel, Mordecai, philanthropist, 
of Prague, 548. 

Meisels, Berush, rabbi, 684. 

Memphis, Egypt, 86, 104. 

Menahem, king of Israel, 95. 


805 


Menahem, son of Helbo, 356. 

Menahem, son of Judah, 302. 

Menahem, son of Saruk, gramma- 
rian, 310, 311-312, 356, 357. 

Menahem, son of Solomon ha- 
Meiri, rabbi of Perpignan, 397. 

Mendelssohn, Abraham, 622. 

Mendelssohn, Dorothea, 622. 

Mendelssohn, Henrietta, 622. 

Mendelssohn, Joseph, 622. 

Mendelssohn, Moses, 592-599, 608, 
O10, O19; 621,022,020; b2o1001, 
654. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, 622 

Mendelssohnians, disciples of 
Moses Mendelssohn, 671. 

Mendes, Diogo, in Antwerp, 486. 

Mendes, Francisco, 486. 

Mendez, Gracia, Marano, 486-487, 
503, 514. 

Mendez, Reyna, 514. 

Menelaus, high-priest, 
142, 143. 

Menton, Ratti, French consul, 651. 

Menz, Judah, rabbi, 481, 513. 

Merab, daughter of Saul, 54. 

Meribaal, son of Jonathan, 47, 57. 

Merida, Spain, 303. 

Merlato, Austrian consul, 651. 

Merlo, Diego, Inquisitor, 463. 

Me(r)neptah, king of Egypt, 14. 

Merodach-baladan, king of Baby- 
lon, 102. 

Merom, Palestine, 23, 522. 

Merovingians, Frankishrulers, 347, 
348, 349. 

Merseburg, Jews in, 353. 

Merwan II., caliph, 259. 

Mesha, king of Moab, 78. 

Meshullam, son of Jacob, 393. 

Mesopotamia, 4, 99, 211, 212, 512, 
712. 

Messiah: ideal king as, 97; Isaiah’s 
conception of, 100; apocalyptic 
conception of, 180; Jesus as the, 
182: Bar Kokeba as the, 213- 
214: according to the Cabala, 
434. 

Messianic pretenders: in Persia, 
258-260; in Spain, 431; Solomon 
Molko, 505-507; in Palestine, 
Luria and Vital, 522-524; Sab- 
batai Zevi, 558-567; Sabbatians, 
568-574; Jacob Frank, 583-584. 

Messina, Sicily, 299. 


136-137, 


806 


Metternich, Prince, Austrianstates- 
man, 632, 652. 

Metz, Jews in, 353, 354, 360; rab- 

binical seminary of, 640. 

Mexico, 509, 729. 

Meyerbeer, Giacomo, composer, 

634, 643 

Mezydyrzecz, Poland, 585. 

Micah, the Ephraimite, 32-33. 

Micah, son of Imlah, prophet, 76. 

Micah, of Moresheth, the prophet, 
100-101, 109, 158. 

Micah, rabbi of Treves, 362. 

Michael Wisniowecki, of Poland, 


515; 

Michaelis, Johann Heinrich, 591. 

Michal, wife of David, 41, 42, 46, 

50. 

Michmas, Palestine, 38, 146. 

Miczinski, Sebastian, Polish Jew- 

baiter, 543. 

Midian, 14, 15, 16. 

Midrash, commentary on Penta- 

teuch, 223, 302, 425. 

Mieczyslav III., duke of Poland, 

527-528. 

Miedzyboz, Podolia, 582. 

Mielziner, Moses, scholar, 681. 

Miguel de Murillo, Inquisitor, 463. 

Milan, Italy, Jews in, 292, 509. 

Milcom, god of Ammonites, 52 

Miniamin, priest-class of, 136, 

Minna, Jewess of Worms, 361. 

Minna, Jewess of Spires, 366. 

Minority rights of Jews, 734-735. 

Minsk, Poland, 581, 669, 685. 

Minsk, Jews of, 556. 

Mirabeau, count, 609. 

Miranda, Isaac, judge in Pennsyl- 
vania, 606. 

Mirandola, Pico della, 482, 502. 

Miriam, Hasmonean, wifeof Herod, 
167169) 1715448). 

Mishnah, codification of, 213, 219- 
223; studied, 226, 227, 237, 238, 
243; gives rise to Talmud, 245, 
261, 274, 276, 279, 302, 316. 

Mississippi, river, 605, 697. 

Mithradates I., of Parthia, 140, 
150. 

Mithradates VI., 
164. 

Mizpah, Palestine, 30, 32, 37, 69, 
112-013; L290; 139. 

Mizrahi, Elijah, chief rabbi of Tur- 
key, 513. 


of Persia, 162, 


INDE xX 


Mizrahi, Zionist faction, 708-709. 

Moab, 4, 5, 18, 19, 20, 25, 37, 39, 
52, 70, 78, 83, 84, 91, 96, 102, 
110, 124. 

Modein, home of Judah the Mac- 
cabee, 139, 141, 145, 146, 148. 

Modena, Italy, 504, 569. 

Modena, Judah Leon, rabbi of Ven- 
ice, 495, 510-511, 524, 575. 

Modena, Mordecai, 510. 

Moghilev, Russia, 667, 669; Jews 
expelled from, 555. 

Mohammed, 248, 250-254, 324, 
339, 340, 341, 485. 

Mohammed II., of Turkey, 513. 

Mohammed IV., of Turkey, 565. 

Mohammedanism, rise of, 248-257. 

Mohilever, Samuel, rabbi, 698. 

Moiseville, Argentine, 701. 

Moldavia, 512, 687, 688. 

Molko, Solomon, Marano, pseudo- 
Messiah, 505, 507, 521. 

Molin, Jacob Levi, 408, 414. 

Monarchy; beginnings of, i in Israel, 
27-29; rise of, under Saul, 36- 
44; made permanent under Da- 
vid, 47, 50, 59-60; division of, 67. 

Monarchy, F ifth, 489, 

Monash, Sir John, Australian Jew- 
ish general, (PAE 


Monis, Judah, 604. 


Monopoli, Italy, 501. 

Montagu, Sir Samuel, 706. (See 
Swaythling, Lord.) 

Montalto, Elijah, Marano, physi- 
cian to Queen of France, 488. 

Montefiore, Claude G., 722, 734. 

Montefiore, Sir Moses, 646-647, 
652, 673, 678, 698. 

Montezinos, Antonio de (Aaron 
Levi), 490. 

Montferrat, Italy, 509. 

Montpellier, Jews in, 392, 394, 
395, 396, 397, 398. 

Morais, Sabato, rabbi of Philadel- 
phia, 681, 699, 723. 

Moravia, Jews in, 377, 549, 556, 

_ 568, 570, 585, 625. 

Mordecai, of Persia, 127. 

Mordecai, son of Hillel, of Nurem- 
berg, 402, 403, 408. 

Mordecai of Eisenberg, Messianic 
pretender, 568-569. 

Morea, 558, 559, 561. 

Moresheth, Palestine, 100. 

Morgenthau, Henry, 733. 


Saltiman, Babylonian Auton. bt) : ea 
S Nabari (Nateuasierbene, Nee. a wr 
TOS, GE) 27 450, ARE, +h ) ae 
Neha. ‘the - pls 18, ee) 
oe trie af; 9, Oe. ei; Pa] re 
nm teats, Fewe pr Pad, ged / “5 
Ba #0, BG, SH, in) iat oe a 
GAS. Oo ae 
Napoleon 1: 624, 630; Wp av, i, a 
ro and Jeo APOE, evel Ao a 
. As 
Nassoheams: 141, 67%, 680 236, ae 
Narbont, Moses, phinsww ed, ai, Re. 
Narbonne, Tews iss, ati 33d, 34% oe 
449, 352,356,391 S03 as a 
Peres, katnity et Bi gcanos, tite at Pe 
Sesh, Jucin, duke of Saxce, ROT, |. “| an 
49}. StF. at Tdttosh Lat ark Sig af F “ r } ry 
513; akeoonpee: arable: + thea, ae 
AtT~3t% oy 
Natit, tite pcoptiee: 64, $3, $2. ; heen 
Nathan, of Babyion, Teri, me BEF a 
Nathan, san of ie nore gag 2 a 
Nathan, son of lehiol. of Rave. ek "eae 
404-302, 387, 479. | oF 
Nathan, aon of Sospaed, 33%, : a 
Nationalian, fowtsh, o9-661, 687, ‘a 
697-698, (Soa uleo Zionism. ) nS 
Natronai, Guon of Sura, 256, _ i 
Nazarenes, tollowers of Jesus, 199, ek .+ 
208. Phin i 4 
Nazareth, Palestine, i61. rh) ey 
Navarre, Spsiw, Jowa in, 408, 434, 3 2 
$35, 444. 446, 442, 249,457, 427 en 
Navarro, Movs. chief rebbted Pur a 
tugail, 445, : , 
Navigation Ait, Fb 90. on 
Nehuchadreaver, wey of fabytat, Sell, Grae oe 
£iG-1 18, Tes, B38 Taian 
Nebuchadruray: = tipe, (22 ; eee 4 
Nebusivadan. fiat Nasa pence ns, ‘oa 
132. eee oe 
Necoh Li, ving ot Bayes, HER, TOR 2a 
fi. Moe 
Nehardea, Ralston: canthenity aki oo a, 
£34. 2 thi E44 M4 -eT, 4 : vl = oe i 
Nehenish, gn wept jude 285: + a 
L3A, 126, 358 an heer : ree 


Nehe:wiials, aon. oh © 
- (aie of Pumientlite 
Newitov, Mnwhaiia, $, 


86 


Adetiernich, Prince, Austrian atom 
MAK, 632, oA. 

Meiz, Jews. in, £53, 354, 300; rab 
tinica? sniitary of, 640, 

Mexico, soe, PEt : 

Mey apres Crarnin, composer, 
O24, ¢ 

Meerayraten, Potdrad, S85. : 

Micalt Gee hg terre 327-33.) 

Micah, so et tadal, prophet, 76, 


Al iat, of vi crenbect th, the prophet, ae » 


jt -S4, FOR, PSS. 
Miosk, raboty ok Treves, 362. 


batik Fiat! vir sak acca of Poland, oy 


Fa 


Stechwariia fohann ‘Helnrich, 9% 
Michal wie ot David, 4i, a 


Mie *‘slestine, 38, 146. i? 
hese ts Sebastian, Polish lew 
ied ? it ut, BA 3, 


a aaah, .oOn amentar on Ponte: 
amt, 223, 302; 2. 
HL eoyaay uit., duke of et 
£i- $28; 
sedation, Podotia, 382 ' 
elaine, Moses, schotar, 681. "i 
cat de Murillo, Taquisiter, $b. 
. Lan italy, Jews i in, 292; a 
Mout, god of Ammonites, 52 
ye sdsons iin; privat’ clase of; ‘136 
. fewess of Worms, ; 
viva, Jewess of Spivesy’ 565. 


Hie mrity rights of Jews,’ $4735. aM 


ie it, Poland, 58f, 609, G85, 
ve ahk, hews of, 556. sai 
a jean, Count, 609. es 
Vt onivia, isaac, judge iad Peansyt 
ta, hss aitia 482, 502. 
: tiilan: tO Ce 
he a, PS eONean, wifool Herod, 
LAT, RR ASL AES oo a 
A sehotgh &, needification of, 243, 219- 
f 33 weadtied, 226, 227, +3 Fema 
it. aed let to Talmud, | 
» eg ie &. - et, 279, 302, “Sibe. ae: 
(cd ony dé tng 605,’ 697. Tae 
Ei de tit smh of Parthia, 140, 


boglaiee Viasat Persia, 162, : 
Starts, Po ‘8 a 32, i, 69, 
iv sis \ ct 


 rertatie, bh 2% i A what of Tur 


INDEX 


Morocco, 331, 334, 438. 
Morris, Robert, financier of Amer- 
ican Revolution, 606-607. 
pears: Edgar, affair of, 678-679, 
03 


Morteira, Saul Levi, rabbi at Am- 
sterdam, 488, 489, 496. 

Mosaism, 65, 68, 75, 104, 105, 106: 
displaces prophecy as basis of 
religious life of Judean state, 
131-133; abrogated by Paul, 228. 

Moscow, Jews of, expulsion of, 700. 

Moses, 14-16, 19-21, 22, 25, 32, 
33, 34, 36, 48, 49, 72, 105, 106, 
L1G) dee, 183,259 275, 276, 279, 
329, 337, 339, 345, 433, 452, 456, 
509, 521, 561, 564, 621. 

Moses, treasurer of Castile, 437. 
Moses of Coucy, composes ‘Great 
Book of Commandments,’ 379, 
Mae son of Enoch, of Cordova, 

13; 


Moses, son of Jekuthiel, 359, 360. 

Moses, rabbi of Kiev, 527. 

Moses, son of Menahem, 302. 

Moses, the Preacher, teacher in 
Provence, 301, 356. 

Mstislav I., prince of Kiev, 526. 

Muizz, Zirid ruler, 277, 301. 

Muktadir, Arab prince, 321, 

Munich, 406, 655, 671, 704, 706. 

Munk, Solomon, scholar, 643, 652. 

Miinster, Westphalia, 650. 

Miinster, Sebastian, 483. 

Murcia, Spain, 458. 

Murcilla, Spain, Jews massacred at, 
436. 

Murviedro, Spain, Jews submit to 
baptism at, 447. 

Mussafia, Benjamin, 494, 563. 

Mu'tamid, Arab king of Seville, 
2s, J2at 534 

Mysticism, 258. (See also Cabala.) 


Naar, Isaac, of Amsterdam, 562. 
Nabateans, 142, 146, 162. 
Nablus, 426. (See Shechem.) 
Nabonassar, king of Babylon, 99. 


Nabonidus, king of Babylon, 117... 


Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, 
107. 

Naboth, of Jezreel, 74, 79, 87. 

Nadab, king of Israel, 68. 

Nadhir, Jewish tribe in Arabia, 
249. 


Nahash, king of Ammon, 51. 


807 


Nahman, Babylonian Amora, 241. 
Nahmani (Nahmanides), Moses, 
395, 422-427, 430, 431, 455. 
Nahum, the prophet, 105, 158. 
Reon tribe of, 9, 24, 26, 62, 
8 


Naples, Italy, Jews in, 292, 297, 
ne 480, 486, 501, 502-503, 508, 
Di 


Napoleon I., 624, 630, 632, 646, 
680; and Jews, 612-617; code of, 
623. 


Napoleon III., 678, 680, 736. 
Narboni, Moses, philosopher, 400. 
Narbonne, Jews in, 301, 333, 348, 
349, 352, 356, 392, 393, 395. 
Nasi, family of Maranos, 486. 
Nasi, Joseph, duke of Naxos, 487, 
491, 503; at Turkish court, 514— 
517; attempts to rebuild Tiberias, 
517-518. 
Nathan, the prophet, 50, 55, 59. 
Nathan, of Babylon, Tanna, 217. 
Nathan, son of Ephraim, 299. 
Nathan, son of Jehiel, of Rome, 
301-302, 357)'479; 
Nathan, son of Samuel, 330, 
Nationalism, Jewish, 679-681, 687, 
697-698. (See also Zionism.) 
Natronai, Gaon of Sura, 256. 
Nazarenes, followers of Jesus, 199, 
208. 
Nazareth, Palestine, 181. 
Navarre, Spain, Jews in, 308, 334, 
335, 424, 436, 442, 449, 451, 472. 
Navarro, Moses, chief rabbi of Por- 
tugal, 448, 
Navigation Act, 491-492, 
Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, 
110-113, 116, 139. 
Nebuchadrezzar, a new, 120. 
Nebuzaradan, Babylonian general, 
iM ie 
Necoh II., king of Egypt, 108, 109- 
111 


Nehardea, Babylonia, academy at, 
233, 236, 237, 239, 241. 

Nehemiah, governor of Judea, 123— 
124, 126, 158, 300. 

Nehemiah, son ‘of Cohen-Zedek, 
Gaon of Pumbeditha, 273, 274. 

Nemirov, Podolia, Cossacks mas- 
sacre Jews of, 550, 552-553, 555. 

Neuss, Germany, Jews massacred 
at, 362,372. 

Neustadt, Austria, 377, 408, 415. 


808 INDEX 


Nero, 192,.196, 200, 229, 290. 

Nerva, Roman emperor, "291. 

Netherlands, Maranos settle in, 
486, 491, 603; Inquisition in, 
487. 

Netter, Charles, 679. 

Neubauer, Adolf, scholar, 722. 

New Amsterdam (New Nether- 
lands), 603, 604. 

New Year’s day, festival of, 131. 

New York, Jews in, 603, 604, 605, 
648, 652, 675— 677, 694, 698, 699, 
700, 719, 720, 723. 

Newport, England, Jews in, 386. 

Newport, Rhode Island, 606, 607; 
Jews in, 604, 605. 

Nicanor, Syrian general, 140, 144, 
145. 


Nicea, Council of, 229. 

Nicolai, German rationalist, 594. 

Nicholas of Damascus, 173. 

Nicholas I., of Russia, 668, 688. 

Nicholas IL., of Russia, 715, 729. 

Nicholas ity pope, 431, 504. 

Nicholas V., pope, 414, 459. 

Nicopolis, Asia Minor, 520. 

Nicopolis, Jews in, 514. 

Nieszava, Statute of, 530-531. 

Nieto, David, rabbi, 644. 

Niger, governor of Palestine, 224. 

Nikolaev, Russia, 669. 

Nikolsburg, Germany, 549, 635, 
663, 680. 

ae river, in Egypt, 14, 126, 186, 

8. 

Nineveh, Assyria, fall of, 86, 102, 
105, 107. 

Nisibis, Babylon, 233. 

Nissi Naharwani, 264. 

Nissim, son of Jacob, of Kairawan, 
281-282. 

Nissim, son of Reuben, rabbi at 
Barcelona, 444, 451. 

Nizhni-Novogorod, Russia, 670. 

Noah, 3, 328. 

Noah, Mordecai Manuel, 649. 

Nob, Palestine, 41, 42. 

Nordau, Max, journalist and Zion- 
ist, 704-705, 709, 712. 

Nordlingen, Germany, Jews mas- 

~ sacred at, 409. 

Normans, 352, 384. 

North Sea, 486. 

Norwich, England, blood libel of, 
384, 385. 

Norwich, Jews in, 384-387. 


Novosti Russian statesman, 

‘Numerus clausus’: in Russia, 716; 
in Hungary, 736. 

Nufiez, Manuel, Marano, 487. 

Nufiez, Maria, Marano, 487. 

Nuremberg, Germany, 366, 412; 
diet of, 407. 

Nuremberg, Jews of, 402, 403, 406, 
409, 410, 415. 


Obadiah, minister of Ahab, 71, 73. 

Obadiah, prophet, 158. 

Obadiah, of Bertinoro, 518-519. 

Obadiah, Chazar ruler, 526. 

Ocassa, Spain, 461. 

‘Occident,’ edited by Isaac Leeser, 
650. 

Octavian, Roman emperor, 165— 
166, 170, 1710 tie 

Odainath, prince of Palmyra, 225, 
241. 

Odessa, Russia, 667, 672, 686, 698; 
pogrom of, 694. 

Odoacer, 297. 

Offenbach, Germany, 585. 

Og, king of Bashan, 18. 

Oglethorpe, James Edward, found- 
er of Georgia, 604. 

Olbia, Russia, Jews at, 525. 

Oldenburg, Germany, 663, 680. 

Olesnicki, archbishop, 530. 

Olives, Mount of, a 267. } 

Olligoyen, Peter, 4 

Pee caliph, nae O64, 255; #802, 
30 

Omar II., caliph, 259. 

Ommayads, dynasty of, 259. 

Omri, king of Israel, 69, i iS, 
76, 78, 79, 82. 

Onias i; high priest, 134. 

oe Ill., high priest, 135-136, 
147. 


Onias, son of Onias III., builds 


Temple in Leontopolis, 64, 147, 


204. 
Onias IV., high priest, 154. 


- Onias, Tanna, 161-162 


Onias, Jewish general in Egyptian 
army, 148. 

Onkelos, Aramaic version of Scrip- 
tures by, 344. 

Ophrah, Palestine, 27, 32. 

Ophir, Arabia or Africa: 63ictk 


, “Pd 


, 
INDEX S89 
rh 703, 786, 707, We, 7h, Hz. ] 
Palestine: gengiagy a, 47> aneh: | 
history, @-i4s Gaed ot Tenet, eae 
22-113: under the Bebytaaies a 
114-116: - under. -dhe -Peaaane . 
147-124; uncer Che Cieten, fe te 
t43; under the . Nareecteneeh, be 
146-168; under Hered, 166.474, h 
under the Rowians, De i. ori 
der the Arabs, ae S F 
Christian rule, 337, 365; trv ie 
Salachin, 337, 370; under Mewa- es 
liatis, 426-427 - - uncer tet 2 dee, / ao 
§12, 518-524, 679, 097-008, Me, ee 
733, 726, 728; vader the Biogiet ue 
maidatory, 730- F31, 734<TSS, a 
F3b-747. i 
Pallas, brother of pracurasor Felix ' 
19, 192, ; . oo 
Palma, Jews of, attacked, 447. an 
Palmerston, Lord, Engiish atutes. > 
Man, 652. i - ie 
Palmyra, 225, 241. . 1 
Palquera, Shem Tot. 434. ie 
Pajtiel, vizir to Mulvz, 301. OER 
Paitoi, “Jadn of Purnbectith fsb, rk: 
Pampiona, Spain, bishop of, 3 a 
sa nga Russia, foe: “2 me 
Papal States, Jews of, weil treated ae ae 
ai first, 504; ‘oppressed, 507-308. St 
Pappus, general of Antigoniss, iG? Sl 
Paregorus, few of ep SHR, co ly in 
Pardo, David, rabbi, 459. 7, 
Paris, councils of, 348)3$ir Con <>) an 
vention of, 688. i Saal, 
Paris, Jews in, 368, 37%, Cai, oS aa 


. 614, 624, 


, 660, 659, 


Passover, celebrated bv King od vee f= tir a3 


657, 679, GBS, 76%, “Talmed 
burned publicly at, “S78, > ete 
Parthians, 152, 166, 183, 1579, 208. ge 
Paskevich, Russian statesman, 687, peat 


siah, 106) festival of 150, ita 
Pastoureaux "ot omg ot, ager? 
Patent of Toeteast, of Joseph fig: << 

5904-598, - inte a was: 
Patriarch (naal)}, head ce se i eae 

Palestine, 220-29Q. or 


of t ;4 
Paul I1f., pope, 2 


© 


TA Guaeta lead ae sities: rabbi at 


Neuhaaer. “cde, weber, 732. 


lew Amiterdan tear Nether- 


rativai of 131 b 


ae Sa tot Fe 4 
New Mork 53, 6, 608, 
+4 . 
: ie oe 
low 
¢ san general, 140, 1, 


pars - 
ie ‘0 


mv MEN rationalist, ot uf 
ties las, 17S 
‘..of Russia, 668, GRE 

L.of Russia, TiS, a29. 

, : ik POPS, ) $43; Sfibs 
: Ve pepe 414, ve NL ees 
ou MS linge, 52 28 LVAREA,. + 
pity | t La ax) ee af * 
: a Aide 530 & 

© gg ii, tabbi, Gad ‘ 

SM te iy “eae at Pales cine: el 
; 2 GOD: 
Germany, — 


Setevsin, Salk of, 86, 30 


724 
: tH PA [Sea cay. yt 
Bie aoe er wat, 2O4.. 


i # Jacob, of Kairawan, 


it eyige. 4s GA AST, 
; ae ss abated Rus 3318, 670. & 


Ngan, aes peilien Meruel, AD, a 
4 “4 oy ws, nee: hao @ we 


iy scree ai rey @ 
ie ar mans, Sai. 
wih Sea, 4h0. 4 
orwieh, Caghind, diet 
Sa, 385. a 
Notwich, Jews in, 846-087 9 


’ g ‘ d} 


INDEX 


Oporto, Portugal, Spanish Jews 

settle in, 473. 

Oppenheim, David, of Prague, 571-— 
572; library of, 572. 

Oppenheim, Joseph, 572. 

Oppenheim, Samuel, court Jew of 
Vienna, 570, 571, 591. 

Oppenheimer, Anshel, 381. 

Orabuena, Joseph, chief rabbi of 
Navarre, 449. 

Ordination, of rabbis, 206, 216; at- 
tempt to revive, 519-520. 

Ordofio III., of Leon, 308. 

Oria, Italy, School of, 300. 

Orleans, France, 386; Council of, 
347. 

Orleans, Jews in, 348. 

Orontes, valley of, 76, 84. 

Ortenburg, Germany, Jews mas- 
‘sacred at, 380. 

Osorio, David, of Amsterdam, 489. 

Osorkon II., of Egypt, 76. 

Ostrog, Jews of, 554. 

Ostrogoths, 297. 

Othniel, Kenite, 22. 

Otranto, Italy, Jewish learning at, 
299, 


Otto I., German emperor, 308, 309, 
Bist 

Otto II., German emperor, 299. 

Otto, brother of Henry VI., 372. 

Oudekerk, Netherlands, Jewish 
cemetery at, 488. 

Oxford, England, 572. 

Oxford, Jews in, 384, 386; synod 
of, 388. 

Oxford, University of, 722. 


Pablo Christiani, converted Jew, 
disputes with Jews, 425-426. 
Padua, 481, 482, 513, 537, 574, 

575, 581, 640. 

Padua, University of, 482. 

Pahlen, Russian statesman, 697, 

Palache, Samuel, Moroccan Jew, 
consul to Netherlands, 487, 488. 

‘Pale of Settlement,’ for Jews in 
Russia, 627, 629-630, 669-670, 
673, 687, 696-697, 716. 

Palermo, Sicily, 292. 

Palermo, Jews of, 431. 

Palestine, 342, 353, 365, 382, 397, 
427, 432, 437, 450, 517, 520, 524, 
533, 558, 571, 577, 599, 614, 624, 
643, 649, 650, 651, 655, 660, 659, 


809 


687, 703, 706, 707, 708, 711, 712, 
731. 


Palestine: geography of, 4-7; early 
history, 8-14; Land of Israel, 
22-113; under the Babylonians, 
114-116; under the Persians, 
117-128; under the Greeks, 128- 
145; under the Hasmoneans, 
146-168; under Herod, 169-176; 
under the Romans, 177-230; un- 
der the Arabs, 265-268; under 
Christian rule, 337, 365; under 
Saladin, 337, 370; under Mongo- 
lians, 426-427; under the Turks, 
512, 518-524, 679, 697-698, 701, 
713, 726, 728; under the British 
mandatory, 730-731, 734-735, 
736-737. 

Pallas, brother of procurator Felix, 
191, 192. 

Palma, Jews of, attacked, 447. 

Palmerston, Lord, English states- 
man, 652. 

Palmyra, 225, 241. 

Palquera, Shem Tob, 434. 

Paltiel, vizir to Muizz, 301. 

Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 257. 

Pamplona, Spain, bishop of, 449. 

oe Russia, Jews at, 

oe 

Papal States, Jews of, well treated 
at first, 504; oppressed, 507-508. 

Pappus, general of Antigonus, 167. 

Paragorus, Jew of Narbonne, 349. 

Pardo, David, rabbi, 489. 

Paris, councils of, 348, 351; con- 
vention of, 688. ty 

Paris, Jews in, 368, 370,. 608-618, 
657, 679, 688, 703; Talmud 
burned publicly at, 378. 

Parthians, 152, 166, 183, 190, 200, 
2113220, 

Paskevich, Russian statesman, 667. 

Passover, celebrated by King Jo- 
siah, 106; festival of, 130. 

Pastoureaux, persecutions of, 399. 

Patent of Tolerance, of Joseph II., 
596-598. 

Patriarch (nasi), head of Jews in 
Palestine, 220-230. 

Bee OY Colonel John Henry, 

28. 

Paul of Tarsus, founder of Chris- 
tianity, 228. 

Paul I., of Russia, 627-628. 

Paul III., pope, 507. 


e 


810 


Paul IV., pope, 507, 508, 517, 615. 

Paul de Santa Maria, Jewish apos- 
tate, 449, 450, 453-454, 456, 457. 

Pavia, Italy, Jews expelled from, 
509 


Peace Conference, of World War, 
734. 

Peasants’ War, in Alsace, 547. 

Pechera, monastery of, 527. 

Pedro de Toledo, Don, 502. 

Peixotto, Benjamin F., American 
consul to Rumania, 689. 

Pekah, son of Remaliah, king of 
Israel, 95, 97. 

Pekahiah, king of Israel, 95. 

Pelethites, David’s body-guard,48, 

Pella, 156, 200. 

Pellicanus, Conrad, 
Hebraist, 483. 

Peloponnesus, 512, 

Pelusium, 164. 

Pena, Hayim, anti-Sabbatian, 5062, 

Penn, William, 604. 

Pennsylvania, Jews in, 603. 

Penuel, 26, 32, 67. 

Perea (Transjordania), 172, 177, 
192. 

Pergamum, 164. 

Pereiaslav, Russia, Jews massacred 
aoe: 

Pereyra, Abraham, 502. 

Pernambuco, 492, 603. 

Peroz, Sassanian ruler, 245. 

Perpignan, Jews of, 397. 

Persia, 224, 247, 260. 

Persia, Jews of, 341. 

Persian Gulf, 211. 

Pesaro, Italy, 506, 508. 

Pestel, Russian revolutionist, 668. 

Peter, Simon, disciple of Jesus, 182, 
228 


first German 


Peter, St., seat in Rome of, 298, 
504. 

Peter, converted Jew, 411. 

- Peter II., of Aragon, 419. 

Peter (the Cruel) of Castile, 440- 
442. 

Peter IV., of Castile, 444-445. 

Peter de Aranda, bishop of Cala- 
horra, 468. 

Peter d’Epila, Inquisitor, 467. 

Petit, Solomon, cabalist, 397. 

‘Petlura, Ukrainian general, 733. 

Petra, 166. 

Petrarch, humanist, 480, 487. 

Petrograd, Russia, 728, 729. 


INDEX 


Petronius, governor of Syria, 187. 

Pfefferkorn, Johann, Jewish apos- 
tate, 484; controversy with 
Reuchlin, 484-485. 

Pforzheim, Germany, 
tacked at, 380. 

Phanagoria, Russia, Jews in, 525. 

Pharhi, Estori, account of French 
expulsion by, 398. 

Pharisaism, 158, 180, 260. 

Pharisees (Separatists), 153, 158- 
161, 167, 174, 179, 180, 182, 189, 
194, 199, 205, 498. 

Phasaelis, 178. 

Phatir, converted Jew, 348. 

Pheroras, Herod’s brother, 172. 

Phezahel, Herod’s brother, 164, 
166. 

Philadelphia, Jews in, 605, 607, 
648, 650, 652, 681, 720, 724. 

Philip, regent of Syria, 144. 

Philip, son of Herod, tetrarch, 177, 
178, 182, 184, 191, 

Philip, archbishop, 372. 

Philip II., Augustus, of France, 
367-368, 369, 387. 

arts III. the Bold, of France, 

396, 

Philip IV. the Fair, of France, 396, 
403, 436. 

Philip V. the Tall, of France, 399, 

Philip, king of Navarre, 436. 

Philip II., of Spain, 487, be Ror 

Philippson, Ludwig, 662, 676, 678, 
682 


Jews at- 


Philistia, 36, 48, 96. 

Philistines, at war with Israel, 33- 
70. 

Philo Judaeus, of Alexandria, 186, 
190, 263, 424, 598. 

Phinehas, son of Eli, 36. 

Phinehas, high priest, 199. 

Phinehas, son of Jair, Tanna, 221. 

Phoenicia, 81, 82. 

Phoenicians, 31, 70, 71, 72, 76. 

Picciotto, Isaac Levi, 651. 

Pichon, Joseph, chief tax-collector 
of Castile, 443, 444, 445. 

Picquart, French colonel, in Drey- 
fus affair, 702. 

Piedmont, Jews of, 678. 

Pietists (hasidim), 133, 138, 139, 
144, 153, 180,205. 

Pieve de Sacco, Italy, 480. 

Pilate, Pontius, procurator, 183. 

‘Pilpul,’ talmudic gymnastics, 533. 


» 4388, 
259, 


Sebbaten, , 


nn 8 533-534, 586; 


la, Jews massacic! 


Pomues st ieee 
“Feoish Pes, by 


iNDEX 4 


Partugal, jewn ra! ty os 
aa ye <pulsiae of. <f iad SS 


26, 287, 

Pen Ae lance Ee ™ j 
oa), S31, 53 i Ade. Oh 
$46, ia pet 


Posry iid ree, Trance, Xk 
Poznaneki Ujnues ahi 
th Haiex!, Lauetar uth 
t rage, fews on G83, ° 429 


= 4 Wri. > a ‘ 
Sé7-$49, S71-572, SOP et 

: rayars arranged iyi ( sa@btie fect 9 
ray 


Geen af Signa, 256: bt Saad 
276. Fe ee 
Pressbury, Germany, 4% 
Prevas, by ign, sletesnauin. 732 
Priesis: juciged ist rohyious affun 
32: guar a ‘6 Gt Ark of 4) 
Covenant, 34: in ‘Te pie we 
ship, 64, 93, 130-202. 
Primo, Samuel, éupmacier of Sal 
batai Zevi, 561, Sek 574 


Printi ale He? OTaW: =m f+ of P why 
eis iG Tart Kc ¥; Le 74 Pa %.. 
533. in Ainsterdas ” 

Prise Us, Jew oO tain. > im 

Procurators, Reman, +2aPP% 


199-194, 

Prophecy \ : begins with Mow 14 
defined. 37 ening quia =F 
under Amos and Howes ME ARR 
gives way to VMowhiarm, ee 

Prophet, nature of, defined, 37, 72 
Sa-—A9, 94, 

Prophets: Moses, 14-21: Deborah 

24-25; Nathan, 35- Ahijah, 63; 

Elijah, 72-74; Elisha,. 74, 78- 

79; Micoh, son of imiak, oe 

Amos, 2-92, 94. Hosea, 92-9 

Isaiah. oy AR, 160-104. Mich: 

100, 104: Nattiem, 105: Lavobe 

aniah, 10%) Pisidakh, te: Jere. 

miah, HO 157, 1-11t- Ew. 

kiel, 115-146: Zechariah, 130 

| Hany i, {2s Matachi, 422. 

Pepegd riers, Jowish, in Rome, 28% 
2% 


ja 


s+ COPE by Roath diet Ag 
uel, 239- afranged by Anan 


Elders of Zin, 


- 


ah 


ol yi. 


- 
m 
a 


= igi ti 


¢. 
--* 


er ie 


ack 
S 


a 


 ™ 


=e 


oP estar igs Tae Liss tae Ue 


ar: 


Moving (de Pishetho, BA vt aC. ae 
Pexonts, Beran} =H American a 
canshl to Bowed, GHD: Fie at 
Beh. t. £o oe. er taltah, king of * 
Pookahionhs rig af ft teal 35a ae 
Pelethites, Larsud’s body Buard 4,48 


Fast Rica ee S arad, Posi Goria: 


“a 
% 

: z 

. Y 

5 1 that $ Say 

¥ * £ 


Peta, Ti wie, aint ef Sats than ‘Sa, 
erg 4 - at «A al, 604. 3 & A 
‘consyivenia, Jews in, O03. | 
re. ; a ae 7 
atta ? + We 


i ‘ee Fraasjordanic a DTZ, Bie i 
“3 Eee 


Perprnnannryy £64, ae 
eT RR is " it tapasi: i, 8 L's. asec 


i Ga PD Pah a 2, 60 g; ‘ . * 5 > x ; 
Vevoe Sitpaanian rufer, 245.0% 
+> . ie) “y 7 


2 PUTTS, pean ad, Fi. 
ae ? Mek co’ t. a at, 260. 


Bows, fees of, 341, Re 

4 a. £1, a a 

ae at hp SOB. 208s. ae 
Phinda, on revolutionst, 668, 
Ppt Be oh, disciple of Jesus, 182, Ae 


hig, BRO 1 Rome of, 28, 


* ae ae ehh ess wit Widow. Ath. 
Mec TE. od Avagomy 4105. ony, M3 
Pew ube, tare of Castile, eye: Af; 


Barer}... ot 4 a hihi. 146-445, at a 
Peter de Avawidy . Sishop of c ~ 

horra, ¥ . es 
Peter d' Em! hanya, 7. 
Petit, Solonue orutiae, SRS : 
Petr a) EReraliantieti ® wry bes 

Petra, 166. Ne 
Petcnich, hurmaniat. 58 
Meteugrad, Russia, 72) 


Bier. 


INDEX 


Pina, Paul de, of Amsterdam, 488, 

Pinheiro, Moses, Sabbatian, 559, 
562, 566. 

Pinsk, Russia, Cossacks massacre 
Jews at, 554. 

Pinsker, Leo, Jewish nationalist, 
697, 703. 

Pinsker, Simhah, 685-686, 697. 

Piotrkov, diet of, 533-534, 556. 


Piriatin, Russia, Jews massacred 


at, 552. 

Pitholaus, leader of revolt against 
Crassus, 164. 

Pithom, Egypt, 12. 

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 698. 

Pius IV., pope, 548, 

Pius V., pope, 517. 

Pius VI., pope, 611, 615. 

Pius VII., pope, 612. 

Pius LX., pope, 678. 

Pius X., pope, 711. 

Plato, 186, 319. 

Pobiedonostzev, tussian states- 
man, 693. 

Podolia, Jews in, 538, 550, 552- 
554, 571, 578, 581, 585, 588, 669, 
696. 

Pogroms: in Russia, 693-696, 709— 
711, 714-715; in Ukraine, 733. 

Poitiers, 396, 399. 

Poland, Jews in: to Chmielnicki 
massacres, 527-546; during 
Chmielnicki massacres, 55 1-557; 
after Chmielnicki massacres, 570, 
578-588; under Prussian rule, 
620-621; under Russian rule, 
665-667, 688; in recent times, 
706, 718, 733, 735. 

Poland, Great (Posen and Katisz), 
528, 535, 580. 

Poland, Little, 528, 533. 

Pollak, Jacob, rabbi of Prague, 533. 

Polna, Bohemia, Jews accused of 
ritual murder at, 709. 

Polock, Russia, 556. 

Polonnoe, Volhynia, Cossacks mas- 

_ Sacre Jews at, 554. 

Poltava, 669. 

Polygamy, abolished by Gershom, 
354, 75! 


Pompeii, Italy, 291. 

Pompey, 162-164, 287. 
Poppea, empress, 290.. 
Porte, Turkish, 515, — 


811 


Portugal, Jews in: 429, 445-448, 
473; expulsion of, 474-475, 479, 
486, 487. | 

Posen, Poland, Jews in, S2Ae529. 
930, 531,°533, 535, 5441, 542, 
546, 556, 578, 580, 635. 

Posquiéres, France, 393, 

Poznanski, Gustav, 649, 

Prague, Jews in, 353, 410, 415, 
547-549, 571-572, 590, 625. 

Prayers: arranged by Gamaliel Il.. 
207; composed by Rab and Sam- 
uel, 239; arranged by Amram, 
Gaon of Sura, 256; by Saadiah, 
270. 

Pressburg, Germany, 635, 

Preuss, Hugo, statesman, 732. 

Priests: judges in religious affairs, 
32; guardians of Ark of the 
Covenant, 34; in Temple wor- 
ship, 64, 93, 130-202. 

Primo, Samuel, supporter of Sab- 
batai Zevi, 561, 563, 571. 

Printing, Hebrew: in Italy, 480- 
481; in Turkey, 517; in Poland, 
535; in Amsterdam, 562. 

Priscus, Jew of Paris, 347, 348. 

Procurators, Roman, 178-179, 
190-194, 

Prophecy: begins with Moses, 14; 
defined, 37; under Samuel, 37; 
under Amos and Hosea, 90-94; 
gives way to Mosaism, 131. 

Prophet, nature of, defined, 37, 72, 
88-89, 94, 

Prophets: Moses, 14-21; Deborah 
24-25; Nathan, 55; Ahijah, 66; 
Elijah, 72-74; Elisha, 74, 78- 
79; Micah, son of Imlah, 76; 
Amos, 90-92, 94; Hosea, 92-94; 
Isaiah, 96-98, 100-104; Micah, 
100, 101; Nahum, 105; Zeph- 
aniah, 105; Huldah, 106; Jere- 
miah, 106-107, 109-113; Eze- 
kiel, 115-116; Zechariah, 120; 
Haggai, 120; Malachi, 122. 

Proselytism, Jewish, in Rome, 289- 
290. 


Protocols of Elders of Zion, or 
‘Jewish Peril’, 736... 

Provence, southern France, Jews 
in, 352, 392-401, 419, 424-425, 

Prussia, Jews in: 589-592, 619- 
624; emancipation of, 623, 636- 
637, 656-658. 


812 INDE K’ 


Prynne, English Anti-Semite, 492. 
Przemysl, ie cia, 726, 
Psammetich I., king of Egypt, 105, 
L086 - 
Psammetich II., 


Ptolemais (Acco), 143, 147, 148, 
187, 196. 

Ptolemy, general of Alexander, 128. 

Ptolemy 1., of Egypt, 128, 129. 

Ptolemy II., of Egypt, 128, 129, 

Ptolemy III. Euergetes, of Egypt, 
129. 

Ptolemy IV. Philopator, of Egypt, 
129. 

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, of Egypt, 
129, 134. 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor, of Egypt, 
136, 147. 

Ptolemy VII. Physcon, of Egypt, 
152. 

Ptolemy, Lathurus, heir of Egyp- 
tian throne, 154. 

Ptolemy XIV., of Egypt, 164. 

Ptolemy, son-in-law of Simon Mac- 
cabee, 151. 

Ptolemy, Syrian general, 140. 

Pulcinella, Jewess of Rameru, 367. 

Pumbeditha, Babylon, academyat, 
233,244, 241-276, 277, 278, 280. 

Purim, 127, 210, 269, 369, 

Puritans, in America, 490. 

Puteoli, Italy, 291. 

Pyrenees, 304, 311, 349, 356, 395, 

-) 426. 


king of Egypt, 


Quadratus, governor of Syria, 191. 

Quemadero, stake of auto- da- fé, 
464. 

Querido, Berechiah, Messianic pre- 
tender, 569. 

Querido, _Jacob, Messianic pre- 
tender, 569. 

Quietus, Lusius, governor of Pales- 
tine, 212. 


Rab, Babylonian Amora, founder 
of Jewish learning in Babylon, 
226, 228, 236-239, 240, 241, 244, 
257, 275, 276, 411. 

Raba, Babylonian Amora, founds 
school at Mahoza, 242-244, 276. 

Rabaud-Saint-Etienne, 609. 

Rabbah (Amman), 51, 52, 55. 

Rabbah, son of Nahmani, Baby- 
lonian Amora, 241-243, 276, 


Rabbanites, traditionist opponents 
of Karaites, 262, 268, 42, 365, 
513,685. 

Rabbi. (See Judah I., patriarch.) 

Rabina II,, Babylonian Amora, 
edits Babylonian Talmud, 245. 

Rachel, wife of Jacob, 9 

Radulph, German monk, 366. 

Radzivil, prince of Poland, 524, 
555, 556. 

Ramadhan, Mohammedan month 
of fast. 254; 

Ramah, Palestine, 32, 37, 68. — 

Rameru, France, 363, 364, 367, 
368, 386. 

Ramiro II., king of Leon, 308. 

Ramleh, Palestine, 266. 

Ramoth, fortress of, 76, 79, 143. 

Ramses, Egypt, 12, 14. 

Ramses II., of Egypt, 12. 

Ramses III., of Egypt, 23. 

Ramusio, Gian Battista, 506. 

Raphael, Sabbatai, Sabbatian, 561, 
566. 

Raphia, Palestine, 100, 129. 154, 
163. 


. Rapoport, Judah Loeb, scholar, 


641, 660. 

Rashi (Solomon, son of Isaac), 302, 
333, 357-364, 379, the commen- 
tator, 395, 483, 513, 545; Tal- 
mud commentary of, 368. 

Rathenau, Walter, statesman, 736. 

Ratisbon, Jews in, 353, 363, 370, 
381, 403, 409, 415-418. 

Ratisbonne, Alphonse, 643. 

Ratisbonne, Theodore, 643. 

Ravenna, Italy, 292, 297, 508. 

Raymund, of Pefiaforte, chief 
agent of Inquisition, 425. 

Reading, England, Jews at, 386. 

Bee I., king of Spain, 304, 

Ry ; 

Repenny king of Spain, code of, 


Rechabites (Nazirites), 72, 80. 

Red Sea, passage of, by Israelites, 
bes | 53, 61. 

Reform: in Germany, 634-637. 
659-664, 680-681; in England. 
664; in the United States, 648~- 
650, 676-677, 698-699, 723-724. 

Reformation, of Catholic Church, 


Reggio, Italy, 480, 501, 569. 
Reggio, Isaac Samuel, 639-640. 


' * a 
INDEX $13 a 
- 

: 

RindAeisch, mastacres ee Crett ‘ia 
many, 402, $2a. a 

Riahor ler Zion, Palestine, 657, aS 
Ritual -murder, charyes oi: in ‘ta 
France, 367-368; in Baglend ia 


* Rothachiid, M er Anshel, founder ae 


FS44345 289..390- iy ena + 
375. $36, 4)7~418, 499, TH; 
Spain, #61, 468, 470. in Polsad : 
aid Ragesia. $41, 542-545, -Sa4, 
579-534, 674, 685, 70-717; coe 
Pra masons, 651-633; in Hungary, 
695; chirped of, examined : by ee 
Rist of Haggtian, 376: by cae z 
dinal fangaoeili, 580-581; 
Chwelsoa, 689: be Strack, bad. 
papal bart ayainet, 380-588; iin. 
“perial sanbtiag of bull, 382. 

Rives, Moses, Poliah rabbi, 556, 

Rizpalt, concubine of Saul, 54. 


Robespierre,  Preseh statesm ats, 
609, 610, 
Robles, Antonie Redrigues, Ma- ee te 
rano In England, 493. | 
—. Ausirian » Anti-Semite, _ an 
i035 ae 
Roger 1., king of Sicity, 277, 299. aa 


Roger i Jang of Sicily anc Ttaly, 


Romanus i, Byzantine emperor, 
SOY, 

Roms: treater with Fides, 145,148, 
130: influence of, in Palestine, 
' $62- a4 4. alestine Wh des rule of, 
177~2.30; 


ad? 


Rome, Jows in, 287-302, 504-805, a 


611—Ai2. [ae 
Roosevelt. President, 719. a 
Rosai, Azariah dei, 503-504, 639. ie 
Rostock, Universiy of, 618. ia 
Rothschilds, iq England and other ih ae 
countries of Barone, 645-646. Ae 
Rothschild, Baron Raniond de,and 9 02a ae 
Palestinian colonization, 714. | a ahiaee 
Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, Mo poe y 
P., 658, 665. Mae ii 
Rothschild, Lord, of Englared, $e) i 


ot House, 64 kg Sk eae ole 

Rothsctild,. Nathan i ef, ol 
M cuter’ and. 
es . 


oe 


a mf ae 
. ty bes 4 y 


7 


om a oie : 


Nie Ae eRe 
% BAe. 
me hes ; 
vy 
; he ce } . PRS aga i ° ¢ salioh A rts. Serute:, AD 
ae Cee acel, « scan nee 
ear V@ememetich |., king of Rgypty) + 
‘vs * - pm 
Vexdametcoh {1 King of Egypt, 
et i 3 
teorTiais i NEES}, L453, 14 ‘7 { S, 
# 187, 196. ie a 
wmiemy, genera ef Ale mare enh 128. 
Ftolemy 1.. of Laypt, 128,229. 
z Ptolemy 1! vit, ‘$28, 12 ee 
} Peolemy 1 getes, of Eavege. | 
+ fj 
Mi ; £ " a 
lemry i hilopator, of ts EYE 2 
4 ae ~ ae 
he te Proaleary x cay iene Fes. of eer. ; 
nee hee : 120) 54 i= is 
Be cunt Prolemy Vf, Philametoe, of Egypt, 


eee Seto mtp H. Physcon; of Beyer, 


a Ptolers sthurus Ente it of a * 


"ke * 

; bay ecco: tsa, ; 
‘ieee Proleny mas. of Egypt, Miki) % 
} Rie nee | Protoss, seit -iaw of Simm Mace 
bs : ; ' 4 aa 2. a 
~ Cave ‘ st. ane 


Ber ne Prolene, Sveian- general, 10. 
; : Pulcinevid, Je wess.ol Ramerus: rey 
ots . Vumbeditha, Babylon, academyat, 
oo oe 234, Jel, 241-276, 277 eRe 280. . 
rege ae i +e 6, 269, 368." : ; 


. rune, gevernor of Syria 
Cin erls, Ske of autod ad 


= 


is gee Sart 3 } 
ay er be Cpe 
Ps ee ae 4 
Pe, Pigs geaeay Breen ianic 
i r at Pe al 


= : hey, aga » foreenor a Palos: 


Jeistiesy. 3 hekora, founder: 
a8 ic 43 Babyion,. 


oe ie Mh.’ * Naboo esiggiche » DA, 


! oh 4 pe conk: taeuts 
‘ hoes ela i 


Be. shy: CRM ate Ben “oer aot 
Raha ud-Seuet-7 1 iene 
2 abbah (Ammtaay,, 2¥i) Re . 
Rabbah, son of Satine, Vee 
lonian Amora, Mté PSs; SRR 


CN DEX 


Rehob, Aramean province, 51. 

Rehoboam, king of Judah, 67. 

Rehoboth, Palestine, 698. 

Rehum, governor of Samaria, 123. 

Reines, Isaac Jacob, founder of 
Mizrahi, 708-709. 

Relief and reconstruction, of Jews, 
during World War, 727-728, 735. 

er Society of German Jews, 

24 


Renan, Ernest, 692. 
Renaissance, in Italy and Ger- 
many, 479-485. 
Renascence of Jewish learning, 
638-641. 
Rephidim, 16. 
‘Resh Galutha’ (Head of the Cap- 
tivity), 235. (See Exilarch.) 
’ Responsa, of Gaons, 255. 
Restoration of Judah: under Shesh- 
bazzar, 119; under Zerubbabel, 
120; under Ezra and Nehemiah, 
122-125. 
Resurrection, belief in, 159. 
Reuben, tribe of, 9, 19, 24, 25, 490. 
Reubeni, David, Jewish adven- 
turer from Arabia, 505-507. 
Reubeni, Joseph, supposed king of 
tribe of Reuben, 505. 
Reuchlin, Johann, German human- 
ist and Hebraist, 483-485. 
Revolutionary War, in America, 
603. 
Rezin, king of Damascus, 95, 97. 
Rezon, son of Eliada, 62. 
Rhine, Jews in the lands along the, 
356, 360, 381, 382. 
Rhode Island, United States, Jews 
in, 603, 604. 
Rhodes, 171, 504. 
Rhone, river, 396. 
Rhijnsburg, Holland, 499. 
Riblah, Syria, 109, 111, 112. 
Ricardo, David, economist, 645. 
Richard I., king of England, 342, 
369, 386, 387, 388. 
Richard of Cornwall, 389. 
Richmond, Virginia, 607. 
Rickert, Heinrich, 699, 
Ries, family of, in Berlin, 590. 
Riesser, Gabriel, 654-657, 660. 
Rieti, Moses da, Italian Hebrew 
poet, and papal physician, 480. 
Riga, Russia, 727 
Riga, Jews in, 671. 


813 


Rindfleisch, massacres Jews of Ger- 
many, 402, 528. 

Rishon le-Zion, Palestine, 697. 

Ritual murder, charges of: in 
France, 367-368; in England, 
384-385, 389-390; in Germany, 
375, 376, 417-418, 699, 709; in 
Spain, 461, 468, 470; in Poland 
and Russia, 541, 542-543, 544, 
579-581, 674, 685, 716-717; in 
Damascus, 651-653; in Hungary, 
693; charges of, examined: by 
Diet of Hagenau, 376; by Car- 
dinal Ganganelli, 580-581; by 
Chwolson, 685; by Strack, 700; 
papal bull against, 380-381; im- 
perial sanction of bull, 382. 

Rivkes, Moses, Polish rabbi, 556. 

Rizpah, concubine of Saul, 54. 

Robespierre, French statesman, 
609, 610. 

Robles, Antonio Rodrigues, Ma- 
rano in England, 493. 

Soe Austrian Anti-Semite, 

Roger I[., king of Sicily, 277, 299. 

Roger II., king of Sicily and Italy, 
299, 

Romanus II., Byzantine emperor, 
309. 

Rome: treaty with Judea, 145, 148, 
150; influence of, in Palestine, 
162-176; Palestine under rule of, 
177-230. 

Rome, Jews in, 287-302, 504-505, 
611-612. 

Roosevelt, President, 719. 

Rossi, Azariah dei, 503-504, 639. 

Rostock, University of, 618. 

Rothschilds, in England and other 
countries of Europe, 645-646. 

Rothschild, Baron Edmond de, and 
Palestinian colonization, 713. 

Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, M. 
P., 658, 663. 

Rothschild, Lord, of England, 730. 

Rothschild, Mayer Anshel, founder 
of House, 645. 

Rothschild, Nathan Meyer, of 
Manchester and London, 645, 
658. 

Rotteck, minister of Baden, 655. 

Roéttingen, Jews of, massacred by 
Rindfleisch, 402. 

Rouen, Jews of, taken to England, 


814 


Roussillon, counts of, 397. 
Roussillon, Jews settle in, 398. 
Rtidesheim, Germany, 362. 
Riidiger, bishop of Spires, 359. 
Rudolph, of Habsburg, 381-382. 
Rudolph, duke of Austria, 403. 
Rudolph II., of Austria, 548. 
Rumania, Jews in, 687-690, 709, 
Pome 
Rupert, German emperor, 411,412. 
Russia, Jews in, 525-527, 627-632, 
667-674, 683-687, 693-698, 700— 
701, 709-711, 714-717, 724, 726- 
728, 729. 
Russia, Soviet, Jews in, 735. 
Russia, White, Jews in, 555, 628. 
Russia, United States abrogates 
treaty with, 721. 
Russian Rev olution, 714, 717, 729. 
Russo- Turkish War, 689, 
Ruthard, bishop of May ence, 360. 


Saadiah, son of Joseph, Gaon of 
Sura, 264-265, 267-269, 270- 
273, 275,:280; 281, 282.3 hiesoo. 
340, 345, 394. 

Sabbatai Zevi, pseudo-Messiah, 
558-567, 568, 569, 572, 583, 585, 
593, 704. 

Sabbatians, followers of Sabbatai 
Zevi, 568-575, 583, 584, 593-594. 

Sabinus, imperial governor of Pal- 
estine, 177. 

Saboraim (Ponderers), 
of Amoraim, 246, 247. 

Sachs, Michael, rabbi, 662. 

Sacrifices: attitude of prophets to- 
wards, 107; attitude of Johanan, 
son of Zaccai towards, 206. 

Sacrifices, human, 32, 104. 

Sadducees, priestly aristocratic 
class, 153, 155, 159, 260, 261. 

By Pateseng’ 220, 475, 486, 505, 


successors 


Safed, Jews in, 518- 524. 

Saint ‘Thomas, island of, Spanish 
Jewish refugees settle on, 474. 

Saladin, 337, 342, 369, 371. 

Salamanca, 460, ciky 

Salome Alexandra, queen of Judea, 
154, 160. 

Salome, Herod’s sister; 170, here 
Lio, 178. 

Salomon, Gotthold, of Berlin, 634. 
Salomon, Haym, 607. 


DE 


- 


x 


Salomons, David, sheriff of Lon- 
don, 646 

Saloniki, Jews in, 486, 502, 505, 
514, 519, 521, 559, 561, 569, 570, 
efi 6 I Br gl 

Salt, valley of, Palestine, 52, 83. 

Samaria (Sebaste), Palestine, 80, 
83, 99, :100,, 104;.12%9 123,124, 
126, 128, 163, 167, 171-173, 178, 
188, 191. 

Samaritans: origin of, 100; in Pal- 
estine, 121-123, 128, 152, 178, 
183, 191, 212, 20h 228, 228.505. 
518, 685. 

Sambation, 278, 
431, 561 

Samson, judge, 35. 

Samson, son of Abraham, of Sens, 
tosaphist, 370. 

Samson of Ostropol, cabalist, 554. 

Samson, Isaac Herz, educator, 616. 

Samuel, prophet, 37-39, 43, 39, V2; 

94, 158. 

Samuel, Babylonian Amora, 235- 
241, 2 

Samuel, of Falaise, tosaphist, 382. 

Samuel, diplomatic agent of Fer- 
dinand IV., of Castile, 437. 

Samuel, son of Adiya, Jewish poct 
in Arabia, 250. 

Samuel, son of Ali, Gaon of Bag- 
dad, 343, 527, 

Samuel, son of Calonymus, 370. 

Samuel, son of Hananel, 300. 

Samuel, son of Hophni, Gaon of 
Sura, 275; 26s 

Samuel, son of Meir, commentator, 
grandson of Rashi, 333, 364, 366. 

Samuel, son of Meir ha-Levi, treas- 
urer of Castile, 440-441. 

Samuel, son of Paltiel, of Italy, 301. 

Samuel ha-Sullami, 397. 

Samuel, Sir Herbert Louis, High 
Commissioner of Palestine, 734- 
735, 736-737. 

Samuel, Sir Stuart, 733. 

Sanballat, leader of Samaritans, 
123, 124, 126. 

Sanchez, Gabriel, Spanish Marano, 
treasurer of Aragon, 472. 

Sanchez, Rodrigo, in Columbus’ 
crew, 472. 

Sancho, king of Leon,, 308. 

Sancho, son of Alphonso X., 428. 

Sancho IV., of Castile, 428, 429. 

Sandomir, Polaud, 580... 


mythical river, 


PXDREX : a 


Scopas, Exvptian g grein 20 FE 
Nias oat mount, a: -jereasiee. it 


Scribes, ‘Teachers of the kaw, £24 - 
an as -Haly: coMtechineol. ? e.- 


delimited by Surtasdlens, 
Sciptaies, ay 4 transiurionsé ad: 


tuagint, (reek Luiaretiaet ne, 
oe 130, 313; Aguila's Gouek 
translation, 212: Saadiah'w Ave 
bic translation, 272; King farnwex’ 
English translation, 395: Men 
aed German translation. \ 
595; “gpio's italian traneia. 
tion, ane teser's English — 


lation, 650; Shcmges rem ve 
man translatton, 662; Towish 
Publication Society English Ver. 
-. sion, 650, 724, 
Seythians, 105, 107, 
Seythopolis (Beth -shan), 143, 132, 


Sebaste, 172, (See Samaria.) 
Sehastian, of Portugal, 476, 480. 
Swesen, Westphalia. 616. 
Segovia, Jews of, 442, 453, 442. 
Seixas, Gershom Mendes, 607. 
Sejanus, Roman senator, 288, 289, Pers 
Seleucia, 156; ue . 
Seleucus, general of Alexander, 128. , 


Seleucus f- png. of Syria, it. 
Seleucus [V ing of Syria, 1324, :: 


#35, 144. 
Selim I., of Turkey, S13. ae 
Selim Ii. of Turkey, $10, 515, S16. a 
Selve, George de, French. ambas- . — 

sador, iricad of Levita, 482, 483. aa 
Semender,. Chazar city, 526. 

Seminaries, rabbinical, 640, 663, 

681-682, 699, 704, 722, cs : 
Semites,; origia of, 3. 4. 

Senate, Roman, 145, 150, ee 


Seneca, Roman p hilosopher, 290, Ps foe 


Senegal, $23. 
Senior, Abraham, chief rabbi ‘of 
Castile, 461, 471, 515, a. 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 102-9 | it Oa 
L03; 104, 278. iano tee a0 eae 
Sens, France, Jemy bafhed sm, (55 1 5 
Seppheria, Galilee. “154 467, £77, Sate Ca aes 
08, 220, 221; “tinea Le eetenes 
Sentinins Sever tis, Wi a ir 
Septnsgint, Greek tr en. 8 
Sermptures, I 129-430, ; hy er. eA aw oe arm 


 bbeanenest aves, HE EG <, 97, 1 c 
Rounailion, fews prbtde sn, 398. 
ae | miitles aheim, Germany, $62, 

fae | i ddizer, bishop ef Syerea, 339. 

r: ndolee., of Hal shurg, 34)- 382. 
penne duke ol Anetria, 403. 
Rudolph 1!.. of Austria, $485” 
Runwania, Jows. iny 687-690,.709, 


205. 
Pao Riven rt, Crerear emperor, AtL ATE es 
¥4 4 rat : Kussia, le eR a, S§25~+527, 627 tr, i 
bites ey: 667-674, 6&3-GR7) 693-698, 700. 


vedi ete 
ip Lisi tae 


Raesra, Soret, Jews in, 7355> | 
Rusia, Whete, ae in, 555,628 
Russkt, Uegeed States abrogates 
mi. treaty with, 21, 
ee . Kiowa Revolution; 7h, 7%, B29, 
pie ee B eank ao Uprkish War, 689,005 
ae Kaviard, ‘bishop of Mayentce, 360, 


704, 708-714, 714-717, 724, Fl 


Soaitiah, sons of Joseph. Sides. oi. 
dsr i, 204- a 267- 269); 270: 
iY, £75,280, 281, 282 , SU, 333 
r4Q 545, 394. 
rar Pat devi: peeude- Sveslale 
SSS&-S67, 568, 569, $72, BS, S85, 
Sipe: dm ‘ 
Satbrietiacs, followers of ee 
es Zyl 368 575,583, 584, 993-54. 
wo “abet ly imperial governor of Pai- 
joer ‘ Ome se $F y 
Fat wire Svan LPonderers), suc@teeore 
iis im Ff wie rein), 246, 247. Bae 
“hael, rabbi, G2. 


area a Sooniaew: atiteade of ‘prophepy ie 

SS : ‘ en 107; attitude of Johanne, pias 

hs ait et al rit towards, 206, : i ae 
Saorihces, imam, 32: 104, US 


bebrcaes peiest ly aristocratie 

lass, 153, 15S, 189, 260, 361, | 

Safed Palestine, 220, 475, 486, 505,. 

zi 

ae dates + Si gS 24. 

Saint ‘Lhemas, ‘alan: of, Spania 
Tewish refugous stele on, 474.0%, 

Saladin, 337, 342, #69: 37f: a} 

Sala miaeirde: 460, 5135. - 

Salome Alexandra, queen of Judea, . 


: 154, LGD ae i ‘a 
| eee, ih ak & seater, if 8. oi 
2 eS 


case, Seeackisfa of Bertin, ht 
pr eae. Flay, 607. 


INDEX 


Sanhedrin, Greek name of Council 
of State, 165; in Jerusalem, 174, 
179, 182, 205; in provincial 
towns, 179; reorganized at Jab- 
neh, 206-207; reorganized at 
Usha, 217, 221, 237; attempts to 
revive, 520, 613. 

Sanhedrin, Grand, of Paris, 613- 
615, 617, 630. 

San Remo, Conference of, 734. 

San Stefano, Treaty of, 689. 

Santangel, Luis de, finances Colum- 
bus’ voyage, 472. 

Saracens, 297, 299, 300, 306, 314, 
356, 359, 375, 387, 392, 420. 

Saragossa, Jews of, 420, 451. 

Saragossi, Joseph, cabalist, 518. 

Sarah, Jewish poet, 250. 

Sarah, spouse of Sabbatai Zevi, 
557,560. 

Saratov, Russia, Jews of, accused 
of ritual murder, 674. 

Sardinia, Jews of, expelled, 471. 

Sardis, Asia Minor, 303: 

Sargon, king of Assyria, 99-100, 
102 


Sarkel, Chazar fortress, 526. 

Sarmiento, Peter, chief justice of 
Castile, 459, 

Sasportas, Jacob, rabbi, 493, 494, 
563. 


Sassanids, dynasty of Persia, 224, 
240, 248. 
Satanov, Isaac, scholar, 621. 
Saul, king of Israel, 37-44, 45, 46, 
47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57. 
Saul, son of Judah, head of Jews 
of Brest, 542. 
Savannah, Georgia, 606, 607. 
Savannah, Georgia, Jews in, 605. 
Savoy, Jews settle in, 398. 
Saxe-Weimar, Jews in, 636. 
Saxony, Jews in, 547, 595. 
Scaurus, Roman general, 162. 
Schechter, Solomon, 722-723. 
Schiff, David Tevele, rabbi, 645. 
bee Jacob H., 712, 720-721, 723, 
24 


Schiller-Szinessy, Solomon, 722. 
Schleiermacher, 623. 
Schlettstadt, Samuel, rabbi, 408. 
Schmalkaldic war, 547. yer: 
Schénerer,: von,. Austrian Anti- 
Semite, 693. | . 
Schwarz, Peter, of Ratisbon, con- 
versionist activities of, 416. 


81s 


Scopas, Egyptian general, 129, 134. 
ae mount, in Jerusalem, 195, 
t5h. 


Scribes, Teachers of the Law; 159. 
Scriptures, Holy: collection of, 158- 
ae delimited by Sanhedrin, 


Scriptures, Holy, translations of: 
Septuagint, Greek translation, 
129-130, 313; Aquila’s Greek 
translation, 212; Saadiah’s Ara- 
bic translation, 272; King James’ 
English translation, 395; Men- 
delssohn’s German translation, 
595; Reggio’s Italian transla- 
tion, 640; Leeser’s English trans- 
lation, 650; Philippson’s Ger- 
man translation, 662; Jewish 
Publication Society English Ver- 
sion, 650, 724. 

Scythians, 105, 107. 

Sah P pols (Beth-shan), 143, 152, 
163. 


Sebaste, 172. (See Samaria.) 

Sebastian, of Portugal, 476, 486. 

Seesen, Westphalia, 616. 

Segovia, Jews of, 442, 453, 462. 

Seixas, Gershom Mendes, 607. 

Sejanus, Roman senator, 288, 289. 

Seleucia, 156. 

Seleucus, general of Alexander, 128. 

Seleucus I., king of Syria, 128. 

Seleucus IV., king of Syria, 134, 
135, 144. 

Selim I., of Turkey, 513. 

Selim Ii., of Turkey, 510, 515, 516. 

Selve, George de, French ambas- 
sador, friend of Levita, 482, 483. 

Semender, Chazar city, 526. 

Seminaries, rabbinical, 640, 663, 
681-682, 699, 704, 722. 

Semites, origin of, 3, 4. 

Senate, Roman, 145, 150, 166. 

Seneca, Roman philosopher, 290. 

Senegal, 323. 

Senior, Abraham, chief rabbi of 
Castile, 461, 471, 515. 

Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 102- 
103, 104, 278. 

Sens, France, Jews banished from, 
352, 370. 

Sepphoris, Galilee, 154, 167, 177, 
196, 220,221,226 ..229: .. 

Septimius Severus, 224. 

Septuagint, Greek translation of 
Scriptures, 129-130, 212. 


816 


Sepulcher, Holy, Church of the, in 
Jerusalem, 359, 555. 

Sepulveda, Spain, Jews accused of 
ritual murder at, 461. 

Serafinovicz, apostate Jew, 580. 

Serajevo, 570, 571, 725. 

Serbia, 725. 

Serkes, Joel, Polish rabbi, 546. 

Seron, Syrian general, 139. 

Seti I., of Egypt, 12. 

Sevastopol, 669. 

Seve, king of Egypt, 99, 100. 

Seven Years’ War, 595. 

Severus, Roman general, 214. 

Seville, Jews of, massacred, 440, 
446; expelled, 464. 

Sextus Caesar, governor of Syria, 
165. 

Sforno, Obadiah, teacher of Reuch- 
lin, 483, 505. 

Shakna, Israel, Polish rabbi, 535. 

Shakna, Shalom, chief rabbi of Lit- 
tle Poland, 533, 535, 537. 

Shalmaneser III., king of Assyria, 
sper is Seo? 

Shalmaneser V., king of Assyria, 


99, 

Shallum, king of Israel, 95. 

Shalom, son of Isaac, 408. 

Shammai, Tanna, 174, 175, 182; 
school of, 206. 

Shaphan, chancellor under Josiah, 
105, 106. 

Shapur I., king of Persia, 224, 240. 

Shapur II., king of Persia, 244. 

Sharon, Plain of, in Palestine, 6, 
35, 43. 

Shear-jashub, son of Isaiah, 97. 

Sheba, son of Bichri, 58. 

Sheba, queen of, 63. 

Shechem, Palestine, 9, 23, 27, 28, 
29, 32, 38, 67, 70, 156, 426. 

Sheftall, Benjamin, 606. 

Sheftall, Mordecai, 606. 

Shem, son of Noah, 3, 328. 

Shemaiah, Pharisee teacher, 165. 

Shemoneh-esreh. (See ‘Benedic- 
tions, Eighteen’.) 

Shephatiah, son of Amittai, Italian 
Jewish cabalist, 300. 

Sherif Pasha, governor of Damas- 
cus, 651. 

Sherira, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 273- 
275, 280, 396. 

Sheshbazzar, leads return to Pal- 
estine, 119-120, 233. 


INDEX 


Shiah, in Yemen, 340. 

Shihin (Asochis), Galilee, 154. 

pa Babylonian Amora, 236, 237, 

Shiloh, Palestine, 37, 41, 49, 65, 
109; sanctuary of, 23, 34, 36. 

Shimei, son of Gera, 57, 59. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, 65, 67. 

Shklover, Nathan, 628. 

Shneor Zalman, of Liady, Hasidic 
leader, 586, 588, 630, 672. 

Shneorsohn, Mendel, Hasidic lead- 
er, 672. 

Shobach, Aramean, 51, 52. 

Shobi, son of Nahash, king of Am- 
mou sli | 

‘Shulhan Aruk’ (Prepared Table), ~ 
code of Joseph Karo, 521, 536, 
537, 546, 655. 

Shullam, Samuel, physician, 516. 

Shunem, Palestine, 43. 

Sicily, Jews of, expelled, 471. 

Sickingen, Franz von, 484. 

Sidon, Phoenicia, 31, 71, 95, 102, 
110,127,510 

Sijilmasa, Africa, Jews of, 282, 314. 

Sigismund, German emperor, 412, 
413. 

Sigismund I., of Poland, 532. 

Sigismund II. Augustus, of Poland, 
516, 534. 

Sigismund III., of Poland, 542- 
543. 

Sihon, king of Amorites, 18. 

Silbermann, Eliezer Lipmann, 686. 

Silesia, Jews of, murdered and ex- 
pelled, 415. . 

Siloam, Pool of, 101, 203. 

Silva, governor of Syria, 203. 

Simeon, tribe of, 9, 22. 

Simeon, the Saint, of Treves, 366. 

Simon I., the Just, high priest, 131, 
132, 134. 

Simon II., high priest, 134. 

Simon, temple-treasurer, 134-136. 

Simon, Maccabee, high priest and 
pe 143, 146, 148, 149-151, 
287. 

Simon, son of Gamaliel I., Tanna, 
199, 206, 217-218. 

Simon, bar Giora, 200-203. 

Simon, son of Isaac, rabbi, 354. 

Simon, son of Johai, Tanna, 220, 
433, 522. 

Simon, son of Judah, Galilean, 190. 


| Eledss Bri 


a + Semen bt a. 
sei as Sor eae “as 


pai tans 
Palestine, 44 
G7. 


onitane M7334; einegney 
Christian ki "3M ae %, '- 
+26, 4 $10-49 6, ai0 esctadidene j 


vd. 


| Spain, ewe of, fees on ade es 


ee cit the 26 Parts. 

Mose Russian dtntearay 629, 

Spina, Alph phoned ude, Franmcaecag 
friar, 46%), a 

Spinoza, Baruch (Bonciax), BL 
492, 406-2 0x3, $62, S63. 

Bpindea, RY ichael, 496, 

Syvres, Jews in, 559, 360, 406. 

St, Petersburg, 588, 628, 631, 671, 
BBA, 686, 696, 706, 709, #10, 223, 
Pd, 715, 717, 228, (hee ferto- 
grert.).. es, 

Stafiord, Eagiand, Jews dr, 398. 

Btakleck, Germuns, jee avhahkes 
at, 366. 

Mtamtor?, Ragland, silt utiag hen 
at, SRF. 


Stanistay Ponti, of Tuten! 


485 


Marodub, Rusia, Corecess mre- 


rere jews at, SS¢ 
Sratiute,od 144, for b messes fewry,y 
2-635: af $433, bw Kawsian 
fewry, 629-170 
Stein, Prucdan tumister, 623. 
Sreentha!, livyinana, 682, 
Steahen, king of: England, 584, 385 
Sten, Ee ralel, of Chteosa, 672 
Sern, M.A, of Frankfort, 60. 
Sri des, t2ra, pres nient of Yale Col 
e see, 05-0006. 
Stiener, Geomant Anti-Senite, 692 
Sash} iz, Reseaian acinwster, 715 
7 0G, 
Strack. Hermase L., 796. 
Sirassineg, Jews iy. t0e~-4D5, Son 
547, GOR. 

Stratun’s Tower “ates, 1) 
174,432 hair 
Straus, Oscar §., steered, +i? 

730 
SrrogeRe ¥; Bigs PMO #7 
Ark vewarit, P CP Wis 
Sul batriki,’ reKugst tae putt Of, SGT, 
Suc eoth, Pui Cahier, Ze, 
Suex, £9. 


imei, son of 
‘Beishak, king: 
Of ae Over, . 


Serer} iews i, moseacred, ss 
a 2 eR ied, ht, fe i 
b, r La 


Coed nd Aer tt overnor of & ‘* 


sf 


~ t b 
fal ee BL Let. bi rh ici ng € ont t Anaya, 
Shatownemer Vi Ri WE Assoyet 
wn. Ree of bay ‘ih fine 
“aly < want, Of Ts c, SER si: Pape 
ome. Faona,. tf 5, he: 
ihe gs] 206, ; 
Show cua, <a cellor under i te? 
= ta i’ ? 4 eatatd of Persie yo 2 
“hao BL Bag of Persia, hig 
vi Me ar af; in Ealenett, Sa 
os 7 . ay sh. iil oa ‘te “ fi 
thas i Bichd, 58e: 
‘ evel i pH, ‘63. ; 4 


Shechem, Paladin, @, Aaearenim, 
2, 48. 62. 20 156, mo 


ieftati, Mew deena, 606. ailet 

Sheoy. anal My oh, 4 328. oh. 5s 

ae re her diab. haat Se teacher, {88> ” padre 
Sy ( “a ’ gs Pau 2 CLUS rls d 7. a es ‘Benodig- Re 


vat ras cove cabal’ se: fe 
a tao es if Pasha, ¢ gover ae om? Parmar 
ae oe SA : 


a * Si at i iy : 3 saci ih. i, ivi af Pp, sea seadtoha 3 ta i 
‘ ee a Ban. 396. i 


se eamehy ; ‘feadds retuen eR rab 
, 5: ; 516 ate 243 &, ia : 


INDEX 


Simon, son of Lakish, Tanna, 227- 
228 


Simon, son of Shetah, leader of 
Pharisees, 160. 

Simon, Christian lad of Trent, 417. 

Simon, of Cozeba, 213-214. (See 
Bar Kokeba.) 

Sinai (Horeb), mountain of God, 
14, 16, 25, 322, 328, 610. 

Sinzheim, David, president of 

_ Grand Sanhedrin, 613. 

Sinzig, Jews of, expelled, 381. 

Sisebut, king of Spain, 305, 348. 

Sisera, 24, 

Sisinand, king of Spain, 305. 

Sixtus IV., pope, 417, 463, 465, 
482. , 

Slobodka, Poland, talmudic acad- 
emy of, 687. 

Smerdis, brother of Cambyses, 120. 

Smerdis, Magian pretender, 120. 

Smolenskin, Perez, 687. 

Smyrna, Jews in, 486, 557, 558, 
562, 563, 568, 569. 

Sochaczev, Poland, Jews of, at- 
tacked, 541. 

Sofer, Moses, rabbi, 635. 

Sokolli, Mohammed, vizir of Tur- 
key, 516. . 

SOROeF, Nahum, Zionist leader, 

30. 

Solal, Isaac, head of Jews of Egypt, 

518 


Solomon, king of Israel, 52, 54, 59, 
61-71, 84, 106, 113, 172, 275. 

Solomon, exilarch, 273. 

Solomon, nephew of Nathan of 
Rome, 302. 

Solomen, of Vienna, agent of duke 
of Austria, 372, 376. 

Solomon, son of Abraham of Mont- 
pellier, 394, 395, 396, 421. 

Solomon, son of Meir, Rashi’s 
grandson, 364. 

Solomon, Sir, de Medina, first Eng- 
lish Jew knighted, 644. 

Soncino, Italy, 480. 

Soncino, family of printers, 548. 
Song of Songs, in Scriptures, 158; 
Akiba’s interpretation of, 158. 
Sophronius, Christian patriarch of 

Jerusalem, 266. 
Sorbonne, University of, Paris, 643. 
Sorek, valley of, in Palestine, 84. 
Sosius, governor of Syria, 167. 
South America, 646, 729. 


817 


South Carolina, Jews in, 503, 604, 
648. 

Spain, Jews in: under Romans and 
Goths, 303-307; under the Mo- 
hammedans, 307- 334; under the 
Christian kings, 334— 336, 399, 

_ 406, 419-476, 479; expulsion of, 
470-472. 

Spain, Jews of, plight of, after ex- 
pulsion, 473: settle in Turkey, 
513-514. 

Speranski, Russian statesman, 629. 

Spina, Alphonso de, Franciscan 
friar, 460. 

Spinoza, Baruch (Benedict), 401, 
492, 496-500, 562, 563. 

Spinoza, Michael, 496. 

Spires, Jews in, 359, 360, 406. 

St. Petersburg, 588, 628, 631, 672, 
684, 686, 696, 700, 709, 710, 711, 
714, 715, rahe 728. (See Petro- 
grad.) 

Stafford, England, Jews at, 386. 

Stahleck, Germany, Jews attacked 
at, 366. 

Stamford, England, Jews attacked 
at, 387. 

Stanislav Poniatovski, of Poland, 
585. 

Starodub, Russia, Cossacks mas- 
sacre Jews at, 554. 

Statute, of 1804, for Russian Jewry, — 
629-630; of 1835, for Russian 
Jewry, 669-670. 

Stein, Prussian minister, 623. 

Steinthal, Heymann, 682. 

Stephen, king of England, 384, 385. 

Stern, Bezalel, of Odessa, 672. 

Stern, M. A., of Frankfort, 660. 

Stiles, Ezra, president of Yale Col- 
lege, 605-606. 

Stécker, German Anti-Semite, 692. 

Stolypin, Russian minister, 715, 
716 ‘ 


Strack, Hermann L., 700. © 

ar OO Jews in, 404-406, 408, 
54 

Straton’s Tower (Caesarea), 154, 
171 «1 #2: 

Straus, Oscar S., statesman, 719- 
720. 

Stroganov, Russian minister, 670. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 603. 

‘Subbotniki,’ religious sect of, 667. 

Succoth, Palestine, 26. 

Suez, 15. 


818 


Sulaiman II., of Turkey, 504, 508, 
513, 514, SiS: 

Sullam, Sarah Copia, Jewish poet, 
of Venice, 510. 

Sully, France, Jews massacred at, 

. S66: 
Sulzberger, Mayer, of Philadelphia, 
720. 

Sulzer, Solomon, cantor, 659. 

Sunday Schools, in America, 650. 

Sura, Babylon, academy at, 233- 
216) 2972279 POTS STF: 

Surinam, 492. 

Susa, Persia, Jews in, 127. 

Susitha (Hippus), 171. 

Siisskind of Trimberg, Jewish min- 
nesinger of Germany, 373. 

aaa II., prince of Kiev, 
52 


Svyatoslav I., prince of Kiev, 526. 
Swabia, Jews persecuted in, 403. 
Swaythling, Lord, 706. 

Sweden, 489, 494, 556. 

Swinthila, king of Spain, 305. 

Switzerland, Jews of, 406, 595, 611. 

Syene, 126. (See Assuan.) 

Synagogues: spread of, in Pales- 
tine and Dispersion, 160; place 
of, in Jewish life, 160; prayers 
for the, 207-208: order of ser- 
vice in, 209. 

Synagogue, Great, 131, 222. 

Synods, Reform, 680-681. 

Syracuse, Sicily, 292. 

Syria, ancient, 6, 7, 8, 12, 48, 71, 
75, 95, 100, 107, 109, 128; under 
Seleucids, 135, 139, 140, 148, 
152; under Rome, 161, 163, 164, 
165, 166, 167, 172, 187, 190, 195, 
203, 214, 220, 228; under Neo- 
Persians, 240; under Moham- 
medans, 254, 365; under the 
Turks, 512, 612, 651, 652. 

Syro-Ephraimitic War, 96. 

Szuchovski, Father, Polish Jew- 
baiter, 580. 


Taanach, Palestine, 24 

Tabernacles, festival of, 130. 

Tabor, mount, in Palestine, 6, 26, 
197, 198, 221. 

Taft, President, 719-721. 

Tahert, Africa, Jews in, 282. 

Taima, Arabia, 249, 250, 254. 

Talleyrand, Frenchstatesman, 610. 

Talmai, king of Geshur, 52, 56. 


IND 


E X 


Talmud, supplement to Mishnah: 
compilation of Palestinian, 226, 
227-228; of Babylonian, 238- 
246; Babylonian, published at 
Venice, 481; Palestinian, pub- 
lished at Venice, 481. 

Talmud, burned publicly in Paris, 
378; burned in Italy, 508; study 
proscribed in Spain, 455. 

Tam, Jacob, son of Meir, tosa- 
phist, Rashi’s grandson, 333, 
364, 366, 367, 368, 386, 595. 

Tamar, daughter of David, 55. 

Tammuz, Babylonian god, 110. 

Tanis (Zoan), Egypt, 12. 

Tannaim, teachers of Mishnah,- 
from Hillel to Judah I., 222. 

Tardiola, Samuel, rabbi, 489. 

Tarentum, Italy, 292. 

Taricheae, Transjordania, 
196, 197. 

Tarik, Arab chieftain, 307. 

Tarnopol, Galicia, 641. 

Tone Spain, Jews massacred at, 

06. 

Tatars,379, 426, 527, 528, 551, 552. 

Tatary, 490, 505. 

Tattenai, Persian satrap, 120. 

Tauber, river, in Germany, 375. 

Tauberbischofsheim, in Baden, 
Jews attacked at, 375. 

Taurida, Russia, 669. 

Taurus, 4, 7, 135. 

Taytazak, Joseph, cabalist, 514. 

Tekoa, Judea, 90, 119. 

Tekoa, Galilee, 220. 

Tel-abib, Jewish colony in Baby- 
lonia, 114 

Tel Aviv, Palestine, 713, 737. 

Teller, Pastor, of Berlin, 622. 

Temple, First, built by Solomon, 
63-65; destruction of, 112. 

Temple, Second, building of, 120; 
place in religious life, 130- Tao: 
rededication of, by Judah Mac- 
cabee, 140-141; reconstructed by 
Herod, e332 destroyed by Ro- 
mans, 202-203. 

Temple, of Onias, in Leontopolis, 
147, 204. 

Ter, river, in Spain, 336. 

Terah, father of Abraham, 3. 

Texas, United States, 712. 

Texeira, Manuel (Isaac), of Ham- 
burg, 494, 563. 

Thebes, 12, 14, 104. 


192, 


tN 


ui, 367. 


idge Jewish 
am imurdes 


31, ye: 189, 
paas, tor 


Dex Rte - 
ta 

: . 

Pitus, Roman ergy. a 2h 7 
US, 4Q3; Ea beret or fAar CUR ‘eu e , 
of, 196-198, 20)= 764 om 
Tlenwen: North Alena. 283. 48 “a 
5 19, b ‘5 
Tobiads, 134. a 
Yoah, Ammontte. tnader of Sa- me 
tartans, 725-124, £34. ta 
402, Ring of Hanah, 32 a? 
Toles, Sciunia, Dewe ty of Std > ae 
ROG, 374 = 
Tolede,, Joes in: giiebon pe wie Q ‘i. 
S32~354, 424, 22 47%. $20, tens - 

a oe bat AO, +B 


Wester, 


Josiah, fi0- PH") Grete = : 
religious [fa ley tae 4 Bet ae 
(31-133; detmmant. theta 6 | ie 
; fa the Bible, 28S: teenie Mei - aks 
nah and Midrash, 274. 74 ; ess Ee 
. Tortlesilian, Moses a> 443 a ee 


Toro, Spain, 44', $44, Se 

Toryuemads, Thormas ue bathe 
ter Genenal ae Srain, Heh, SHS 
469, 470-477 

Tortosa, Spain, #18 4F% 

Tortosa, disputneinr hert 
and apostabes, At peo 

Tosaphists, Sapywhrviewtons fs 

+ Rashi'’s Tala -migeaceiary, 

369, 435, Sak i 
Tosephta (Sarppiewa.se prdehar s eas 
dent. Misha otisavites; SAR. © eae. 
387 7 ayer Ge 
Tosaphoth Mra ORES 3 hte . eae 
ticnts: tyr Binves« bakaed oe = 


+g: sek 
aa Pe , 
>% 


4 


mentary, 2 ethos 
Tota, gRamy tt eontet Nacerre 30 omit we > 
Totletum, geo enet of hare, HOA ates 


Toulotan, piwe4 eae ig eee 
Tours, F range, ai eee aa 
Trajan, Rosia: onipenat, hil & 


290, whe’ 
Trani, David da, ae ae 
Trani, Eltial da, 479, be 


Trani, Isaiah da? the’? 


RIB feds yc 


Sdiaiman It, of Turkey, $64, 308, 
513, 514, 515. 
Sullam, Sarah Copia. feveith poet, 
of Venice, 510 Bac 
Sully, France, Jews atassyered at, 
$66. 
Sulzberger’, Mayer Philadelphia, 


720, 
noel oe Ppa, canker, 659. 
Sunde Sache aohe. im Arterica, 650. 


Sura  Dubeytead, academy at, 253- — 
276, iy S39. S13. at? 

Surine im Fire ae 

Susa, Perea Jews i in, P27; 

Sisitea § & ‘mess, Yb Reem raitayys. | 

Sijse nastel Lal Feberg, reiral inin- . 
hosing a Germany; SSS. 

Svyategn ak’ Li. prince of. Whew, ; 


ee tg 1., prince of Kiew, Sh. 
“i aig. Fowe persecuted inj 
Sewage tag Lord, 706; Nia 
Soneethe gent 459, 494, 556, AS 
% ve wate king of Spain, wae 
sew! ete rarland, P SebP id 106, 5 
i ey { mm, { {3Ce 7 asian. } pas 
a gE spread ef, 4g Putes 
ant Dispersion, LORE place | 
at. ia Jewish fife, 160; prayers 
saat the, 207-208; ordes: ble ser 
ow He, ae ; 
vwacogue, Creat, 131, 2a 
: gion. Reform, 680-681. cs 
De ts Sicily Ra tS ata 
sim, wpctent, 6,°7, 5, 12 i. vie 
5 WR, 100, 107, 109, tele wnder 
‘ehearite, 135, 139, ee das, 
: SP apeder Rome, 161, ih. 164, 
Li, $a 167/172, 187, 1, 195 
ae, 234, 220; 228+ wader” 
vada, 2402 ander i 
eee, 254, 365: unset th 
2 St3, 612, 651, Sigs Bs 
ek » inal War toes 
Saucheveld, Father; Paton Jem 


a 


fp eer Ta, 


Taanact, tu hatine, yo pe kes eee 
Taberaactes, joutival Of “1300s 
‘Tabor, mowyt Gp Palen 6. 26, as 
197, 198, ok an 
Taft Pres bidity 9-721," 
Tahert, Africa. bewey ie 982. 
Taima, Arabi, 5a 28, 254, 
Talley rand, Free ieté ‘See rRan, 610, 
Tulmal, king of Ce shur, SE 56, 


4, 


= 


INDEX 


Thebez, Palestine, 29. 

Theobald, count of Rameru, 367. 

Theobald, of Cambridge, Jewish 
convert, invents ritual murder 
charge, 384. 

pe ae king of the Franks, 

Theodoric, king of the Franks, 348. 

Theodoric, Ostrogoth, king of 
Italy, 297. 

Theodosius I., the Great, Christian 
emperor, 230, 304. 

eee II., Christian emperor, 

30. 

Theodosius, Russian abbot, 527. 

Theudas, false prophet, 190. 

rae Jewish teacher in Rome, 

Thiers, French minister, 652. 

Thirty Years War, 549. 

- Thomas, Father, of Damascus, 651. 

Thorowgood, Thomas, English 
missionary, 490. 

Thuringia, Jews massacred in, 414. 

Thutmose I., of Egypt, 8. 

Thutmose III., of Egypt, 8. 

Tibbonids, as translators, 394. 
(See Ibn Tibbon.) 

Tiber, Italy, 287, 506. 

Tiberias, Palestine, 181, 187, 189, 

- 192, 196, 197, 219, 225, 226, 228, 
229, 266, 296, 337, 345, 515-518, 
524, 577. 

Tiberius, Romanemperor, 183, 184, 
189, 290. 

Tiberius Alexander, Roman pro- 
curator of Palestine, 190. 

Tibni, Israelitish general, 69. 

Tiglath-pileser IV., king of Assyria, 
95, 97, 99. 

Tigranes, Armenian king, 161, 162. 

Tigris-Euphrates, valley of, 8. 

Tigris, river, in Babylonia, 211. 

Tiktin, Solomon, rabbi, 662. 

Tilly, Austrian general, 549. 

Tilsit, Treaty of, 623, 630. 

Timarchus, satrap of Media, 145. 

Timotheus, Syrian general, 140. 

Tineius Rufus, governor of Pales- 
tine, 214. 

Tirado, Jacob, of Amsterdam, 488. 

Tirhakah, king of Egypt, 104. 

Tirzah, capital of Baasa, 69, 95. 

Tishbeh, Gilead, 72. 

Tisza-Eszlar, Hungary, Jews ac- 
cused of ritual murder at, 693. 


819 


Titus, Roman emperor, 190, 295, 
303, 403; Palestinian campaigns 
of, 196- 198, 201-203. 

Tlemcen, North Africa, 282, 486, 

9. 

Tobiads, 134. 

Tobiah, Ammonite, leader of Sa- 
maritans, 123-124, 134. 

Toi, king of Hamath, 52. 

Toledo, Spain, Councils of, 
306, 374. 

Toledo, Jews in: golden period of, 
332-335, 419, 422, 428-429, 440- 
441; decline of, 441-442, 440, 
453. 

Tolstoi, Dmitri, Russian minister, 
696. 

Tolstoi, Leo, Russian writer, 710. 

Torah, of Moses: code of religious 
laws, 17-18, 19-20, 32, 34, 93, 
101; destroyed by Manasseh, 
king of Judah, 104; copy found 
in Temple in reign of Josiah, 
106; proclaimed law of land by 
Josiah, 106-107; made basis of 
religious life by Ezra, 122, 124, 
131-133; dominant position of, 
in the Bible, 158; basis of Mish- 
nah and Midrash, 213, 223. 

Tordesillas, Moses de, 443. 

Toro, Spain, 441, 443. 

Torquemada, Thomas de, Inquisi- 
tor General of Spain, 463, 465- 
469, 470-471. 

Tortosa, Spain, 310, 419. 

Tortosa, disputation between Jews 
and apostates at, 454-455, 456. 

Tosaphists, Supplementers to 
Rashi’s Talmud commentary, 
369, 435, 536. 

Tosephta (Supplement), indepen- 
dent Mishnah collections, 223, 
Sis 

Tosaphoth (Supplements), addi- 
tions to Rashi’s Talmud com- 
mentary, 364. 

Tota, queen regent of Navarre, 308. 

Totleben, governor of Vilna, 695. 

Toulouse, Jews of, 352, 399. 

Tours, France, 348, 488. 

Trajan, Roman emperor, 211-212 
290. 

Trani, David da, 479. 

Trani, Elijah da, 479. 

Trani, [saiah da (the Elder), 479. 


304- 


820 


Trani, Isaiah da (the Younger), 
479 


Trani, Moses da, 519. 

Transjordania: Alexander Jannai’s 
conquests in, 154, 155, 156-157; 
added by Rome to Syrian prov- 
ince, 163; Herod’s conquests in, 
170; ceded to Herod, 172. (See 
also Perea.) 

eeoneercnly Jews in, 143, 146, 
157. 

Trebizond, Asia Minor, 512. 

Treitschke, German Anti-Semite, 
692. 

Trent, blood libel of, 417-418. 

Trent, Council of, 504. 

Treves, Jews of, 362, 366. 

Treves, Mattathiah, 400. 

Triana, castle of Inquisition, at 
Seville, 463. 

Tribes, Ten Lost, restoration of, 
490. 

Trier, Solomon Abraham, rabbi of 
Frankfort, 660. 

Triest, Jews of, 597. 

Tripoli, 568. 

Triumvirate, First Roman, 163; 
Second, 165. 

Troki, Lithuania, 530. 

Trotsky, Leon, Russian Jewish 
communist, 732. 

Troyes, France, 357, 363, 364, 396. 

Tryphon, Syrian general, 148-149; 
king of Syria, 149-151. 

Tudela, Spain, 335, 336, 436. 

Tulchin, Russia, Cossacks mas- 
sacre Jews of, 553. 

Tulunid governors of Egypt, 265. 

Tunis, North Africa, 277, 486, 516, 
649, 

Turbo, Roman general, 211. 

Turkey, Jews in, 473, 487, 512-517, 
517-524, 558-570, 651-653. 

Tuscany, Italy, 375, 503. 

Tutenkhamon, of Egypt, 12. 

Tyre, Phoenicia, 31, 63, 65, 71, 72, 
79, 81, 83, 86, 95, 110, 111, 128, 
165, 331, 341. 

Tychsen, German scholar, 618. 


Ubaid, Arab chieftain, 155. 
Uganda, offered to Zionists, 711. 
Ukba, exilarch, 278. 

Ukba II., exilarch, 235. 

Ukraine, Jews in, pogroms of, 733. 
Ulm, diet at, 409. 


INDEX 


ere esh-Shert Ford, in Palestine, 

1. 

Uniformity, Act of, of England, 
643. 

Union of American Hebrew Con- 
gregations, 698, 720. 

Union of German Jews, 724. 

United States, Jews in, 648-650; 
arrival of German Jews, 675- 
677; arrival of Russian Jews, 
681, 694, 695; in recent times, 
698, 699, 719-721, 723-724. (See 
also America, Jews in.) 

Ur, of the Chaldees, 3, 4. 

Urban II., pope, 358, 359. 

Urbino, duke of, 506, 508. 

Uri, son of Joseph, 362. — 

Uri, Moses ha-Levi, rabbi, 488. 

Uriah, captain in David’s army, 
55 


Uriah, priest, in Jerusalem, 98. 
Uriah, prophet, 109. 
Uriel, bishop of Mayence, 484. 
Uriel da Costa, Marano, of Am- 
sterdam, 495-496, 510. 


-Ursicinus, Roman general, 229. 


Urusov, Prince, of Russia, 715. 

Usha, Galilee, 217, 220. 

Usque, family of Maranos, in Italy, 
487, 503. 

Usque, Abraham, printer, 487. 

Usque, Samuel, historian, 487. 

Usque, Solomon, 487. 

Ustrugov, Russian official, 709 

Usury: Jews driven to, 365-366; 
Jews engaged in, 369, 372, 378, 
385, 390, 405, 410, 421, 437, 532; 
laws against, 374, 437, 438. | 

Utrecht, Union of, 487. 

ike te Russian statesman, 670- 

1. 
Uzziah (Azariah), king of Judah, 


84, 96. 
Uzziel (Adiel), ruler of mythical 
four tribes, 279. Gy 
Uzziel, Isaac, rabbi, 488, 489. 


Valencia, Spain, 323, 420, 447, 451, 
465, 467. 

Valerian, Romanemperor, 224, 240. 

Valladolid, Spain, 429, 437, 442, 
457, 461. 

Van Buren, President, 652. 

Vandals, 297, 303. 

Varus, Syrian legate, 177. 

Vasa, Polish dynasty of, 542. 


te pies 
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4 73}. 
Tras Muces in. 5 
Transiardaaw: Alsaencder fannal’s 643... - 
: peste wry DE40LSS, 286-457; Union of 
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Lransiadua, fewd in, 443, 146, 507 
Firetivoal,. Agia Minor, a + < 
Pieiechkie, iattmen Ant oem, 
ce ex? bel of, , AIR-418 SAE 
Tctat, Gommell of, 504. yok” ernie 
a id ewe of, 362, 366. . hae 
sth, Mattathiah, ~ 
nie, tastle of Ingeisit 
a, hen Last, restoration os, 
. Solomon Abraham, abhi ws. 
. makiort, At). 
| ext, Jews af, 597 
pet, 568. BES <3 
aevirate, First. Roman, 164; 
oma. 165, Pare ih ose 
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; Wy, Gof NBA, Waar 
BY, Leon, Russian iw pate 
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; ey Mrance, G54, Re os, $64. 404. 
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Rag of Sy 149-151. 55 
i Seain, 335, 336. £36." 
’ asia, Cossainta. 
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i “saga governors of Eggi, bes 
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a ace, 


INDEX KS | 


Vihar dav 1 king of Polqrel send Thy 
heaven. 416, 

Visdielev LI. of Poland, §20-540 

Viadisiat WwW » Of Poland. $43<464 


Sst 


Volliwnis. $34, $38. 550. 
SAH, b?7. COV. 7277. 
Vologar ons fll, Parthian king, 236 
Veluanin, Lithuania. teimeadii 
acacnray at, Gt, 67 2, 


Vette ire, AGT 


Volga, river, in Russia, 525. 524 
. : 


Wad) Kura! Valeci Villages’ 
bia, Jews in, 28, 251, 253, 254 

Wagner, Sachard, com power, 647. 

Wall, Meir, ou si Saul vals. FAT 

Wahdeck-Rousseau, French 
ter, 703. 

Wall, Western, of Teseplearsa, 17 
| 4 

Walls c ita, GR? 

Waleastei in, Anutrinn general, 54° 

W Abit st bin, Bavaria a 


Watpole: Sir Robert, Enyiishiotates 
man. 644 y 
Wamba, king of Spain, 34% 


a aC, lin 
Wanidetock, Jews of, 494 
Veins “ ‘tiberation "623-474 

Warburg, Orto, Ziomist teqcler, 712- 
7t3, 

Warsiw, Jaws in, 620-421, 425, 
“OSA, 

Washingtog, George, Vresiie a 
Gk, letters from }« wish Gata 
grhions to, 607. 

W. pata EON, Db. C., 700,722. 


“Weeks, jestrval of, 130. 


Wereiin, convert to Jadziem, 4M. 

Wreiria:, Germany, 732 

Weiss, foeac Hirsch, «whole, 74. 

Weireenburg, Gerraaary, SRE, 409, 

Weizmann. Chasm, Zineist lesser, 
(a0, 72 

Pdncenkion. i averterns ect 408, 
a0, STE 

Wesley, Niggictisadi Herz, Hishraint 
oni advvaay, WEI, 


INDEX 


Vasco de Gama, explorer, 474. 

Vayol, Hans, Jewish apostate, 416. 

Veit, family of, in Berlin, 590, 622. 

Venice, Jews in, 509-511, 612. 

Venosa, Italy, 292, 299. 

Ventidius, Roman legate, 166. 

Verdun, Treaty of, 352. 

Verdun, Jews massacred at, 399. 

‘Verona, Italy, 480. 

Versailles, France, 691. 

Verus, co-emperor of Rome, 220. 

Vespasian, Roman emperor, 196- 
197, 200-201, 403. 

Vesuvius, mount, 291. 

Viana, Spain, Jews massacred at, 
436 


Victoria, queen of England, 646. 

Vienna, Congress of, Jewish ques- 
tion at, 632-633, 665. . 

Vienna, Council of, 376, 380, 381. 

Vienna, Jews in, 377, 403, 408, 451, 

» 590, 596, 624-625, 632-633, 659, 
(‘isea eye 

Villadiego, Spain, Jews of, massa- 
cred by English, 442. 

Villa Real, Spain, 467. (See Ciudad 
Real.) 

Ville-Parisis, France, 400. 

Vilna, Jews in, 542, 543, 546, 575, 
579, 586, 587, 592, 627, 669, 670, 
672, 686, 687, 695, 714, 727. 

Vilna, Cossacks massacre Jews of, 


Visconti, papal nuncio at Warsaw, 
581. 

Visigoths, 297, 303, 304, 307, 323, 
348 


Visznievecki, Polish count, 553. 

Vital, Hayim, cabalist and pseudo- 
Messiah, 522-524, 559. 

Vital, Samuel, son of Hayim, 559. 

Vitebsk, Russia, 667, 669. 

Vitebsk, Cossacks massacre Jews 
of, 555. 

Nal rae Syrian legate, 183, 184, 

8 


Vitellius, Roman emperor, 200. 

NOUS (Vitold), duke of Lithuania, 

Vivacius, son of Gaudiocus, of 
France, 351. 

Vladimir, Lithuania, 530, 550. 

rere the Great, prince of Kiev, 


Vladimir II., prince of Kiev, 527. 


821 


Vladislav, king of Poland and Bo- 
hemia, 416. 

Vladislav IJ., of Poland, 529-530. 

ined IV., of Poland, 543-544, 

Volga, river, in Russia, 525, 526. 

Volhynia, 535, 538, 550, 578, 580, 
588, 627, 669, 727. 

Vologaeses III., Parthian king, 220. 

Volozhin, Lithuania, talmudic 
academy at, 630, 672. 

Voltaire, 591, 


Wadi-l-Kura(Valeof Villages) ,Ara- 
bia, Jews in, 249, 251, 253, 254. 

Wagner, Richard, composer, 643. 

Wahl, Meir, son of Saul, rabbi, 550. 

Waldeck-Rousseau, French minis- 
ter, 703. 

Wall, Western, of Temple area, 173. 

Wallachia, 687. 

Wallenstein, Austrian general, 549. 

Wallerstein, Bavaria, 547. 

Walpole, Sir Robert, Englishstates- 
man, 644. 

Wamba, king of Spain, 349, 

Wandsbeck, 593. 

Wandsbeck, Jews of, 494. 

‘War of Liberation,’ 623-624. 

Wejburs: Otto, Zionist leader, 712- 

13 


Warsaw, Jews in, 620-621, 623, 
684. 

Washington, George, President, 
606; letters from Jewish congre- 
gations to, 607. 

Washington, D. C., 700, 720. 

Weeks, festival of, 130. 

Wecelin, convert to Judaism, 354. 

Weimar, Germany, 732. 

Weiss, Isaac Hirsch, scholar, 704. 

Weissenburg, Germany, 381, 409. 

Weizmann, Chaim, Zionist leader, 
730, 21343 

Wenceslaus, German emperor, 408, 
409, 410. 

Wessley, Naphthali Herz, Hebraist 
and educator, 597-598. 

Westminster Abbey, London, 386. 

Westphalia, Jews in, emancipated, 
616-617. 

Westphalia, Peace of, 589. 

Wevelinghofen, Germany, Jews 
massacred at, 363. 

Wiesbaden, 662. 


822 


William the Conqueror, brings 
Jews of Rouen to England, 384. 

William I., of Germany, 691, 699. 

William II., of Germany, 699; and 
Zionism, 708. 

William of Norwich, Jews accused 
of murder of, 384. 

‘Williams, Roger, founder of Rhode 
Island, 604. 

Wilson, President, 720, 732, 733, 
734, 

Wimpfen, Alexander Siisskind, 383. 

Windsor, England, Jews at, 386. 

Winchester, England, Jews at, 386. 

Windsheim, Germany, Jews mas- 
sacred at, 409. 

Wise, Isaac Mayer, American rabbi 
and reformer, 676-677, 681. 

‘Wissenschaft des Judentums,’638. 

Witchcraft, prohibited by Saul, 43. 

Witiza, king of Spain, 307. 

Wittenberg, Germany, 484. 

Wolf, Aaron Benjamin, rabbi, 572. 

Wolf, Lucien, communal leader, in 
England, 734. 

Wolfenbiittel, 616, 638. 

Wolffsohn, David, Zionist leader, 
712. 

Wolkenburg, in Lorraine, 366. 

Worcester, England, 389. 

World War, 717, 724, 725-731; 
Jews in, 725-732. 

Worms, Jews in, 353, 356-357, 359- 
361, 406. 

Writings (Ketubim), third part of 
Scriptures, 158. 

Wiirttemberg, 678. 

Wiirttemberg, Jews in, 635-636. 

Wiirzburg, Jews of, 366, 380, 402, 
406, 547, 635. 


Xanten, Germany, Jews massacred 
at, 363; Jews accused of ritual 
murder at, 699. 

Xerez, de la Frontera, Spain, 307. 

Xerxes, king of Persia, 121. 


Yale College, 605. 

Yathrib (Medina), Arabia, Jews 
in, 249-250. 

Yazid II., caliph, 259. 

Yemen, Arabia, Jews in, 248, 271, 
340, 341. 

Yom Tob of Joigny, rabbi, 387. 

York, England, Jews in, 386, 387- 
388. 


INDEX 


Yudglian, of Hamadan, Messianic 
pretender, 259. 


Zacuto, Abraham, astronomer and 
historian, 474, 475, 516. 

Zacuto, Moses, cabalist, 562. 

Zaddik, title of Hasidic leader, 585. 

Zadok, priestly family of, 56, 59, 
64, 115, 153. 

Zadok, Pharisee, leads Galilean re- 
volt against Rome, 179. 

se of Worms, ‘Jews’ bishop,’ 


Zalmunna, Midianite king, 26. 

Zamora, Council of, 437, 514. 

Zamosz, Israel, scholar, 592. 

Zangwill, Israel, 705, 712. 

Zarephath, Sidonian town, 73. 

Zaslav, Jews of, 554. 

Zawi, Berber prince in Spain, 315. 

Zealots, party of patriotic Phar- 
isees, 180, 181, 191, 192, 199, 
2056— 

Zebah, Midianite king, 26. 

Zebul, governor of Shechem, 28. 

Zebulun, tribe of, 9, 24. 

Zechariah, king of Israel, 95. 

Zechariah, the prophet, 120, 158. 

pe yre last king of Judah, 110- 

Zeeb, Midianite chieftain, 26. 

Zeeland, Netherlands, Jews barred 
from, 487. 

Zelig, Jacob, spokesman of Polish 
Jews before pope, 580. 

Zemah, son of Hayim, Gaon of 
Sura, 279. 

tei son of Isaac, Gaon of Sura, 
De Bee 


Zemah, Mordecai, head of Jews of 
Prague, 548. 

Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 225. 

Zephaniah, the prophet, 105, 158. 

or ha-Levi, of Gerona, 393, 

Zerubbabel, succeeds Sheshbazzar, 
120, 214. 

Zeruiah, sister of David, 46. 

Zhitomir, pogrom of, 714-715. 

Ziklag, Palestine, 42, 43, 44. 

Zimri, king of Israel, 69. 

Zion, 49, 50, 63, 101, 103, 105, 116, 
ae 204, 278, 329, 330, 331, 706, 

Zion Mule Corps, 728. 


* 


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\ brik fon, Aehee ag ‘Siserined, 383, 
TAT rut? eet , Jews at, Kase 


ber, dat o. Jews at, 386, : 
eae ey: a, er niany’, Jee, mas- 
‘ (eats 
Vir-w, tego: Ble per, ‘American rabbi 
«eka corer 676- 677, GAL, 
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Be TEE CTs Kc, Cermany, 484, 
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Som “Tob of jo igi cis, tytai, 367, 

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IND E-X 


Zionism, 703-709, 711-714, 728, 
730-731, 734-737. 

Zionist Congresses, 706-707, 708- 
709, 711. 

Zionist Federation, 730. 

Zionist Organization, 713, 737. 

Zirids, Arab dynasty of, 277. 

Ziyadat-Allah III., Aghlabid prince, 
280. 

Zoan (Tanis), 12. 

Zobah, Syria, 51, 52. 

‘Zohar’ (Brightness), compilation 
of cabalistic teaching by Moses 
de Leon, 432-434, 482, 522, 558, 
561, 566, 574, 584. 


823 


Zohar, the new, by Moses Hayim 
Luzzatto, 575. 

Zola, French novelist, 702-703. 

Zolkiev, Poland, Cossack massacre 
at, 554. 

Zoroastrianism, 240, 245, 271. 

Zunz, Leopold, father of Renas- 
cence of Jewish learning, 638- 
641, 660-661. 

Zurich, Switzerland, Jews mas- 
sacred at, 406. 

Zutra, exilarch in Babylonia, 266. 

Zutra, son of Zutra, head of Jews 

in Palestine, 266. 


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MAPS 


Egypt and the Semitic World, about 1400 before the Christian Era 
Palestine: 
(a) In the time of David 
(b) Physical Map » 
(c) In Roman Times 
Persia and Arabia, about 700 
England and Wales in the Reign of Edward I 
France, 1376 
Germany, 1378 
Spain, 1469 
Italy, about 1494 
Ottoman Empire, 1566 
Poland and Lithuania, 1564 _ 
europe, Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa, 1810 
United States, 1848 
Europe, Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa, 1926 


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2 ced ° Ata t ‘ 
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Ron (Beit Jibrin) Yiee3 OF, Ss | & xhiathaim ' 
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PS Lavhish 220 | 
= Aiph F) 
Q x pom” Anaby 6 © Carmel 
ZR. 


En Rimmeno 


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Scale of miles 
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Ge: 3 Towns where Jéws resided 
DALEY & before the expulsion in 1290... — — Lincoln 
< AS S, eo 3 | 
mY ¥, | CABEDLINGTONSH IRE | 
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— 


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FRANCE 
in 1376 
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80 


40 


Chief towns in which Jews dwelt 
before the expulsion of 1394 


= js-Paris os °Vincennes 2 
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~S 
v 


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= = D PANTELLERIA 
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sy 


C. Finisterre & Corunna 


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Oporto 


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Scale of miles 
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